Ceramics International 43 (2017) 11331–11338

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Ceramics International
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Cutting edge damage in grinding of cemented carbides micro end mills MARK
⁎
Peng Gao, Zhiqiang Liang , Xibin Wang, Tianfeng Zhou, Shidi Li, Suyan Zhang, Zhibing Liu
Key Laboratory of Fundamental Science for Advanced Machining, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Micro mills are widely applied in the micro manufacturing and mainly fabricated using the grinding method.
Micro mills Cutting edges have significant influences on the performance of micro mills such as the micro mill life and
Grinding machining quality. In this paper, the cutting edge damage mechanisms in the grinding of cemented carbides
Cemented carbides micro mills are investigated. The micro end mills grinding experiments are carried out and the cutting edge
Cutting edge
maximum edge damage width and surface roughness of the end teeth flank are measured. The results show that
the micro fractures and micro cracks are generated in the cutting edge following micro pits in the grinding
surface. The grain size and composition of cemented carbides have significant impacts on the damage of the
cutting edge. The maximum edge damage width increases with the increase of Co binder content and WC grain
sizes. However, a better flank quality with less micro pits is obtained as the reduction of Co binder content and
grain size of WC.

1. Introduction method [4]. During the grinding process of micro tool, the cutting edge
and surface quality of micro mills is strongly affected by the tool
Micro mills are widely applied in micro manufacturing such as material property. Ohmori et al. [5] reported cemented carbides can be
MEMS, biotechnology and aerospace. Micro milling an effective way to stably removed in ductile mode during the micro tools grinding, and
produce more complex three-dimension geometries micro products in they found the surface characteristics of micro tool exert extremely
a wide range of materials [1]. Unlike traditional cutting, the micro strong effects on mechanical strength of the tool. Zhan et al. [6] found
machining characteristics are affected by micro mill edge radius [2]. the grain size of tool material is the most influential parameter on the
When the depth of cut is equal to the damage width of tool cutting grinding quality of micro mill, followed by grinding wheel grain size,
edge, the size effect occurs during the cutting process easily. However, feed rate and grinding speed. Furthermore, in traditional tool grinding,
in order to obtain high accuracy miniaturized parts, the depth of cut of Denkena et al. [7] found the grinding quality of the cutter mainly
micro milling often is needed to be less than 1 μm in some micro depends on the cutter material removal mechanism which is signifi-
products manufacturing. Under this condition, the cutting edge and cantly influenced by the cutter material grain size. Among these
surface damages of micro mill have significant impacts on the tool life reports, during the fabrication process of micro mill, the micro cracks
and machining quality. Thus, the tool surface and cutting edge are and micro fracture are often generated in cutting edge of micro mill,
crucial to the quality of micro mills products. and micro pits are often generated in mill surface due to the property of
For a long micro mill life and good machining quality, the tool material. The existence of the cutting edge micro fractures and
fabrication of micro mills requires a precision manufacturing process. micro cracks affects the strength of the mills significantly. However,
Cemented carbides are often selected as micro tool material, because it few studies investigated the cutting edge damages in the fabrication of
can be used to machine a large variety material and be fabricated to a micro tool, and especially the effects of grain size and composition of
complex tool easily. However, due to the limitation of the carbide cemented carbides on the cutting edge damages of micro mill are
grains size and sintering technique, the sharp tool is difficult to be unclear.
processed [3]. Therefore, a great challenge still exists in micro milling In the last several years, great progress research has been made in
manufacture to achieve high quality and precision micro milling tools. the effects of the grain size and composition of cemented carbides on
As a main method, grinding is often used to fabricate high precision the quality of cemented carbides grinding. For instance, Hegeman et al.
micro mills for the high material removal efficiency and high machin- [8] reported the cemented carbides grinding removal behavior depends
ing accuracy. For instance, 10 μm diameter single edge helical micro on the ratio between the abrasive grains sizes and the WC grains sizes,
end mills of cemented carbides have been fabricated using grinding and the surface roughness depends on WC grains size and small grains

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Z. Liang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.05.336
Received 26 April 2017; Received in revised form 26 May 2017; Accepted 27 May 2017
Available online 28 May 2017
0272-8842/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.
P. Gao et al. Ceramics International 43 (2017) 11331–11338

size produces high surface roughness. Zhang et al. [9] found the surface f=20 mm/min and grinding speed v=24 m/s. The resin bonded dia-
generation mechanism of cemented carbides high speed grinding is mond grinding wheel (2000#) (Henan UN Whirlwind Diamond Co.,
material plastic deformation WC/Co grain dislodgement and WC Ltd) and grinding oil are used in the experiment. The single bevel
grains crush. Liu et al. [10] demonstrated the material removal grinding wheel (1) with diameter 135 mm and edge angle 45° is used to
mechanism of cemented carbide presents ductile mode, semi-brittle fabricate the peripheral rake face, the peripheral flank face and the end
mode and brittle mode with increase of depth of cut in the groove teeth gash. The single bevel grinding wheel (2) with diameter 100 mm
grinding. Yang et al. [11] discussed a deformed/damaged thin layer and edge angle 45° is used to fabricate the end teeth flank face. Each
which contains fragmented carbides and micro cracks together with experiment is repeated three times. The cemented carbides with
high compressive residual stresses are introduced during the grinding different grain sizes and composition including K55SF, DK450UF,
process of WC-Co cemented carbides. However, most of above studies DK500UF and DK120UF (GUHRING Co., Ltd.) are adopted during the
investigated the traditional grinding of cemented carbides. The micro experiment. The mechanical property of different grain sizes and
grinding of the cemented carbides tool material is rarely investigated. composition cemented carbides tool materials are shown in Table 1.
The cutting edge damage mechanism of the cemented carbides micro The fabricated micro mills are cleaned using ultrasonic cleaning
tools grinding are still unclear. machine before measuring. The surface roughness Ra of micro mills
Herein, the micro mills of cemented carbides grinding experiments end teeth first clearance is measured using optical profiling system
are carried out. The grinding morphology of the micro end mills surface (Wyko NT1100, Veeco Co., Ltd.), and the maximum edge damage
are observed, and the maximum edge damage width of cutting edge width Rk of micro mills cutting edge in rake face is also measured by
and end teeth flank surface roughness of the mills are measured. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM, FEI Quanta 650FEG).
effects of grain size and composition of cemented carbides on the
quality of micro mills are investigated. The cutting edge and surface
damage mechanism in the grinding of cemented carbides micro end 3. Results and discussion
mills are discussed.
3.1. Cutting edge damage mode in grinding of micro mills

2. Experimental procedures The grinding defects of the fabricated micro end mills are shown in
Fig. 3. It could be found that the damages of the micro mill are mainly
The micro end mills experiments are carried out on a six axes CNC manifested as micro fractures and micro cracks in the cutting edge, and
tool grinding machine (CNS7d, by Makino Seiki Co., Ltd.) as shown in micro pits and cracks in the grinding surface. There are many plastic
Fig. 1. During the grinding process, the mill shank is clamped to make scratching grooves and feed masks in feed direction and micro pits and
the mill axis coincide with A-axis, and the mill could move along U-axis micro cracks randomly distributed in the grinding surface (Fig. 3).
and Y-axis and rotate around W-axis. While the grinding wheel moves Some WC grains are broken in the cutting edge and the broken WC
along X-axis and Z-axis. The resolution of the machine in X-axis, Y-axis grains can be observed in micro fractures of cutting edge. Regular
and Z-axis are 0.0001 mm. The position precision of the grinding shape organization structure is found in the micro fracture of the
machine in X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are 0.0035 mm, and repositioning cutting edge, which indicates some WC particles are broken in the
precision the grinding machine in X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are cutting edge. It could be seen from the micro fractures that the WC
0.0015 mm. Based on the above grinding method, the simulation grains are pulled out from the WC/Co or WC/WC boundaries in the
software MSPS of Makino Seiki grinding machine is used to simulate cutting edge (Fig. 3(b)). It indicates that the micro cracks and micro
the motion of the grinding procedure before the experiments. fractures of the cutting edge tend to propagate twisting around the
The same geometries of micro helical end mills are fabricated with boundaries of WC/Co or WC/WC. In order to evaluate the cutting edge
diameter 0.5 mm, helix angle 30°, rake angle 3° and relief angle 12° damage of the micro mill, the maximum edge damage width Rk is
during the grinding experiments (Fig. 2) . The main cutting edge is defined as shown in Fig. 3(d). It also can be seen that there is a thin
formed by the peripheral rake face and peripheral flank face. The deformed layer made of fragmented and plastic deformed WC particles
peripheral rake face and peripheral flank face rough grinding para- from the fracture cross-section of the mills cutting edge tip. The
meters are depth of cut ap=20 μm, feed rate f=800 mm/min and deformed layer becomes denser with the WC particles breakage and
grinding speed v=24 m/s, and the finish grinding parameters are plastic deformation during grinding process. The cutting edge damages
ap=4 μm, feed rate f=400 mm/min and grinding speed v=24 m/s. of the micro mills significantly affect the strength of the mills.
Meanwhile, the end teeth geometries rough grinding parameters are Cutting edge tip fracture of micro mill is one of the most significant
depth of cut ap=20 μm, feed rate f=200 mm/min and grinding speed damage effects on the performance of micro mill. Unreasonable select
v=24 m/s, and the finish grinding parameters are ap=4 μm, feed rate of grinding parameters and tool material defects will lead to the cutting

Fig. 1. Micro end mills grinding experiment setup.

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Fig. 2. Fabrication of micro mill.

Table 1 Transcrystalline broken WC grains are also observed in the cross-

Different cemented carbides materials. section of the cutting edge fracture.
Mechanical property K55SF DK500UF DK450UF DK120UF
3.2. Effects of tool material cemented carbides on cutting edge
WC content (%) 91 88 91 93
Co content (%) 9 12 9 7
damage
WC grain sizes (μm) 0.2–0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Density (g/cm³) 14.1 14.4 14.45 14.7 The cutting edge morphology of micro mills fabricated with different
Hardness (HV30) 1920 1660 1870 1850 tool materials can be observed in Fig. 5. It could be seen that the cutting
Category K40/50 K40 / K05
edge of micro mills presents different fracture morphology with different
WC grain sizes and Co binder content of cemented carbides. The cutting
edge tip fracture of micro mills. The cutting edge tip fracture edge of micro mill fabricated with smaller grain size has better straightness
morphology of the micro mill is shown in Fig. 4. Under the grinding and less micro fractures (Fig. 5(a)). On the contrary, the cutting edge of
parameters above, the cutting edge tip fractures are found during the micro tool fabricated with larger grain size presents arc shape (Fig. 5(d)). In
fabrication of the micro mill. Therefore, the cutting edge tip fracture is addition, with high Co binder content, larger size micro fractures and micro
not the main grinding defects of the micro mill under reasonable cracks are generated in the cutting edge of micro mill. Fig. 6 shows the
grinding parameters. A lot of dimples and WC particles drawing trace effects of grain size and composition of cemented carbides on the maximum
are observed in the cross-section of the fracture (Fig. 4). It indicates edge damage width Rk and surface roughness Ra on the end teeth flank of
that the cutting edge tip fracture is brittle fracture along grain the mills. It can be found that the grain size and composition of cemented
boundaries. Most of the fracture belongs to intergranular fracture carbides has significant influences on the maximum cutting edge damage
and the cutting edge tip fracture is mainly caused by the separation of width Rk and few effects on the surface roughness Ra. With increase of Co
WC/Co phase boundaries or WC/WC grain boundaries. binder content, the maximum edge damage width Rk and the surface
roughness Ra increase in the cases of the micro mills fabricated with the

Fig. 3. Grinding defects of fabricated micro end mills.

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Fig. 4. Fracture morphology of micro mill cutting edge tip.

tool material DK500UF, DK450UF and DK120UF. Besides, with the The Co binder content of cemented carbides has significant effects
increase of WC grain sizes, the maximum edge damage width Rk and the on the damage of the cutting edge. The Co binder can obviously
surface roughness Ra increase in the cases of the micro mills fabricated improve the toughness of the cemented carbides material [12]. The
with cemented carbides K55SF and DK450UF. reduction of Co binder content can reduce the effects of the low bond
The end teeth rake face morphology of micro mills fabricated with strength phase boundaries, resulting in more micro pits on grinding
different tool materials are shown in Fig. 7. It could be seen that the surface. However, the material presents more brittle and more cutting
WC grain sizes and binder content of the cemented carbides tool edge micro fractures and micro cracks occur. Due to the low boundaries
material have significant impacts on surface morphology of the micro binding strength of the WC/Co phase boundaries, the surface of the
mills. With different cemented carbide materials, the surfaces of micro mills fabricated with higher Co binder content material (DK500UF)
mills are covered with different characteristic plastic grinding grooves, appears more micro pits around the WC grains phase boundaries. With
feed marks, micro fracture and randomly distributed micro pits and the increase of Co binder content, the contact of WC grains is separated
cracks. It also seen that the micro pits easily occur at the junction of by Co phase and the WC grain connectivity decreases. The reduction of
three WC grains (Fig. 7(b)). The surface of micro mill with smaller WC grain connectivity and grain size will reduce the micro fracture of
grain size of WC is much smooth with less micro pits, which leads to a cutting edge along the WC/WC grain boundaries, which improves the
better morphology. Furthermore, the surface of the micro mills fracture strength of the cutting edge. Therefore, the micro mills
fabricated with tool material DK500UF and DK120UF has more micro fabricated with K55SF has a smaller maximum edge damage width
cracks and micro pits (Fig. 7(c) and (d)). In the case of the tool material Rk value than that of DK450UF (Fig. 6). Moreover, the smaller grain
DK500UF, DK450UF and DK120UF, the generation of the micro size of WC tool material means the reduction of the free path in Co
cracks or fractures tends to twist the bridging of WC/WC or WC/Co binder, which will enhance the interfacial energy between WC particles
due to the low bond strength of the boundaries. However, micro and Co binder phase [13]. The enhanced interfacial energy could
fractures are also found in the scratch micro grooves of the mill surface reduce the generation of micro fractures and cracks in the cutting edge
fabricated with 0.2–0.5 μm material (K55SF) (Fig. 7(a)). of the mill. The decreased WC grain size of tool material also improves

Fig. 5. Cutting edge morphology of micro mill fabricated with different materials. (a) K55SF (b) DK500UF (c) DK450UF (d) DK120UF.

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Fig. 6. Maximum edge damage width Rk and surface roughness Ra of micro mills.

2
the strength and hardness of the cutting edge which leads to the λr = (0.214 − 0.691VCo + 5.975VCo )DWC (1)
reduction the cutting edge damage of the mill. Larger grain size of WC
tool material means the phase boundaries are longer and the effects of Where, VCo is the mass fraction of cobalt; DWC is the average WC grain size.
different hardness of WC and Co materials on material removal rate are According to the Eq. (1), the mean free path in Co of tool materials
more obvious. Therefore, with larger WC grain size of the tool material, K55SF, DK450UF, DK500UF and DK120UF can be obtained 0.04–
the cutting edge of micro mill tends to be more brittle fracture and the 0.1001, 0.1001, 0.1086 and 0.0975, respectively. With increase of Co
material removal mechanism tends to be fracture mode. However, in binder content, the mean free path in Co phase reduces. The mean free
the cases of the tool materials K55SF and DK450UF, a cutting edge path affects the material removal mechanism of the cemented carbides
with denser and less micro cracks is found in the mill fabricated with during grinding. The generation of micro pits is related to the mean
smaller grain size of WC material (Fig. 5). free path in Co phase. It can be seen that the end teeth rake face micro
The WC grains size and Co binder content will affect the mean free path pits of micro mills increase with increase of the mean free path in
in Co binder. The mean free path in Co binder λr can be evaluated [14]: cobalt phase (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. End teeth rake face morphology of micro mills fabricated with different materials. (a) K55SF (b) DK500UF (c) DK450UF (d) DK120UF.

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or the oxidation of WC. In addition, as shown in Fig. 9, the position of

dot A also proves that the micro pits mainly occur at the boundaries of
the WC/Co. Therefore, the generation of the grinding cutting edge
damages is mainly caused by randomly broken or fall off of the WC
grains.
The fracture toughness of tool material KIC is one of the main
reasons affecting the maximum edge damage width Rk of the mill.
According to Chai and Lawn chipping model, the mill maximum edge
damage width Rk can be evaluated [18]:

fg = βKICh 3/2 = f0 {cos θ /[1 + γ sin(ϕ + θ )]}3/2 (2)

Rk = γ′h cos θ /{cos(ϕ + θ )[1 + γ sin(ϕ + θ )]} (3)

3/2
Where f0 = β0KICh ; fg is the total grinding force (The resultant force
of tangential force fgt and normal force fgn); γ′ is a coefficient; γ is a
Fig. 8. Crystal shape of WC grain.
coefficient independent of θ and ϕ ; h is the distance of the contact from
the specimen edge; KIC is the toughness; β is a coefficient; θ = αo + γo ,αo
is the rake angle; γo is the relief angle; ϕ is an angle between load axis
and specimen surface normal.
3.3. Cutting edge damage mechanism According to the cutting edge chipping width model from the Eqs.
(2) and (3), the mill cutting edge damage width is affected by tool
The WC-Co cemented carbides consist of WC grains embedded in material cemented carbides and grinding parameters of the mill. The
cobalt binders. The WC grains have two types of prismatic (1010) fracture toughness KIC of the tool material is one of factors affects the
planes and two basal (0001) planes (Fig. 8) [15]. The basal plane WC mill maximum edge damage width Rk. With the increase of the fracture
grains have larger hardness, lower modulus and fatigue resistance toughness KIC, the maximum edge damage width Rk reduces. Fig. 10
compared to prismatic plane [16]. Due to the different resistance and shows the ideal model of the cutting edge damage of the mill. Under the
hardness of prismatic and basal planes, the two types of WC grain impact and pressure of diamond grits, the stress intensity factor KI will
presents different deformation and facture mechanism during diamond exceed the fracture toughness KIC of the tool material. Due to the low
grits cutting. The boundaries of WC-Co cemented carbides material strength of the cutting edge, the micro fractures easily occur at the
include WC/WC, Co/Co grain boundaries and WC/Co phase bound- cutting edge of the mill, and the micro cracks or micro fractures tend to
aries. Under tensile force, the deformation of WC-Co cemented twist the bridging of WC/Co or WC/WC boundaries (Fig. 9).
carbides includes three stages: linear elastic stage, plastic stage and Besides, the orientation of WC grain also affects the generation of
fracture stage [17]. The material removal mechanism of cemented the cutting edge and surface of the micro mills. The different orienta-
carbides presents three stages: ductile removal, grain dislodgement and tion of WC grain presents different materials removal mechanism
WC particles broken [9]. When the diamond grits begin to cut WC during the removal process of WC grain. The nanoscratch experiments
grains, most of WC grains are removed in plastic domain while some have proved the scratch width is much wider in prismatic planes
WC grains brittle fracture. The plastic removal of WC particles leaves compared with basal planes [16]. The basal planes of WC grain have
plastic scratching grooves and feed masks in feed direction on the stronger scratch resistance compared to prismatic orientation. The
grinding surface (Fig. 5). The micro damages of cutting edge mainly phase reaction of WC grain takes place during indention of the
depend on the strength of binding phase interface and WC grain size. prismatic and basal planes [19]:
During the grinding process of cutting edge, the diamond grits
1/6 [1123](1100) + 1/6 [2113](0110) → 1/2 [1010] (4)
suppress the tool material in the micro cutting edge and micro cracks
occur firstly, and then propagate leading to the formation of the micro
1/6 [1213](1010) + 1/6 [1123](1100) → 1/6 [2110] (5)
fracture. Under the impact of diamond grits, WC grains are extruded
and scratched at the cutting edge of the mill. Due to few materials in The prismatic and basal planes of WC grain show different slip
the cutting edge, the materials of cutting edge are loss support leading mechanism due to the different resistance and hardness of the two
to the detachment of WC grains, and the WC grains tend to rotate planes [16]. The WC grains displacement will be induced under the
around the boundaries of WC/Co or WC/WC leaving randomly impacts of diamond grits and the prismatic plane has a larger
distributed micro fracture gaps. Some WC particles begin to randomly displacement than basal plane. Therefore, micro cracks and micro
fall off or broken leaving the micro fracture gaps in the cutting edge. fractures more easily occur at prismatic orientation. Moreover, the
The existing phase boundaries between WC and Co would impede the plastic deformation and phase transformation of WC grain also occurs
propagation of interfacial micro cracks which results in WC particles during the grinding. Besides, the different hardness of WC and Co
dislodgement [9]. Some dimples are observed in the micro fracture grains also causes the different material remove rate leading to the
gaps of cutting edge. The drawing trace of WC grains in the cross- variation height of Co binders and WC grains [12]. It also contributes
section of the micro fracture indicates the separation of WC/Co or WC/ to the formation of the micro pits.
WC boundaries in the micro fracture of the cutting edge (Fig. 9). Due to During the removal process of WC grain, the compressive stress
the low bond strength of WC/Co and WC/WC, the micro cracks and acts on the boundaries of WC grain along the direction of diamond grits
micro fractures mainly occur along the boundaries of WC grain. Fig. 9 motion and plastic deformation of the Co phase occurs firstly in the
shows the element composition of the cross-section of the micro boundaries of WC grain (Fig. 11). In this situation, local stress would
fracture at different position. It can be seen that the tungsten and be concentrated in Co grain boundaries and WC/Co phase boundaries.
carbon element are the main element composition of the cross-section The Co grains dislocation began to slip forming dislocation pile up
of the micro fracture at the position B and C as shown in Fig. 9. It also group, and the dislocation and plastic deformation behavior occur in
indicates that the micro fracture is mainly generated due to the WC Co phase to release the local stress. Lattice dislocations and stacking
grain randomly fallen off or broken at the boundaries of WC/Co or WC/ faults appears in the WC/Co phase boundaries and Co grain bound-
WC. Besides, oxygen element is also observed in the cross-section of aries. The Co binders are extruded and removed from the phase
the micro fracture. It is probably caused by the residue of grinding oil boundaries of WC/Co which has a low binding strength. The removal

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Fig. 9. Cutting edge morphology and EDS of micro mill (DK450UF).

of the soft binders reduces the binders support, and micro cracks prone grains and Co binders squeezing out. The fine-grain cemented carbides
to occur [20,21]. When the diamond grits passes through the WC/Co presents a better removal behavior during scratching experiment, and
phase boundaries, the compressive stress of Co phase becomes tensile the fine-grain material removal is dominated by plastic plowing, while
stress. Due to the irreversible of plastic deformation, micro fractures the coarse-grain is brittle removal including grain micro-fracture and
occur in Co binder of WC/Co phase boundaries. When tensile stress pull-out [22]. The brittle removal behavior is more prone to produce
value reaches a critical value, micro cracks begin to form in the WC micro pits due to the broken of WC grain. The micro pits are the result
grain phase boundaries, and then propagate along WC/Co phase of the dislodgement of hard WC grains [12]. The fine-grain material
boundaries or WC grains boundaries [17]. Subsequently, due to the has greater bond strength between WC grain and Co binder. Therefore,
impact stress of grits grains, some Co binders begin to fall off from the the grinding surface with fine-grain material has few micro pits. During
phase boundary which also leads to the formation of micro pits and the removal process of WC grain, sliding occurs along a grain
micro cracks between WC particles and binders (Fig. 7). As shown in boundary. At the junction of three WC grains, different stress con-
Fig. 11, the micro cracks are generated around the WC particles. Under centration produces in different regions due to the disorder of WC
the impact of varying stress, the Co grains easily fall off from phase grain boundary orientation. The stress distribution is more complex at
boundaries and the surface micro cracks mainly occur in grains the junction of three WC grains, and the stress is difficult to release.
boundaries which have low separation energy. The phase boundaries The micro pits are easy to nucleate at this position, and the formation
between WC grain and Co present more micro fracture of hard WC of micro pits is the result of grain boundary incompatible sliding.

Fig. 10. Cutting edge damages generation mechanism in grinding of micro mill.

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Fig. 11. Surface damages generation mechanism in grinding of micro mill.

4. Conclusions China (No. 51575049 and 51375055) and Beijing Institute of

Technology (BIT) Foundation for Fundamental Research (No.
In conclusion, the effects of grain size and composition of cemented 20150342013).
carbides on the cutting edge quality and surface roughness are
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This work was supported by National Basic Research Program of mechanism of cemented tungsten carbides in nanoscratching, Wear 268 (2010)
China (No. 2015CB059900), National Natural Science Foundation of 1400–1408.

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