Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review article

Review of battery thermal management systems in electric vehicles

Foo Shen Hwang a ,∗, Thomas Confrey a , Colin Reidy b , Dorel Picovici a , Dean Callaghan a ,
David Culliton a , Cathal Nolan a
a South East Technological University (SETU) Carlow, Kilkenny Rd, Moanacurragh, Carlow, R93 V960, Ireland
b South East Technological University (SETU) Waterford, Cork Rd, Waterford, Waterford, X91 HE36, Ireland

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used battery type in commercial electric vehicles due to their
Battery thermal management high energy densities and ability to be repeatedly charged and discharged over many cycles. In order to
Air cooling maximize the efficiency of a li-ion battery pack, a stable temperature range between 15 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C must
Liquid cooling
be maintained. As such, a reliable and robust battery thermal management system is needed to dissipate
PCM cooling
heat and regulate the li-ion battery pack’s temperature. This paper reviews how heat is generated across a
Thermo-electric
li-ion cell as well as the current research work being done on the four main battery thermal management
types which include air-cooled, liquid-cooled, phase change material based and thermo-electric based systems.
Additionally, the strengths and weaknesses of each battery thermal management type is reviewed in this study.
It was determined that air cooled systems are suited for short-distance travel electric vehicles, liquid cooled are
for electric vehicles that require long-distance travel, larger battery packs and for high thermal loads, phase
change material based are for electric vehicles with constant thermal loads and stable ambient temperatures
and thermo-electric battery thermal management systems are best best suited in conjunction with the other
types for better control.

1. Introduction continuous advancements in efficient cooling systems will benefit the

overall longevity and safety of the pack.
With the increasing demand to lower the carbon footprint of the Various thermal management strategies are employed in EVs which
transport sector, automobile manufacturers are rapidly developing elec- include air cooling, liquid cooling, solid–liquid phase change material
tric vehicle (EV) technologies and increasing EV production. In 2021 (PCM) based cooling and thermo-electric element based thermal man-
alone, the global sales of EVs reached 6.6 million which tripled the agement [6]. Each battery thermal management system (BTMS) type
2019 sales figures [1]. Despite the growth in demand, there are still has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of both performance
several factors that hinder the widespread adoption of EVs in the and cost. For instance, air cooling systems have good economic feasibil-
general automotive market. Among the issues faced by consumers are ity but may encounter challenges in efficiently dissipating heat during
the EV’s lack of reliability for long-distance travel and the EV’s short periods of elevated thermal stress. In contrast, liquid cooling, whether
vehicular lifespan, particularly with regard to the longevity of the EV’s
implemented through direct or indirect methodologies, exhibits notable
battery pack [2].
effectiveness in heat dissipation, albeit potentially incurring greater
There are several factors that affect the performance of an EV
implementation costs. PCM based cooling mechanisms utilize the large
battery pack but the main factor is its susceptibility to thermal effects.
latent heat capacities of materials undergoing phase transitions be-
A conventional EV li-ion battery pack operates optimally between
tween solid and liquid states to conduct heat away from the battery
15 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C. If the li-ion battery pack operates below 15 ◦ C,
packs which demonstrates potential in enhancing thermal regulation.
the overall capacity drops and the battery’s internal resistance in-
creases [3]. Conversely, temperatures above 35 ◦ C could potentially However PCMs have low thermal conductivity which will have to
lead to an irreversible reaction occurring across the li-ion battery pack be enhanced through the integration of thermally conductive materi-
and an increased risk of thermal runaway [4]. Additionally, it can als [7]. Thermo-electric element-based systems, leveraging the Peltier
also accelerate the capacity drop of the li-ion battery [5]. Given the effect for heat transfer, afford meticulous temperature control, though
critical impact of thermal effects on an EV battery pack’s performance, frequently associated with higher implementation costs.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F.S. Hwang), [email protected] (T. Confrey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.114171
Received 30 December 2022; Received in revised form 1 December 2023; Accepted 7 December 2023
Available online 27 December 2023
1364-0321/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

BTMS Battery Thermal Management System

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CPCM Combined PCM with EG
EV Electric Vehicle
EG Expanded Graphite
HP Heat Pipe
li-ion Lithium-Ion
PCM Phase Change Material
TEC Thermo-Electric Cooler
TEG Thermo-Electric Generator

Notations Fig. 1. Heat distribution of a 18 650 li-ion battery cell after 3600 s while being
discharged at a rate of 0.5C [9].
bat Battery
CaO3 Calcium carbonate
CO2 Carbon dioxide
discussion considers the practicality of incorporating such technologies
H2 O Dihydrogen oxide
into commercial EVs.
MgCl2 Magnesium dichloride
Mg(NO3 )2 Magnesium nitrate 2. Heat generation within the battery
max Maximum
SiO2 Silica In a li-ion cell, heat is produced as it charges and discharges. This
TiO2 Titanium dioxide heat is generated from its core and spreads outwards, influencing the
Tmax Maximum battery temperature (◦ C) overall performance and longevity if too much heat is generated. An
Tbat Battery operating temperature example of the heat distribution within a li-ion Battery Cell is displayed
ZnO Zinc oxide in Fig. 1 [9]. Most cooling methods are only able to cool the cell at
the surface level as cooling the li-ion cell from the core would involve
Units altering the composition of the cell itself which in turn would reduce
the compactness and efficiency of the battery.
A Amperes
The heat produced by the li-ion cell occurs through both Joule
Ah Ampere hour heating effects and reversible heat generation effects at the solid and
C Discharging rate electrolyte phases when charge is transported [6]. The rate of charging
◦C Celcius and discharging of the li-ion Battery Cell relative to its nominal capacity
I Nominal current (A) also has an effect on the heat generated by the battery whereby higher
K Kelvin rates would lead to more heat dissipated by the battery [10]. This rate
Pa Pascal is defined as the C-rate. The equation used to model the heat generation
m meter in a li-ion Battery Cell is as displayed in Eq. (1) [11].
( )
m3 ∕s Cubic meter per second dOCV
Q̇ = I(OCV − V) − I TBat = Q̇ joule + Q̇ entropy (1)
m/s Meter per second dTBat
mm Millimeter Q̇ (W) is the heat generated by the battery, I (A) is the nominal current,
mAh Milli ampere hour OCV (V) is the open circuit voltage, V (V) is the nominal voltage,
OCV Open circuit voltage (V) TBat (◦ C) is the battery’s temperature and dOCV
dT
is the differential be-
Bat
Q Heat generation rate (W) tween the open circuit voltage and the battery’s temperature. The first
s Seconds term in Eq. (1) represents the heat produced through Joule heating
V Nominal voltage effects which is primarily caused as a result of electrical energy lost.
W Watts The Joule heating equation can be alternatively expressed in terms of
wt% Weight percentage the internal resistance, Rint of the battery as in Eq. (2) [9].

Q̇ joule = I(OCV − V) = I2 (Rint ) (2)

The second term in Eq. (1) represents the heat generated through
Currently, the EV industry predominantly relies on air and liquid entropy changes as electrochemical reactions occur. Heat generated
BTMS, as their cooling capacity is adjustable based on the EV’s load through entropy is predominately higher at low discharge rates as
demand [8]. While these methods are effective, there are various compared to higher discharge rates [9]. Hence, the thermal impact of
under explored BTMS alternatives with significant potential such as entropy heat is not as significant at high discharge rates. The entropy
with thermoelectric and PCM based BTMS. This study explores these heat equation can be further expressed as in Eq. (3) [9].
( ) ( )
emerging BTMS types, providing a comprehensive overview of their dOCV 𝛥S
Q̇ entropy = −I TBat = −ITBat (3)
pros and cons. Additionally, the study examines the details of heat gen- dTBat nF
eration in li-ion batteries. The novelty of this paper lies in its focus on 𝛥S is the entropy change of the battery, n is the number of electrons
various studies of PCM-based BTMS, offering a thorough examination of transferred during discharge and F is the Faraday constant. Choudhari
the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches. Moreover, the et al. [12] verified the accuracy of this equation by comparing a

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Fig. 2. Different BTMS types utilized for EV li-ion battery packs [15,16].

simulated battery heat generation model through computational fluid to avert excessive heat generation. Nonetheless, if the specific oper-
dynamics (CFD) with an experimental model under 3C, 3.5C and 4C ational characteristics of the EV do not prioritize this functionality,
discharge rates. Results from the accuracy verification test display near- adopting a passive cooling system becomes advantageous as an active
identical temperature rise values between the experimental and CFD power-consuming component, such as a pump or fan, is not needed. Ex-
model thus verifying the adequacy of the mathematical model. amples of passive cooling BTMS include PCM and thermoelectric-based
As standard EV battery packs are compact in nature, excessive heat systems.
generated from individual li-ion Battery Cells could affect the heat PCM based BTMS utilize materials that have high latent heat capac-
distribution and temperature uniformity inside the li-ion battery pack. ities to allow them to conduct large quantities of heat passively during
In addition to the minimal space requirements of EV battery packs, their solid to liquid transition. As such, PCMs utilized for BTMSs have
such packs progressively require faster charge rates to increase their melting points within the optimal operating temperature of the li-ion
competitiveness against internal combustion engine vehicles which in battery pack. This will enable the PCM BTMS to effectively conduct and
turn would increase the cooling requirements of the pack [13]. Hence, dissipate heat passively from the battery while maintaining favorable
the role of the BTMS is crucial in maintaining battery temperatures operating thermal conditions. There are two main types of PCMs, or-
at optimal levels throughout the pack to prolong battery life and to ganic and inorganic. Organic PCMs are chemically stable, non-corrosive
mitigate fires and explosive hazards across the li-ion battery pack. and have high latent heat capacities and have melting temperatures
between 15 ◦ C-130 ◦ C. Their main weaknesses are their combustibility
3. EV battery thermal management systems (BTMS) and poor thermal conductivity. There are several thermal conductivity
enhancement techniques which include the addition of metallic fins or
The BTMS of an EV plays an important role in prolonging the li-ion extended surfaces, incorporation of metal-based additives and installa-
battery pack’s lifespan by optimizing the batteries operational tempera- tion of heat pipes [17,18]. Inorganic PCMs are non-combustible, have
ture and reducing the risk of thermal runaway. There are several traits high latent heat energy, are good thermal conductors and have low
that a good BTMS should have which include maintaining the li-ion thermal expansions. However, the melting temperature of inorganic
battery pack temperature between 15 ◦ C - 35 ◦ C, be light, compact
PCMs are between the 307 ◦ C to 380 ◦ C and 700 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C range
and energy efficient, reasonably priced, even regulation of battery cell
making them unsuitable as a BTMS for li-ion battery packs [19].
temperature throughout the pack and provide sufficient ventilation in
The thermoelectric element consists of a thermoelectric generator
the event that toxic fumes are leaked from a li-ion battery fire [6,14].
(TEG) and thermoelectric cooler (TEC). The TEG cools the li-ion battery
There are various BTMS types utilized in the automotive industry which
pack by converting heat from the battery pack to electricity through
include Air based, liquid based, PCM thermal management based,
the seeback effect while the TEC converts electricity to heat through
thermoelectric element based and hybrid systems. The sub-categories
the Peltier effect to warm the battery pack when needed [20]. There
for each system are displayed in Fig. 2.
are hybrid BTMS between the other four BTMS types such as with air
The most commonly used BTMS types in EVs are air and liquid-
and liquid BTMS or PCM and airBTMS. Each BTMS has its own set of
based cooling as the cooling capacity can be actively optimized based
strengths and weaknesses, and the mitigation of these weaknesses is
on the thermal load of the battery as compared to other passive cooling
of great importance in improving the overall quality of the BTMS. As
methods such as PCM and heat pipe BTMS types [8]. This optimization
such, the methodology employed in this research involves reviewing
is crucial when there are large deviations in energy demand across
the results and findings of studies on this topic and then providing an
the battery pack as heat produced by the battery is proportional to
analysis on its limitations and how it may be improved further.
its energy demand. Air based BTMS utilizes air flow to convect heat
away from the li-ion battery pack. It is divided into Natural Ventilation
and Forced Convection systems. Heat distribution is controlled through 4. Air based BTMS
the optimization of air-flow channels and cell array configurations in
the li-ion battery pack. Liquid Based BTMS is separated into Direct and Air based BTMS have distinct benefits over liquid, PCM and ther-
Indirect systems. Direct cooling involves the submersion of the li-ion moelectric based BTMS including the utilization of a direct, low risk,
battery pack in a dielectric coolant such as oils and engineered fluids non-viscous coolant, is compact and lightweight in design, cost effec-
to conduct heat away from the battery. Meanwhile, indirect cooling tive, requires low maintenance and has good reliability [21]. Active
involves channeling a coolant through a medium such as a cooling plate cooling BTMSs such as with thermoelectric thermal management and
with integrated tubing channels or looping a cooling ribbon across the liquid based BTMS require additional energy to operate either the
battery pack to conduct heat away. pump, TEG or TEC system resulting in reduced mileage of the EV [22].
Passive cooling BTMS types have limited applications in EVs due However, this difference in efficiency is only applicable at low heat
to their constrained cooling capacity, which is effective only within load conditions. At excessive heat load conditions such as with high
a specific range of thermal loads. Consequently, EVs employing pas- charge and discharge rates or high ambient temperatures, Air based
sive cooling are restricted to a singular charging profile and have BTMSs consumes relatively more power than liquid and thermoelectric
limited acceleration to limit its power draw from the li-ion battery BTMS [23,24].

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Fig. 3. (a) Passive air cooling through ambient air flow for li-ion battery packs (b) Passive air cooling/heating through cabin air flow [25].

Fig. 4. Active Air Cooling/Heating design by incorporating fan/blower at outlet [25].

Similarly, PCM BTMSs are also more efficient than air based BTMS vehicle is not moving at sufficient velocity, if the ambient temperature
at high thermal loads [26]. However, most PCM BTMSs will be sig- is too high or if the general thermal load of the battery is too high.
nificantly heavier as large quantities of PCMs are required to ensure The thermal gradient of the li-ion battery pack will be uneven which
that the PCM Latent Heat capacity matches the heat produced by the could lead to lower uniformity in charge or discharge rates across the
li-ion battery pack [26]. Khateeb et al. [27] designed a Passive PCM battery pack [30]. To remedy this matter, additional fans or blowers
BTMS for EVs and highlighted that the PCM in their design accounted are installed to better cool or warm the battery pack by increasing the
for approximately 29% of the li-ion battery pack’s total weight. Hence, air flow rate going across the battery system.
air based BTMS are suitable for low heat load li-ion battery applica- By controlling the fan or blower speeds at either the inlet or the
tions and is significantly lighter than other BTMS types. While many outlet, the battery pack’s temperature can be regulated based on the
commercial EVs utilize liquid based BTMS for its li-ion battery packs, thermal load of the battery pack. An example of such a configuration
air based BTMS are also utilized in several low energy demand li-ion is as displayed in Fig. 4. Additional ducting is installed from the fan
battery systems for EVs and hybrid EVs that are catered for the low- or blower to go before the heater and evaporator coils of the EV to
cost market and have less emphasis on fast charging or discharging ensure greater air flow rates pass through the battery pack. Most air
capabilities [28]. Among the EVs and hybrid EVs that use air based based BTMSs are stemmed from this design and research conducted
BTMS includes the Honda Fit EV, Honda Insight, Nissan Leaf, Nissan towards the improvement of this model’s performance can be divided
into five categories which include the optimization of the li-ion Cell
e-NV 200, Hyundai IONIQ, Toyota Prius Prime, Renault Zoe, SAIC GM
array distribution, optimizing the inlet and outlet of the designed
Wuling Hongguang and the Lexus UX300e [26,29].
pack, streamlining the cooling channels and the addition of thermally
conductive enhancers [31].
4.1. Natural ventilation and forced convection
4.2. Li-ion cell array distribution
Air based BTMSs typically operate under two modes, natural ven-
tilation and forced convection. When there is a low thermal load and Improving the battery pack architecture can be done by configuring
the EV is moving, natural ventilation is achieved when the ambient air the battery cell layout to maximize the heat dissipation rate from the
flows into the inlet of the li-ion battery pack through the motion of the battery while maintaining the lowest cost, occupy the least volume and
vehicle and exits at the outlet [26]. The ambient air circulates through possesses the highest energy density [31]. It should be noted that the
the gaps between the li-ion battery cells and dissipates heat away optimal cell array layout is highly dependent on the application and de-
from the battery pack. This model is as displayed in Fig. 3(a). Another sign requirements of the battery pack [32]. Aditya et al. [33] conducted
form of passive cooling involves redirecting air from the cabin to the a forced convection study to determine the thermal performance of a
battery pack as displayed in Fig. 3(b). Through additional ducting, 3 × 10, hexagonal and 6 × 5 arrangement of li-ion cells through a CFD
the cooled cabin air can be directed to the battery pack to improve model and later verified with an experimental study as displayed in
cooling performance. Such forms of cooling will not be sufficient if the Fig. 5.

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Fig. 5. Altering the li-ion cell arrangement to improve thermal convection of battery pack (a) 3 × 10 cell arrangement (b) hexagonal arrangement (c) 6X5 arrangement [33].

Fig. 6. Parametrization on the number of inlets for an air cooled battery pack (a) The dimensions of the 18650 li-ion cell used in the study (b) Two hundred and forty li-ion
cells used in the simulation (c) Single inlet battery pack (d) Two inlet battery pack (e) Three inlet battery pack (f) Four inlet back inlet battery pack [34].

The airflow rate in the study was set at steady-state, laminar and 4.3. Optimization of inlet and outlet
incompressible flow condition while the battery’s discharge rate was
set as its nominal capacity. The results indicated a notable difference Aside from altering the li-ion Cell array distribution, the opti-
in heat convection between the hexagonal and the other rectangular mization of the inlet and outlet of the battery pack is an alternative
configurations, with the hexagonal arrangement exhibiting superior improvement strategy as it allows for the packs arrangement to remain
thermal performance at higher wind velocities. This finding suggests the same while improving its cooling performance. Various methods
that the arrangement of battery cells can significantly impact the were considered in improving the design of the inlet and outlet of
convective heat dissipation, a crucial factor in battery thermal man- an air cooled battery pack including revising the number of inlet
agement. Furthermore, Yang et al. [35] conducted a similar study, and outlet points, adjusting the inlet cooling fan air temperature and
investigating the effects of adjusting the longitudinal and transverse configuring its position on the battery pack itself to maximize cooling
spacing in both aligned and staggered li-ion battery packs. The study rates. Widyantara et al. [34] analyzed the effects of increasing the
involved a discharge rate of 2C with constant flow rates. The results number of inlets and the inlet’s air temperature of an air cooled li-ion
battery pack with an outlet of fixed dimensions through CFD simulation
demonstrated that an aligned array with a longitudinal and staggered
as displayed in Fig. 6. The li-ion Cell used in the battery pack is a
distances of 34 mm and 32 mm, respectively proved to be the most opti-
standard 18650 cell that is 18.3 mm in diameter, 64.5 mm in height,
mal design. This configuration effectively minimized temperature rise,
nominal capacity of 2.6 Ah and nominal voltage of 3.7 V as displayed
reduced power requirements, and improved temperature uniformity
in Fig. 6(a).
and cooling efficiency within the battery pack. The main limitation
The battery pack consisted of two hundred and forty li-ion battery
with the altercation of pack arrangement to better improve the tem-
cells and has a width of 240 mm as indicated in Fig. 6(b). Each inlet is
perature uniformity of the battery pack though is that it will affect
40 mm X 40 mm while the outlet is 240 mm X 40 mm. Models of the
the busbar arrangement of the battery while increasing the spacing battery pack with 1, 2, 3 and 4 inlets are as constructed in Fig. 6(c),
between cells would affect pack density. A hexagonal arrangement of (d), (e) and (f) respectively. Each li-ion Battery cell is modeled to be
cells would limit the number of series and parallel busbar connections discharged at 1C, the airflow velocity at each inlet was set at 1.4 m/s,
as the number of cells in the center column would be more as compared the outlet pressure is 0 MPa and the ambient temperature was set at
to the outer sections of the hexagonal arrangement. Increasing the 30 ◦ C. Results from the study display that beyond three inlet points, the
longitudinal and transverse spacing of the cell or using a aligned maximum temperature rise of the li-ion cell was not significant which
arrangement would in turn increase the pack’s volume which would would indicate that there is an optimal number of inlet points for an air
decrease the pack’s energy density. As such, altering the pack’s arrange- cooled BTMS. The study conducted was based on a discharge rate of 1C
ment should only be considered if spacing across the battery pack is not so battery packs catered for higher discharge rates might require more
critical. inlet points to maintain optimal temperatures. Widyantara et al. [34]

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Fig. 7. Adjustment of inlet and outflow position in a battery pack (a) Left side inlet and right side outlet (b) Lower left half side inlet and upper right side outlet (c) Top side
inlet and bottom side outlet (d) Upper left half side inlet and lower right side outlet [36].

also highlighted that lowering the inlet air temperature had a more
significant impact in reducing the li-ion Battery’s operating temperature
than adjusting the number of cooling fan inlets.However, colder inlet
air temperatures require more power from the air conditioning unit
which would also reduce the overall efficiency of the li-ion battery
pack. Hence, it is imperative that the number of cooling fan inlets and
the conditioned inlet air temperature be fine-tuned to the operating
ambient temperature and size of the battery pack itself.
Du et al. [36] simulated the cooling effectiveness of adjusting the
fans at different inlet and outlet points in the battery pack as displayed
in Fig. 7. In the simulation, four conditions were set. Fig. 7(a) has the
inlet at the left side while the outlet is set at the right side, Fig. 7(b)
Fig. 8. Z Type Air Cooling BTMS system with secondary cooling channel proposed by
has the inlet at the lower left half and an outlet at the upper right
Zhang et al. (a) Flat plate li-ion battery cells positioned at the center of the Z type air
side, Fig. 7(c) has the inlet at the top side and the outlet at the bottom cooled BTMS (b) li-ion cell with a dimension of 65 mm in length, 18 mm in width
side and Fig. 7(d) has the inlet and the upper left side and the outlet and 140 mm in height [39].
at the bottom right side. Results from the simulation display that the
maximum temperature rise of the battery closest to the inlet was the
lowest while the temperature of the battery in the middle and closest to then validated through an experimental model. The study compared the
the outlet has the higher temperature rise. Additionally, the inlet and effectiveness of varying the number of secondary outlets as compared
outlet arrangement of Fig. 7(c) has the lowest temperature rise among to a z-type air cooled BTMS without these outlets. The primary inlet
the other models. It can be deduced that a vertical air cooling strategy and outlet were set with a width of 20 mm and a length of 70 mm. The
is the most effective method of positioning the inlet and outlet of an battery used in the model is a li-ion battery with a length of 65 mm,
air cooled battery pack. However, a vertical air cooling strategy might width of 18 mm and a height of 140 mm as displayed in Fig. 8(b). The
not be feasible for several EV types as it would increase the vertical heat generation model of the li-ion battery is based on discharge rates
height of the battery pack due to the installation of vertically inclined between 0.5C to 2.5C with 0.5C increments while the air inlet velocity
inlet and outlet manifolds. Hence, a vertical cooling strategy may only was set at 3.0 m/s and 3.5 m/s to ensure results accuracy. The Z-type
be feasible for EV types that have substantial vertical clearance. air BTMS with secondary outlets are modeled with different number of
outlets up to a maximum of 8 while the base model does not have the
4.4. Streamlining cooling channels secondary cooling outlets and is used as a comparison. Results from
the study indicated that when there are six secondary outlets along
The other parameter to be considered is the cooling channel leading the outlet channel reduced the maximum temperature rise of the li-ion
up to the inlet and exiting the outlet. For an air cooled battery system, battery by 2.8% as compared to the base model. This indicates that the
increasing the cooling channel’s size would improve the cooling effi- addition of a secondary outlet point along the outlet channel would
ciency of the system but would decrease the cooling uniformity of the improve the thermal efficiency of such a battery pack.
system [37]. Aside from the size of the cooling channel, its geometrical Wang et al. [40] improvised on the existing Z-type air cooling
configuration also attributes to the cooling effectiveness of the air structure by analyzing the effects of adding different spoiler geometries
cooled BTMS. There are three main cooling channel configurations across the battery gap spacing to improve its air cooling uniformity and
developed which include the Z, U and J type cooling channel structure. effectiveness through CFD as displayed in Fig. 9. The different spoiler
Each of the cooling channel configurations is able to control the li-ion geometries analyzed included a straight, parabolic and arc spoiler as
battery’s maximum temperature rise at specific temperature ranges and displayed in Fig. 9(a), (b), (c) respectively. The cooling performance
each structure has its advantages and weaknesses [38]. of the Z-type spoiler air cooling BTMS was compared with a stan-
Zhang et al. [39] analyzed the effectiveness of a Z Type air based dard Z-type cooled air BTMS to determine its overall effectiveness.
BTMS with secondary cooling outlets as shown in Fig. 8(a). CFD Results from the CFD model indicate that the spoilers reduce the
simulation was done firstly through the ANSYS ICEM software and battery’s maximum temperature, change the airflow path and improve

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Fig. 9. Z-Shaped air cooling BTMS structure with different geometrical spoilers between gaps to improve air cooling uniformity (a) Straight spoiler (b) Parabolic spoiler (c) Arc
spoiler [40].

Fig. 10. Parallel U-Type Air Cooling proposed by Chen et al. [41].
Fig. 11. J-type air cooling structure with U-Outlet and Z-Outlet outfitted with its
respective control valves [42].
on the battery’s temperature uniformity. The straight spoilers were also
determined to reduce the battery’s maximum temperature the most.
Chen et al. [41] developed a parallel cooled U-type air cooling from 1C to 3C discharge rates. From the study, it was determined that
system through a flow resistance network model as seen in Fig. 9. at high heat generation rates, the J type air cooling system was able
The model developed was optimized to improve the uniformity of the to better perform than the U and Z type cooling system. Whereby the
cooling channel’s airflow rate by adjusting the angles of the plenums maximum battery temperature rise of the J type cooling system was
and the optimized model is compared with a standard Z-type air cooling the lowest compared to the U and Z type. Hence, a J-type air cooling
structure without additional outlets. The inlet and outlet of the cooling structure, capable of transitioning between U and Z type modes based
system face the same direction and the li-ion cells modeled are 65 mm on EV operating conditions would be optimal for an air cooled BTMS. It
X 16 mm X 151 mm in dimension. Spacing between the li-ion cells is should be noted that such an enhancement may increase the complexity
3 mm, the inlet and outlet width are both 20 mm respectively, inflow of the ducting infrastructure within the EV which would not be suitable
airflow rate is set at 0.012 m3 ∕s and initial inlet temperatures are set in compact EV models. Therefore alternative enhancement methods
at 26.85 ◦ C. Results from the study show that the optimized U-type air that do not compromise the complexity of the battery pack would be
cooling system had 33% lower temperature differences at a discharge more appropriate for small EVs.
rate of 5C. Hence, it can be determined that the U-type air cooling
structure also improves temperature uniformity for air cooled systems
4.5. Thermal conductivity enhancers
similar to the effects of including secondary outlets (see Fig. 10).
U and Z type air cooling structures have a common weakness
which is that they only work under stable operating temperatures. Both An alternative to altering ducting configurations is through the
systems are not able to effectively regulate battery temperatures for implementation of thermal conductivity enhancement measures in the
rapid temperature rises caused by fast charging and discharging of battery pack itself. Saw et al. [43] introduced an air-cooled battery
the battery [38]. As such, the J-type model which is an adaptation of pack with porous aluminum foam wedged between li-ion pouch cells
both the U and Z type cooling system is designed to remedy this issue. to function as cooling plates as displayed in Fig. 12. A limitation of
Essentially, the J-type air cooling structure has two outlets with control traditional air cooled BTMSs is that the air medium absorbs heat as it
valves which would control the opening angle to better regulate the flows along the battery pack leading to the outflow air being hotter than
airflow passing through the li-ion battery pack as shown in Fig. 11. the inflow air which reduces cooling uniformity across the battery pack.
Liu et al. [42] conducted a parametric comparison between the U, Z The addition of porous aluminum foam cooling plates allows for better
and J type air cooling models through the surrogate-based optimization cooling distribution with little flow resistance. Results from the design
method. Discharge rates of the battery was incrementally increased implemented by Saw et al. [43] indicated that a 10 parts per inch

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able to dissipate heat effectively. Shi et al. [46] investigated the effects
of optimizing the cooling fin’s geometry between the li-ion pouch cells
to determine the effectiveness of the cooling fins in reducing the impact
force on the cells under a simulated impact test.
Results from the analysis have displayed that the cooling fins are
able to absorb a substantial amount of impact energy and that a unidi-
rectionally stiffened double hull structure and a circular core structure
were able to absorb substantially greater impact energy and reduce
peak force as compared to other fin configurations. Optimization of the
Fig. 12. Aluminum foam wedged between li-ion pouch cell to function as cooling fin heat sinks for both structural strength and thermal performance is
plates [43]. difficult though as the parameters for both target criteria differ greatly.
The main issue with the addition of such thermal conductivity
enhancers is their impact on the overall weight of the battery pack.
The incorporation of porous aluminum foams, pin fin heat sinks, or
supplementary cooling fins can indeed improve cooling uniformity but
would increase the total weight of the battery pack. As such, this
limitation should be considered in the overall design of the EV.

5. Liquid based BTMS

The main benefit of a liquid based BTMS is that it is able to

achieve higher heat transfer rates with lower flow rates than air cooled
systems [47]. Numerous types of fluids are used as coolants for liquid
based BTMS including water, oils, water with suspended metallic parti-
cles and ethylene glycol [48]. As each fluid type has different viscosity
and specific heat capacity values, the selected fluid type is dependent
on the amount of heat needed to be absorbed as well as the mechanical
Fig. 13. Aluminum pin fin heat sinks attached between prismatic li-ion cells to improve energy required to channel the fluid around the battery pack. Liquid
cooling uniformity across the battery pack [44]. based BTMS is divided into two categories which are indirect and direct
cooling with the main difference being that indirect cooling requires
the coolant to be physically separated from the li-ion battery while the
aluminum foam structure at 91.9% porosity offered the best cooling latter may be in full contact.
performance. Indirect liquid cooling involves channeling a coolant through a cool-
Similarly, Mohammadian et al. [44] introduced pin fin heat sinks ing medium that allows a fluid to absorb the heat away from the battery
between li-ion prismatic cells to improve the cooling distribution across pack while preventing a short circuit from occurring between the liquid
the li-ion battery pack as shown in Fig. 13. In the study conducted, eight medium and the li-ion battery pack itself. Some commonly used indirect
15 Ah Prismatic Cells are fitted with pin fin heat sinks and six different cooling methods include cooling plates, thermally conductive tubing or
variations were modeled with model 1 as just a heat sink design to through a heat pipe to conduct heat away from the li-ion battery pack.
be used as a reference to the effectiveness of the fins. The batteries are
discharged at varying discharge rates which include 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C and 5.1. Cooling plate channel optimization
5C with a thermal model of each pin fin battery pack modeled through
CFD. Each pin-fin heat sink model consists of eighteen pin fins with The cooling plate liquid BTMS is a flat plate with internal cooling
the fin height increased gradually from the shortest at the inlet and the channels and it is mostly suited for prismatic cells. There are two
tallest at the outlet. primary parameters to be considered in improving the cooling effec-
Each model excluding model 1, has different increments in pin-fin tiveness of the cooling plate which are the position of the plate and the
height to best optimize the battery pack in terms of cooling uniformity channel configuration within the plate itself [48]. The cooling plate can
and reduction in maximum battery temperature rise. Results from the be placed at three locations in the battery pack including the side of the
CFD analysis displayed that the pin finned design had overall lower battery pack [49], in between adjacent li-ion cells [50] and internally
temperatures and better temperature uniformity than the purely heat within the li-ion cell [51] as seen in Fig. 14(a), (b) and (c) respectively.
sink design. Furthermore, the model that left the first four pins at As the electrical terminals and batteries busbar are positioned at
0 mm then a gradual increment of 0.3 mm after every five pins had the the top of the battery pack, the side cooling plates are positioned on
greatest temperature uniformity. Temperature uniformity across the pin either the horizontal sides of the battery pack or the bottom of the
finned battery pack was improved by increasing inlet air temperatures pack. Additional heat spreaders are attached between the adjacent li-
but would simultaneously increase maximum battery temperature rise ion cells to channel heat from the inner sections of the battery pack to
while increasing the airflow velocity would decrease the batteries the cooling plate. Adding the cooling plates between the adjacent li-
maximum temperature but would reduce temperature uniformity. As ion cells would greatly improve the cooling effectiveness at the center
such, the optimal inlet air temperature and velocity for a pin-finned of each li-ion cell but would require the li-ion cell to be thinner in
battery pack would vary depending on the size of the battery pack. order for the cooling plates to be effective. For the internal cooling
Aside from its thermal conductivity enhancing capabilities, an plate to be integrated inside the battery pack, the cooling channels
added advantage to the addition of cooling fins is the added improve- have to be sufficiently small to be placed inside a component of the
ment to its structural strength against impact. When li-ion batteries battery such as with the current collector while having chemically inert
are subjected to mechanical deformation, the risk of an internal short channel walls [51]. While the internal cooling plate is able to bring
circuit increases which in turn could lead to thermal runaway, com- the inner temperatures of the battery lower than the external cooling
bustion, or explosions [45]. Hence, li-ion battery packs have to be plates, such systems are much more intricate in design which would
designed to be protected against mechanical damage while also being affect the manufacturability of such a cooling system.

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 14. Liquid cooling through the cooling plate (a) Battery module side cooling plate (b) Between li-ion cells (c) Micro-channel cooling plate inside li-ion Cell [52].

Fig. 15. Different liquid cooling channel configurations across cooling plates (a) Serpentine cooling channel (b) Parallel cooling channel inspired by spider-web design [54,55].

Fig. 16. Comparison between the effectiveness of serpentine and parallel cooling plate design and the effectiveness of varying groove patterns along the channel (a) Serpentine
cooling plate (b) Parallel cooling plate (c) Standard straight channel (d) Semi-circular grooves (e) Circular grooves (f) Circular fins and grooves (g) Elliptical fins and grooves [56].

The channel configuration is also correlated to the cooling perfor- the number of parallel cooling channels, increasing the width size
mance of the cold plate as it determines the heat transfer area and while maintaining constant depth and altering the channel angles in
pressure drop of the cold plates. Various design variables including the a spiderweb-like design to determine which parameter affected the
number of channels, channel width, channel height, inlet velocity, and thermal performance of the cooling plate as displayed in Fig. 15(b).
fin width along with inlet and outlet positions factor into the thermal It was determined that increasing the channel width had the most
effectiveness and equivalent pressure drop of the cooling channel [53]. significant effect on lowering the maximum temperature rise on the
Furthermore, there are two main cooling channel configuration types battery pack followed by increasing the number of channels. Altering
which are serpentine and parallel-shaped channels as displayed in the angles of the parallel cooling channels had little effect on the
cooling effectiveness of the battery pack.
Fig. 15. Imran et al. [54] investigated the effects of varying serpentine
Mahmoud et al. [56] compared the differences in thermal perfor-
cooling channel configurations as displayed in Fig. 15(a).
mance of serpentine and parallel cooling channels while also deter-
Each cooling plate is subjected to laminar single-phase flow rates
mining the effect of the addition of pin fins with grooves along the
and the heat source applied was constant. Results from the analysis in-
sides of the cooling channels as displayed in Fig. 16. Results from
dicated that the serpentine design with two inlet channels had lowered the study show that serpentine cooling channels have better cooling
the temperature profile of the cooling plate greater than the serpentine uniformity with higher pressure drops while parallel cooling chan-
channels with only one inlet channel. However, increased number of nels have the least cooling uniformity and low-pressure drops. The
inlet channels would require more pumps which would increase the addition of grooves also increased the convective heat transfer rate
power consumption of the liquid BTMS. Xie et al. [57] studied the while simultaneously decreasing the thermal resistance of the cooling
effects of altering micro-channel sizes and have determined that a plate with the most effective structure for the serpentine model having
deep and narrow channel has better heat transfer rates than wide and circular fins and grooves while the parallel model operates best with the
shallow channel sizes. Wang et al. considered the effects of increasing elliptical fins and grooves as displayed in Fig. 16(f) and (g) respectively.

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

increased had lower li-ion battery temperature differences than the

constructed model with constant diameter and flow velocity. Hence,
when implementing such discrete tubing to cool li-ion battery packs,
an aluminum housing with vertical tubing with increasing gradient
diameter and flow velocities offers the best li-ion cooling in terms of
lowering the battery’s maximum temperature and with the best cooling
uniformity.

5.3. Heat pipe condenser arrangement

Heat pipes (HP)s are heat transfer devices that are compact, ad-
justable in geometry and are used as thermal management devices
for several applications including power electronics cooling and air
conditioning systems [60]. HPs are filled with a heat transfer fluid and
is divided into three zones which are the evaporation, adiabatic and
Fig. 17. Cooling tube passes through an aluminum block and is absorbed by the condensation zone as indicated in Fig. 19. The battery system or heat
latent heat capacity of liquid–vapor propane coolant (a) battery pack with liquid–vapor source is attached to the evaporator section which would lead to the
propane cooling system (b) Aluminum housing of cooling system [58]. evaporation of the heat transfer fluid. The converted vapor will transfer
heat to the condensation zone, converted back to a fluid, absorbed
again in the wick micro-structure and then passively flowed back to the
Hence, it can be deduced that a cooling plate design with multiple evaporation zone to repeat the process [61]. For BTMS applications,
inlet and outlet points constructed in a serpentine configuration with certain elements of the HP should be altered to match the cooling
circular grooves and fins would provide the most optimal cooling requirements of the li-ion battery pack which would include the heat
output for prismatic and pouch li-ion battery packs. Considerations transfer fluid used, cooling methodology at the condenser section and
should also be made for the manufacturability and cost-effectiveness the geometry of the HP [52].
of the design as it is dependent on the size of the li-ion battery pack. Behi et al. [63] constructed a HP structure for prismatic lithium-
titanate cells as displayed in Fig. 20. The protruding HP section is
5.2. Thermally conductive tubing the condenser section while the portion attached to the battery pack
is the evaporator section. The capacity of the cell is 23Ah, each heat
Cooling plates may not be suitable for cylindrical li-ion cells as pipe is 250 mm × 11.2 mm × 3.5 mm (length × height × width) in
there are no flat surfaces to mount the cooling plates onto. As such, dimensions and the cells were discharged at a rate of 8C. The maximum
thermally conductive tubing works as a suitable alternative to cooling temperature rise of the prismatic li-ion cell without the HP is compared
plates as liquid coolant filled tubing can fit through the narrow gaps with the cell attached with the HP under both natural and forced con-
between cylindrical cells while effectively conducting heat away from vection. Results from the experiment showed that the HP lowered cell
the li-ion cells. The Tesla Model S channels liquid coolant through a
temperatures by 13.7% and 33.4% respectively. While the HP system
thermally conductive aluminum cooling tube coated with a dielectric
does manage to effectively reduce the maximum temperature rise of the
material that is packed between each cylindrical li-ion cell to maximize
battery, the condenser section has to be sufficiently extended beyond
the heat dissipation throughout the battery pack and is designed with a
the length of the li-ion cell to be cooled which would dramatically
counter-flow element to achieve better cooling uniformity throughout
increase the overall volume required of the BTMS system.
the battery pack [28]. Al-Zareer et al. [58] constructed an aluminum
To resolve the space limitation and improve on the performance of
housing with cooling tubes between cylindrical li-ion cells as displayed
the HP cooling system, Tran et al. [64] angled the condenser section,
in Fig. 17.
added aluminum fins to the condenser and introduced a chimney for
The cooling tubes are filled with boiling propane that absorbs heat
additional cooling as displayed in Fig. 21. The evaporator section is
through the latent heat capacity available through the liquid to vapor
attached to copper plates and acted as cooling walls for the li-ion cells,
transition. The pressure of the tubes are adjusted to 10 bar to achieve
14 cylindrical li-ion cells were used which had 6.5Ah capacities are
a boiling temperature of 26.94 ◦ C which corresponds to the optimal
operating temperature of the li-ion cells. A CFD thermal model of the 38 mm in diameter and 142 mm in height while the li-ion battery pack
system was conducted in which the battery pack was discharged at a was discharged at 10C and 12C. The li-ion battery pack with angled HP
rate of 6C and the results are compared with values from other studies is then discharged under natural convection, forced convection through
that have a similar battery pack in submerged in liquid propane. Results an air chimney ventilation, that is both horizontally and vertically
from the CFD model indicated that the temperature difference of the orientated.
li-ion cell for the constructed cooling system had lower temperature It was determined that at such high discharge rates, the HP BTMS
differences but had higher maximum temperature values than a direct was not able to maintain the battery pack between the optimal temper-
liquid propane cooling system which would infer that the constructed ature range between 15 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C but the forced convection model
cooling system allows for better cooling uniformity but not as effective with air chimney ventilation was able to maintain the operational
for battery packs that operate under high charge and discharge rates. temperature of the battery pack at such levels. The angled HP was able
Liu et al. [59] constructed a similar cooling system to analyze the to carry heat away from the battery pack when the pack is orientated
effects of passing a vertical and horizontal cooling tube through an vertically and when the pack was inclined up to a gradient of both −20◦
aluminum frame to cool cylindrical li-ion cells as displayed in Fig. 18. and +20◦ . However, when the battery pack was placed horizontally, the
The effects of gradually increasing the gradient diameter of the tube air flow from the ventilation was not able to carry heat away from the
and the effects of increasing the flow diameter of the coolant is also li-ion battery pack. Low ventilation rates are sufficient as increasing the
studied to determine its cooling effectiveness on the li-ion cell. Results air velocity does not significantly improve the cooling performance of
from the study displayed that when the vertical tubing model was ap- the battery pack. While the overall design of the angled HP design is
plied, the overall weight and volume of the cooling system needed was more compact than Behi et al.’s [63] design, the additional air chimney
lowered by 19.50% and 12.26% respectively. In addition, the model in ventilation does still occupy a significant volume which might not be
which the gradient diameter and gradient velocity were incrementally suited for compact EV vehicles.

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 18. Thermally conductive tubing passed through aluminum frame both vertically and horizontally to cool cylindrical li-ion battery pack (a) Horizontal cooling tubes passed
through aluminum cooling frame (b) Vertical cooling tube passed through aluminum cooling frame [59].

Fig. 19. Operating principle of HPs [62].

5.4. Direct cooling a non-electrically conductive dielectric fluid with high specific heat
capacities to cool the battery. Various dielectric fluids are used for
Most liquid BTMS utilized for EVs are through indirect cooling immersion cooling but the most common types are deionized water,
methods and to dissipate the high heat loads from the li-ion battery silicon oils, mineral oils and fluorinated hydrocarbons [68,69]. There
packs, thermally conductive fluids with high heat capacities such as is continuous research on developing better immersion fluids aside from
with water glycol and refrigerants are used across such systems [49]. the common types. For instance, Khan et al. [70] explored the effects of
The main weakness of such fluids for liquid BTMS applications is that using supercritical CO2 to cool a 20 × 5 battery energy storage system.
they are electrically conductive and have to be physically separated
When compared with other coolant types, the supercritical CO2 had
through a thermally conductive medium from the main heat source
better temperature suppression and uniformity even at high discharge
which are the li-ion cells [65].
rates.
The addition of the thermally conductive medium increases the
overall weight of the battery pack and the thermal resistivity of the Immersion cooling fluids utilized for BTMS applications have high
cooling system which would in turn reduce the cooling efficiency of the flash points and are non-volatile in nature which reduces the risk of
liquid BTMS [66]. As such, direct cooling was a considerable alternative thermal runaway in the battery pack [71]. Examples of EV battery
as such a cooling method maximizes the surface area being cooled, companies that have adopted immersion cooling are Xing Mobility
provides excellent cooling uniformity, reduces system complexity and which have immersed their modular li-ion cells in 3M’s Novec fluid,
increases the cooling capacity of the battery pack which would sig- Rimac Automobile which have utilized Solvay Galden’s fluid for their
nificantly increase the cooling efficiency of the battery pack [67,68]. electric super-car applications and Kreisel adopting Shell’s thermal
Direct liquid cooling involves immersing the li-ion battery pack in management fluid [72,73]. There are various parameters that influence

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 20. HP design appropriated for prismatic lithium-titanate cell (a) Lithium-titanite cell with 6 flat heat pipes attached at both sides (b) Schematic diagram of the HP for the
prismatic cell [63].

Fig. 21. Angled HP design to reduce spacial volume of battery pack (a) Evaporator section slotted inside li-ion battery pack with angled condenser section (b) Overall diagram
of angled HP li-ion battery pack with aluminum fins [64].

the effectiveness of immersion cooling including the submersion level, ease of maintenance and relatively lower costs. Despite the exceptional
flow type and the modes of cooling as displayed in Fig. 22 [68]. cooling performance of immersion cooling, there are several general
Immersion cooling is divided into two modes which are single-phase weaknesses for immersion cooling which include the high viscosity of
cooling and two-phase cooling. With single-phase cooling, the coolant such fluids which increases the pump power required, such dielectric
remains in a liquid form and gets pumped through a heat exchanger as fluids are costly which would increase the general cost of the battery
displayed in Fig. 23(a). Two-phase cooling involves utilizing a coolant pack and the additional fluid would increase the weight of the battery
with low boiling temperatures to vaporize the coolant and its vapor pack. Hence, immersion cooled BTMS is better suited towards battery
cooled back to liquid form through a water condenser unit as displayed packs designed for fast charging and discharging requirements.
in Fig. 23. The latent heat of vaporization during the liquid to vapor
transition of a two-phase system improves the convective heat transfer 6. PCM thermal management BTMS
significantly but in terms of EV BTMS applications there are several
drawbacks as compared to the single-phase system [68]. Such disad- The high latent heat capacity that phase change materials (PCM)
vantage includes gradual loss of coolant fluid due to inefficiencies of have allows PCM based BTMS systems to absorb large quantities of
the condenser unit, increased system complexity, higher maintenance heat while being maintained at a constant temperature range without
cost, increased system volume and risk of coolant vapor contamination active energy consuming components such as fans or pumps. This in
to the other electronic components at the undercarriage of the EV. turn allows PCM based BTMS systems to be more efficient than air and
As such, for EV applications a single-phase immersion cooled bat- liquid based BTMS due to the lack of parasitical power being drained
tery pack are preferred over two-phase immersion packs due to its from the battery pack. There are generally two types of PCMs which

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 22. Varying types of immersion cooling configurations for liquid BTMS applications [68].

Fig. 23. Single-phase and Two-phase immersion cooling (a) Single-phase Immersion cooling utilizing heat exchanger (b) Two-Phase Immersion cooling that involves evaporation
of coolant and condenser unit to convert vapor coolant back to liquid form [74].

are organic and inorganic based PCMs each with their own distinct thermal conductivity performance of the fins are influenced by several
chemical and thermal properties. factors including the fin material used, length, number of fins and its
Organic PCMs are further divided into two categories which are structure [79].
paraffins and non-paraffins such as with fatty acids, glycols and sugar Weng et al. [7] investigated both the effects of implementing vary-
alcohols [75]. Organic PCMs have several advantages which allow them ing fin configurations and adjusting the number of fins across the
to be better suited for EV BTMS applications which include being non- container on its ability to enhance the thermal conductivity of PCMs
corrosive, non-toxic and chemically stable. However, organic PCMs and compared the results with a purely PCM system as displayed in
have low thermal conductivity, are combustible which would be haz- Fig. 24.
ardous in the event of thermal runaway and is less viscous as compared The experiment was conducted with an 18650 li-ion cell with a
to inorganic PCMS which would increase the risk of the PCM leaking capacity of 2500 mAh and a paraffin based PCM was used. Results from
through the container during the solid to liquid phase transition [76]. the study indicate that when the li-ion cell is cooled with just the PCM,
There are various methods to improve the thermal conductivity of it does not perform well at high discharge rates whereby the cooling
organic PCMs but there are generally three methods which include efficiency of the system at a 2C discharge rate was 2.77% lower than
the addition of fins, encapsulating the PCM in a thermally conductive the battery without PCM cooling while the cooling efficiency of the li-
coating and the addition of thermally conductive fillers such as with ion cell at a 1C discharge rate is at 6.17% lower of a battery without
graphite nano-particles and metallic foams [77]. PCM cooling. The triangular, rectangular and circular fins were then
implemented and the overall maximum temperature of the battery at
6.1. PCM fin configuration the end of the 2C discharge rate were 35.9 ◦ C, 35.4 ◦ C and 36.2 ◦ C
respectively while the temperature of the li-ion cell with just the PCM
The installation of fins across the PCM’s container is an effective alone was 38.5 ◦ C which would indicate the necessity of including the
method in improving the heat transfer of organic PCMs as the structure fins.
is easily manufactured while being able to significantly improve the When comparing the difference in cooling effectiveness between the
thermal conductivity of the PCM [78]. There are two main methods circular and longitudinal fins, both fin types has its distinct advantages
of installing the fins which are placing the fins directly into the PCM in which the longitudinal fins had better heat dissipation when cooled
compound and the other to place the fins on top of the surface of by air convection while the circular fins had greater heat conduction
the PCM to be then cooled separately through air cooling [76]. The within the PCM. For the longitudinal fins, the optimal number of fins

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 24. Investigation on differing fin configuration and the effects of changing the number of fins (a) Triangular fin PCM cooling (b) Rectangular fin PCM cooling (c) Circular
fin PCM cooling (d) Altering the number of fins for both triangular and rectangular fins to determine thermal conductivity effectiveness [7].

and its corresponding geometry that has the highest cooling efficiency Organic shell materials have good sealing properties and structural
is a four fin rectangular model in which the maximum temperature flexibility, allowing them to perform well at handling the repetitive
of the battery dropped from 36.9 ◦ C to 34.2 ◦ C. In a previous study volume changes during the phase change process of the core PCM
conducted by Weng et al. [80], it was determined that the bottom material [83]. The most common organic shell materials used are
segment of a cylindrical li-ion cell cooled purely through PCMs is not melamine formaldehyde resin, urea formaldehyde resin and acrylic
able to dissipate heat as effectively. Therefore, it was proposed to have resin [84–86]. Singh et al. [87] investigated the thermal performance
the bottom segment of the PCM cooling system to have cylindrical of several 3.0Ah Sony 18650 li-ion cylindrical cells which are encapsu-
fins while the top section with longitudinal fins to achieve an optimal lated with a layer of n-eicosane, a PCM coated in a urea formaldehyde
thermal balance. polymer shell. The cells are modeled under forced convection with
Upon further optimization, it was determined that the most optimal different discharge rates and arranged with both a staggered and in-
fin structure for PCM cooling for the 18650 li-ion cell are two circular line arrangement. Results obtained from the CFD study show that
fins at the bottom and 4 rectangular longitudinal fins at the top. To even with a 1 mm encapsulation layer around the cell, there is a
better enhance the thermal conductivity at a pack level design, further significant reduction in battery temperature even at high discharge
optimization of the required fin arrangement should be based on the rates as compared to the same battery without PCM encapsulation. Ad-
size of the cylindrical cell and the required charge/discharge current of ditionally, each arrangement, discharge rate and inlet velocity have its
the battery pack. While the addition of thermally conductive fins does own optimal encapsulated PCM thickness signifying that the thickness
significantly improve the thermal conductivity of the PCM, the addition of the encapsulated PCM has to be based on the parameters of the pack
of such fins will increase the manufacturing cost of the battery pack as itself.
additional machining is required to add such fins to the battery pack. Srivastava et al. [88] conducted a similar study through experimen-
The volume required by the fins to effectively improve the thermal tal and numerical means by discharging a 2.6Ah 18650 li-ion battery
conductivity of the PCM would also simultaneously increase the size cell encapsulated with eicosane PCM under different discharge rates
of the battery pack. and ambient temperatures as displayed in Fig. 26. The same battery is
also encapsulated with two different PCM types which are Rubitherm
6.2. Thermally conductive coating 42 and capric acid. From the investigation, it was determined that the
battery encapsulated with eicosane PCM had a lower temperature rise
A secondary alternative to fin thermal conductivity enhancement is as compared to the battery with RT42 and capric acid as long as the
through PCM micro-encapsulation. The process involves encapsulating ambient temperature does not exceed the melting temperature of the
the solid–liquid PCM with a stable polymer film that is thermally respective PCMs.
conductive by polymerization through suspension, emulsion, interfacial There are several weaknesses though for organic shell materials
and other such means [76]. The shell material can be divided into in which they are combustible, have poor thermal conductivity and
three categories which are organic, inorganic and an organic–inorganic have poor mechanical properties which limit the use of organic micro-
hybrid as displayed in Fig. 25. encapsulated PCM for BTMS applications [89]. Compared to organic

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 25. Different micro-encapsulation for PCM thermal conductivity enhancement [81,82].

Fig. 26. li-ion Battery assembly encapsulated with Eicosane (a) Isometric view (b) Side view [88].

shells, inorganic shells are better thermal conductors, provide good 6.3. Thermally conductive fillers
rigidity and have better mechanical strength [83]. Commonly used
inorganic shells are Silica (SiO2 ), Zinc Oxide (ZnO), Titanium Diox- The third thermal conductivity enhancement technique for PCMs
ide (TiO2 ) and Calcium Carbonate (CaO3 ) [90–93]. Jiang et al. [93] is through the addition of thermally conductive fillers such as with
encapsulated paraffin with a CaO3 shell. Under optimal conditions nano-particles, metallic particles, metallic foam and carbon nanotubes.
with styrene-maleic anhydride as an emulsifier and a pH value of 7, By mixing in such fillers, the thermal conductivity and efficiency of
the paraffin and CaO3 core–shell structure has an encapsulation ratio the PCM can be greatly enhanced and would reduce the flammability
of 56.6% and leakage rate of 2.88% while significantly improving of the organic PCM [98–100]. Xiao et al. [101] prepared a paraf-
the thermal conductivity of the paraffin core–shell structure. Fang fin/nickel and paraffin/copper foam composite PCM through vacuum
et al. [94] encapsulated paraffin instead with a SiO2 shell. The encap- and non-vacuum means and its thermal conductivity is experimentally
sulation ratio was improved at 87.5% with good thermal conductivity measured and compared to the thermal conductivity of a pure PCM and
enhancement as well. Despite the improvement in thermal conductivity a theoretical value. From the results of the experiment, the thermal
and other mechanical properties, inorganic shell materials have less conductivity of the paraffin/nickel composite is approximately three
flexibility than organic shells which would lead to PCM core leakage times that of the pure PCM while the paraffin/copper foam composite
is 15 times that of pure paraffin. Notably, the melting temperature
after several phase change cycles.
of the metal foam composite increases while its freezing temperature
Organic–inorganic hybrid shells improve on the weaknesses of
decreases which may affect the effectiveness of the composite for BTMS
purely organic and inorganic shells and provides good mechanical
applications. Inversely, the metal foam/PCM composite exhibits lower
strength, thermal conductivity, chemical stability and shell flexibil-
specific heat capacity values as compared to pure PCMs for both solid
ity [83]. Examples of commonly utilized organic–inorganic hybrid
and liquid form.
shells are polymethylmethacrylate and polymelamine formaldehyde
Kumar et al. [102] investigated the effects of mixing graphene par-
shells doped with SiO2 or TiO2 [95,96]. Wang et al. [97] synthe- ticles into a PCM mixture to observe its effects in enhancing the PCM’s
sized micro-capsules which comprises of a n-octadecane cores and a thermal conductivity. It was determined that the best composition of
polymelamine formaldehyde and silicon carbide hybrid shells through a graphene-PCM mixture is at 2.0% mass fraction of graphene which
in-situ polymerization. In comparison without the added inorganic Sili- increased the thermal conductivity by 66.15%. Increase in graphene
con Carbide shell, the addition of 7% Silicon Carbide greatly improved mass fraction above a 2.0% would lead to clusters across the PCM
the heat transfer rate and increased the thermal conductivity of the leading to lower temperature uniformity. Ling et al. investigated the
micro-capsule to 60.34%. Thus, organic–inorganic micro-encapsulation effects of combining the organic PCM Rubitherm 44HC with expanded
could be considered for PCM thermal conductivity enhancement as graphite (EG) on the thermal conductivity of the composite. EG with
it provides sufficient thermal conductivity enhancement while being mass fractions of 25% and 35% of the total PCM mass were constructed
mechanically stable and with minimal PCM core leakage. It should by submerging the EG in the melted liquid PCM at 60%. Several obser-
be noted that the feasibility of PCM micro-encapsulation is hindered vations were made whereby the thermal conductivity of the PCM/EG
by the complex chemical process required to synthesize the encapsu- composite remains independent of the temperature of the PCM/EG
lation along with the difficulty in procuring the necessary chemical but increases greatly with the phase change temperature. Additionally,
compounds needed to produce the encapsulation. while increasing the mass fraction of the EG will increase the thermal

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Fig. 27. Multi-scale encapsulation of sodium acetate trihydrate urea PCM to prevent dehydration while improving thermal conductivity [104].

conductivity of the PCM/EG composite the specific heat capacity and

latent heat capacity will decrease simultaneously. Thus, the addition of
such thermally conductive fillers does increase the thermal conductivity
of the PCM by a significant value but would also decrease its specific
heat capacity and as such a balance of the required mass fraction of
thermal conductivity enhancement fillers are needed. The fillers might
also be further aggregated over repeated phase change cycles and as
such have to be remixed to improve temperature uniformity of the
PCM.
Fig. 28. Test cycle operations for PCM composite for BTMS applications (a) battery
6.4. Inorganic PCM pack placed in machined PCM block for electrical cycle test (b) battery pack tested
without PCM [106].

There are various types of inorganic PCMs which include molten

salts, hydrated salts and metals with several advantageous properties
for thermal energy storage applications such as having a higher latent and CPCMBischof ite . For added thermal conductivity, the three PCMs
heat capacity, non-flammability and they have relatively low cost as are mixed with equal amounts of EG. Several parameters were tested
compared to organic PCMs. However, the main reason most researchers between the three PCMS including the heat flow, compressive strength,
do not utilize inorganic PCMs is because of its corrosive properties, young’s modulus, thermal expansion and thermal conductivity. The
higher phase change temperatures, similarly poor thermal conductivity, two inorganic PCMs exhibited better heat flow, thermal conductivity,
heaviness, lack of stability for repeated phase change cycles due to compressive strength and lower thermal expansions than the organic
phase separation, dehydration and sub-cooling [4,28,103]. The main paraffin wax PCM. Between the two inorganic PCMs, the CPCMBischof ite
impediment to its adoption for thermal energy storage applications performed better in terms of both mechanical and thermal properties
is its dehydration factor which would cause the inorganic PCM to but its stability after several phase change cycles was not tested in
be unstable [104]. Ling et al. [104] attempted to overcome such a the current set of works and is not tested for BTMS applications. In
disadvantage through a multi-scale encapsulation method of an inor- an updated version of studies done by Galazutdinova et al. [106], the
ganic PCM, sodium acetate trihydrate urea with the goal of preventing three PCM composites with EG are machined to be tested for BTMS
dehydration and improving its thermal conductivity as displayed in applications as displayed in Fig. 28.
Fig. 27. Electrical cycling tests are conducted at ambient temperatures with
The compound was prepared by firstly mixing the sodium acetate discharge rates of 0.5C, 1.0C, 2.0C and each of the respective discharge
trihydrate urea with EG with mass fractions between 75 to 82 percent- rates are repeatedly charged and discharged three times. The maximum
age by weight (wt%). Graphite powder at a mass fraction of 0.5 to 3.0 battery temperature and maximum temperature difference of the cells
wt% was added as both a nucleating agent and to reduce the super- in the battery pack are recorded after each cycle and tabulated. For
cooling degree. Finally, the composite is covered in a layer of tinfoil comparison, a battery pack with no PCM cooling undergoing similar
and 5 mm organosilicon sealant to prevent dehydration and improve discharge rates and cycles has its maximum battery temperature and
the phase cycling ability of the salt hydrate. The thermal conductivity of the maximum temperature differences compared to the three PCM
the inorganic PCM composite reached 4.96 Wm−1 K −1 , has sub-cooling cooled battery packs. From the discharge test results, all three of
temperatures of 1.6 ◦ C and handles well after 100 phase change cycles the composite PCM battery packs had lower battery maximum tem-
with a small deviation of phase change temperature of 1.7 ◦ C and phase peratures and better temperature distributions than the battery pack
change enthalpy by 6.9%. When the same inorganic PCM composite without PCMs. At 1.0C discharge rates, the no PCM battery pack
was utilized as a BTMS for a battery pack, the maximum battery reached maximum temperatures above 49 ◦ C while all three PCM
temperature was controlled to be below 52.3 ◦ C at a 2C discharge rate battery packs had maximum battery temperatures below 40 ◦ C. At 2.0C
and a maximum battery cell temperature difference below 4.0 ◦ C for discharge rates, the no PCM battery pack reached maximum battery
a twenty cell battery pack showcasing the effectiveness of inorganic temperatures above 65 ◦ C which is above the recommended safety limit
PCMs for BTMS applications. while all three PCM battery packs had maximum battery temperatures
Galazutdinova et al. [105] compared the thermal and mechanical below 65 ◦ C. The inorganic PCM composites remained chemically
properties of two different inorganic PCMs against an organic paraffin stable even after three battery charge and discharge cycles but as
wax PCM to determine which PCM is best suited for BTMS applications. highlighted by [104], it is with prolonged phase change cycles that
The inorganic PCMs utilized were MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2 O∕Mg(NO3 )2 ⋅ 6H2 O with causes chemical instability in the organic PCM. As such, the viability
a mass fraction of (41.3 wt.%/58.7 wt.%) and Bischof ite∕Mg(NO3 )2 ⋅ of inorganic PCMs can only be determined with longer phase change
6H2 O with a mass fraction of (41.3 wt.%/58.7 wt.%) while the or- cycle data.
ganic paraffin wax PCM used has a melting temperature of 55 ◦ C. Thus, it can be concluded that inorganic PCMs can be utilized for
The three PCMs are abbreviated respectively as CPCMwax , CPCMMgCl2 BTMS applications, provided that the dehydration factor is effectively

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

has better temperature distributions than the Z-shape cooling plate but
they both have high temperatures at the center as compared to the
outer regions. In comparison, the TEC and cooling plate module had
a more uniform temperature distribution throughout the battery pack
and the maximum battery temperature values are significantly lowered.
Esfahanian et al. [109] hybridized a TEC cooling system with a
direct air cooled system for a hybrid bus battery pack. There are 12
packs each containing 14 smaller li-ion cell prismatic cells, the heat
generated by the pack is set at 200 W, the upper tabs of the li-ion cells
are attached to the hot side of the TEC and the cold region is attached to
heat sinks which is further cooled by cooling fans. The simulated CFD
results indicate that the TEC Air Cooled system was able to keep the
maximum battery temperature values below the safety limit of 35 ◦ C
and maximum temperature difference at 6 ◦ C. Thus, it can be observed
that the hybridization of a TEC component with other forms of BTMS
cooling would improve its cooling performance in terms of lowering the
battery’s maximum temperature and the temperature distribution but
Fig. 29. Hybrid BTMS involving liquid cooling, air cooling and TECs (a) Heat source
would increase the system complexity of the BTMS and would draw
used as battery simulator (b) Copper casing to improve heat conduction of simulated more power from the battery pack which could potentially lower the
battery (c) Schematic of hybrid system whereby the simulated battery is submerged overall efficiency of the battery pack.
in a liquid container which is pumped through a TEC cooling module (d) Condensed
diagram of the hybrid cooling system [24].
8. Discussion

From the review study conducted, it can be deduced that each BTMS
managed, like with the multi-scale encapsulation technique. Addition- system has its own set of strengths and weaknesses that allow them
ally, if the long-term phase-change cycle repeatability of the inorganic to be favorable for different battery pack specifications. Distinctively,
PCM is not an issue for the BTMS application incorporated with it, then each BTMS can be categorized into passive and active energy systems as
it should be feasible as well. At present, there are not many alternative presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. Air cooling through natural
techniques to deal with the chemical instability of the inorganic PCM ventilation is the cheapest and most simplistic mode of cooling for a
which is the main reason why it is not widely adopted for BTMS battery pack but it does not provide sufficient cooling for most EV appli-
applications. Hence, increased development in this area is needed for cations due to its low heat capacity and heat transfer coefficients [20].
wider adoption. Hence, it is only viable for EVs that have low charging and discharging
rate requirements, small sized configurations and in suitable ambient
7. Thermoelectric thermal management temperature environments. Heat pipes are able to operate passively
and with greater cooling efficiencies than air cooled systems but the
Thermoelectric power generation and thermoelectric coolers (TECs) large volume of space required, the lack of temperature control and the
are also advantageous as BTMS’s for they are relatively silent, stable additional cooling required at the condenser section makes it difficult
and have better temperature control features through fine adjusting of for heat pipes to be incorporated for EV application. To reduce the
the voltage [24]. Generally, thermoelectric devices involves convert- volume taken by the condenser section, the condenser should be angled
ing temperature differences between a cold segment and the heating to minimize space.
segment to electric current and vice versa through the Peltier–Seebeck PCM’s show favorable traits as a passive BTMS system as they are
effect along with the Thompson effect. There is a major draw back for able to absorb large quantities of heat and maintain optimal temper-
thermoelectric systems for BTMS applications in which such systems atures for prolonged periods due to the high latent heat capacity of
have low thermal efficiencies and would require additional energy the PCM during its phase change transition. PCM BTMSs are also more
to operate which would lower the thermal efficiency of the battery compact in space requirements as an active cooling component is not
pack itself [107]. Most literature works would construct hybrid systems needed. However, PCMs require a significant amount of time to re-
between TECs and other forms of cooling including air, liquid and PCM solidify after it melts, there is the risk of the PCM leaking during its
cooling. Lyu et al. [24] constructed a liquid, air, TEC hybrid system to liquid state and the large latent heat capacity is only accessible at
cool a simulated heat load as displayed in Fig. 29. A cylindrical heat narrow temperature ranges which prevents the PCM from responding to
load which was meant to represent a li-ion cell encased in a copper rapid temperature rises and drops across the battery pack. For organic
cylinder and suspended in a water storage and is pumped through a PCMs, there is also the risk of combustibility in the event of a thermal
TEC cooling system that is further cooled by a cooling fan. A constant runaway scenario while inorganic PCMs are chemically unstable after
40 V was supplied to the heater module, 12 V was supplied to the TEC several phase change cycles, have higher melting temperatures and
device and the heater module is heated for one hour to mimic a li-ion are heavier than organic PCMs. With such considerations in mind, an
cell undergoing a 1C discharge rate. At the end of the heat load test, organic PCM based BTMS can be incorporated into an EV battery pack
the surface temperature of the simulated li-ion cell dropped from 55 ◦ C that has relatively stable thermal conditions and with sufficient flame
to 12 ◦ C which was a considerably large temperature drop. retardant measures taken on the PCM used [113]. To improve the
Zhang et al. [108] simulated the effectiveness of coupling with a quality of PCM based BTMS, the container of the PCM has to enhance
TEC module to both a U-shape and Z-shape cooling plate on prismatic the thermal conductivity of the PCM, prevent it from leaking and ensure
li-ion cell through CFD. The hot component of the TEC is attached to the the homogeneity of the PCM over several charge cycles. Hence a PCM
surface of the li-ion prismatic cell while the cold component is attached BTMS based on thermally conductive coating or a finned container
to a flat plate. Inlet flow velocity of the coolant was set at 1.0 m∕s, the would be the ideal container type.
coolant inlet temperature is set at 25 ◦ C and the battery was modeled EVs designed for long distance travel and fast charging require
to have a heating rate of 100 W. The cooling performance of just the larger battery packs which would produce much higher thermal loads.
cooling plate was modeled together with the cooling plate and the TEC. As such, it is necessary to implement an active cooling based system to
From the CFD simulation results obtained, the U-shape cooling plate dissipate the large quantities of heat generated and accurately control

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

Table 1
Strengths and weaknesses of passive BTMS systems.
BTMS Mode of cooling Strengths Weakness
Air cooling Natural ventilation i. Low energy requirements i. Insufficient cooling capacity
[21,25] ii. Light-weight ii. Low cooling efficiency
iii. Simplistic design iii. Unbalanced thermal distribution
iv. Ease of maintenance
v. Low operational cost
vi. Direct cooling medium contact
Liquid cooling Heat pipe i. High specific heat capacity i. Occupies large volume
[8,110] ii. High thermal efficiency ii. Complex structure
iii. Large cooling surface area iii. Costly
iv. Leakage problem
v. Condenser section has to be
cooled
PCM Organic PCM i. Low cost i. Low thermal conductivity
[92,111] ii. Chemically stable and reliable (Has to be enhanced)
iii. Uniformed temperature distribution ii. Leakage problem
iv. High latent heat capacity iii. Narrow melting temperature range
v. Able to operate passively iv. Combustible
Inorganic PCM i. Low cost i. Low thermal conductivity
[104,111] ii. Uniformed temperature distribution (Has to be enhanced)
iii. High latent heat capacity ii. Leakage problem
iv. Able to operate passively iii. Narrow melting temperature range
v. Non-combustible iv. High melting temperature
v. Chemically unstable
vi. Corrosive
vii. Heavy

Table 2
Strengths and weaknesses of active energy BTMS systems.
BTMS Mode of cooling Strengths Weakness
Air Cooling Forced convection i. Direct cooling medium i. Low specific heat
(Fan Cooling) ii. Light-weight ii. Requires additional fan
[112] iii. Simplistic design iii. Unbalanced thermal distribution
iv. Ease of maintenance iv. Low cooling efficiency
Liquid Cooling Cooling plate i. High specific heat capacity i. Costly
(Indirect) [8] ii. High thermal efficiency ii. Risk of leakage
iii. Large cooling surface area iii. Complicated machining required
iv. Not suitable for cylindrical cells
v. Requires additional pump
vi. Short operational lifetime
Thermally conductive i. High specific heat capacity i. Risk of tubing leakage
Tubing ii. High thermal efficiency ii. Short operational lifetime
[8] iii. Large cooling surface area iii. Costly
iv. Flexible iv. Requires additional pump
Liquid cooling Immersion cooling i. High specific heat capacity i. Risk of leakage
(Direct) [68] ii. High thermal efficiency ii. Costly
iii. Occupies least volume iii. Heavy
iv. Large cooling area iv. Complex structure
v. Requires additional pump
Thermoelectric Thermoelectric cooler i. Low maintenance cost i. Low thermal efficiency
[24,25] ii. Non combustible ii. Additional power requirement
iii. Structurally stable
iv. No risk of leakage
v. Static component
vi. Accurate temperature control

the cooling energy needed to maximize the efficiency of the cooling cooled BTMS as liquids often have higher heat transfer coefficients and
system. Air cooling through forced convection achieves such cooling specific heat capacities than air [20,114].
requirements as the air flow velocity can be optimized to dissipate the With prismatic and pouch cells, the utilization of cooling plates
heat produced by the battery pack at varying thermal loads. Further- allows a greater area of the battery pack to be cooled. Notably, the
more, by regulating the inlet and outlet valves such as with the J-Type weight of the aluminum or copper cooling plate would dramatically
cooling channel configuration, the airflow can be channeled to further increase the weight of the EV due to the large surface area of the
improve the cooling performance of the air cooled BTMS. There are battery pack that has to be cooled. Furthermore, the regions closest
several weaknesses of a fan-cooled air BTMS though which include to the outlet of the cooling plate would offer less cooling as the liquid
lower cooling uniformity due to the air swirled within the pack and low heats up after being passed through a heated battery pack. The only
cooling efficiencies due to the low heat transfer coefficient and specific way to alleviate this weakness in cooling uniformity is to increase
heat capacity of air. Such weaknesses can be compensated for through the number of parallel lines across the cooling plate. Alternatively,
the addition of thermal conductivity enhancers such as with porous thermally conductive tubing are flexible and lightweight which allows
aluminum foam and the installation of heat sinks across the battery it to cool a wider range of battery geometry types while providing
pack. Nevertheless, the predominant BTMS used for most EVs are liquid sufficient cooling performances. Such tubing’s can be designed to be

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

wide enough to cover a substantial area of the battery pack or narrow The examination of PCM-based battery BTMS also reveals several
enough for multiple smaller tubes to be passed through the gaps notable findings. The addition of circular fins at the bottom and longi-
between each li-ion cell. Similar to the cooling plate, the region cooled tudinal fins at the top in PCM fins proves to be an optimal strategy for
closest to the outlet would also have the worst cooling performance cooling, enhancing thermal conductivity and structural strength, albeit
as the liquid coolant would absorb most of the battery pack’s heat at with potential drawbacks such as the risk of PCM leakage during the
that point. Hence, a larger number of parallel tubes are preferred over liquid state, increased manufacturing cost, and the potential enlarge-
a serpentine configuration. It should be noted that the tubing has a ment of the battery pack [7]. Employing a thermally conductive coating
greater possibility of leakage as compared to a cooling plate as it is not with shell thickness based on the heat generation of the battery pack
as structurally tough as compared to the compact and dense design of emerges as an effective approach, preventing PCM leakage and offering
a cooling plate. As such, the tubing has to be regularly inspected and adaptability for various Li-ion cell geometries, although it involves
replaced if needed to prevent leakage onto the battery pack. a complex chemical coating process [81,82]. The use of thermally
Immersion cooling offers the greatest cooling efficiency and best conductive fillers, specifically paraffin/nickel composites, demonstrates
cooling uniformity as compared to the other liquid cooling strategies. superior performance without requiring a complex chemical process,
By soaking the battery pack in dielectric fluid, the cooling surface area yet it contributes to an overall increase in the battery’s weight [101].
available is maximized and coupled with the high specific heat capacity Additionally, the incorporation of graphene at 2.0% mass fraction in
of the dielectric fluid the battery pack is able to achieve high charge the PCM mixture provides adequate thermal conductivity, but higher
and discharge rates. The risk of thermal runaway is also greatly reduced concentration levels lead to clustering, requiring periodic mixing for
due to the non-flammability of the dielectric fluid [71]. Most dielectric even filler distribution [102].
fluids are costly though and a substantial volume of it is required to Inorganic PCMs, often overlooked due to corrosive properties and
cool the entire battery pack. Hence, immersion cooling is better suited phase change challenges, are reevaluated in this study. The research
towards high performance EVs that produce high thermal loads. TEC’s introduces a multi-scale encapsulation method to mitigate dehydration
are able to accurately control the amount of heat dissipated from a issues, showcasing the potential of inorganic PCMs for BTMS appli-
battery pack but it does not provide sufficient cooling efficiencies to cations [105]. Comparative studies with organic PCMs and analysis
cool a battery pack on its own. Hence, it is usually coupled with other of thermal and mechanical properties demonstrate the viability of
cooling systems such as with an air or other liquid cooled system as a inorganic PCMs, provided long-term phase change cycle stability can
means of accurately controlling the amount of heat to be dissipated. be addressed. The current suitability of PCM-based BTMS for EV usage
By examining the strengths and weaknesses across each type of is limited due to its ability to cool only a narrow temperature range of
BTMS type, it becomes apparent that certain BTMS variants are better the EV and the high risk of leakage. Its likelihood for adoption will only
suited for specific types of EV types. Many novel findings were made be feasible if a PCM with a wider melting temperature range is made
for each BTMS type. For the results obtained in the air cooling sec- available.
tion, the main findings from the studies include the effectiveness of a The primary limitation of the study is that experimental cooling
hexagonal li-ion cell array arrangements and optimized inlet and outlet systems, such as those utilizing PCM or thermoelectric BTMS, do not
configurations to enhance cooling performance [33,34,99]. However, take into consideration the overall EV architecture. The conducted
these improvements are countered by challenges such as increased studies are confined in scope to analyzing improvements solely on the
pack volume, potential busbar configuration impacts, and concerns battery pack without accounting for other factors, such as potential
about heightened battery pack dimensions and reduced effectiveness. increases in weight or volume for the EV. Further investigation into
Streamlining cooling channels, notably through secondary outlets and how these BTMS enhancement techniques may impact the EV would
spoilers [40,42], showed promise in cooling performance and power be beneficial.
consumption reduction but increases ducting complexity. Additionally,
the use of thermal conductivity enhancers [43,44], while improving 9. Conclusion
cooling uniformity and structural strength, raised concerns about an
augmented overall weight of the battery pack. The current EV industry This study reviews the latest developments in BTMS technologies
favors compact BTMS types that can accommodate both small and large as well as explores the strengths and weaknesses of each BTMS type
power loads across the battery pack while being as compact as possible. available. Essentially there are four types of BTMS systems available
As such, thermal conductivity enhancers such as with the pin fin heat in the EV industry which include air cooled, liquid cooled, PCMs
sinks and increasing the inlet points might be of benefit in enhancing and thermo-electric based BTMS. There are also hybrid systems which
air based BTMS for industry use. combine the components of two or more BTMS types such as with
The findings from liquid BTMS studies also reveal several notable a combination of air and liquid cooled systems to improve upon the
enhancement techniques. Optimizing cooling plate channels by increas- cooling performance of a singular BTMS type.
ing width proves more effective than adding channels, providing a large Air cooled systems have low energy requirements, require the least
surface area and efficient cooling for pouch or prismatic cells [57]. amount of maintenance and are cheap to install but they do not provide
The use of thermally conductive tubing, particularly with added alu- sufficient cooling efficiencies for battery packs with high thermal loads.
minum housing, ensures improved thermal distribution conforming Hence it is better suited for EVs that are designed for short distance
to cell geometry, although risks of leakage and increased weight are travel and have low thermal load requirements. Liquid cooled BTMS
associated [58]. Angled condenser sections in heat pipe arrangements have better heat transfer coefficients, higher specific heat capacities
offer passive cooling benefits but require consideration of protruding and more uniformed cooling distributions than air but are costlier,
sections and limitations in high discharge rate cooling [64]. Direct cool- heavier, and require much more maintenance. EV’s that have larger
ing methods, such as two-phase immersion cooling, showcases good battery packs, are catered for long-distanced travel and produce high
convective heat transfer but come with challenges like gradual coolant thermal loads are best suited for this type of BTMS. PCM BTMS types
loss and increased system complexity, while single-phase immersion are able to absorb large quantities of heat during its phase change cycle
cooling provides cost-effective and maintenance-friendly alternatives and are able to operate passively. However, the thermal conductivity
but increases weight due to larger coolant volumes [68]. Present liquid of the system is low and the high latent heat capacity is only available
BTMS typically utilize cooling plates for pouch cells and flexible cooling at a narrow temperature range. The thermal conductivity of PCMs can
tubes for cylindrical cells; therefore, optimizing cooling channels based be improved through a variety of methods including the encapsula-
on depth would be beneficial, and the addition of aluminum housing tion of the PCM in a thermally conductive material, the addition of
would improve the thermal conductivity of the overall pack. carbon-based or metallic fillers and with the insertion of heat sinks. It

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F.S. Hwang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 192 (2024) 114171

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