Module 3

Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation is a process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation,
emitted by a heated surface in all directions.

Solid and liquid surfaces at all temperatures continuously emit energy in the form of radiation.
The emitted radiation is proportional to the temperature of the body. For radiation, no material or
medium is required and can be transported even in the space and vacuum.

Thermal radiation is similar to other electromagnetic waves like x-rays and 𝛾-rays. The energy of
radiation is emitted from the body at all the wave lengths (frequencies), but the heating effect
occurs only over a limited range of wave lengths. The radiation in this wave length range is
known as thermal radiation.
𝛾-rays: Used in medicine for killing Cancer cells
X-rays: Used to view inside of bodies or objects
UV rays used in fluorescent tubes; absorbed by the skin
Visible light: make the things able to be seen
Infrared: transmits the heat from sun, fires, radiators etc
Micro wave: Used in cooking, radar, telephone and other signals
Radio wave: used to broadcast radio and television

The thermal radiation lies in the range of wave lengths from 0.1 μm to 100μm. The light
radiation which is visible lies in the range of 0.4 μm to 0.7μm. It can be seen that the thermal
radiation overlaps and includes the visible light range. The electric filament bulb is a common
example.

Radiation properties

Absobed radiation
Absorptivity (𝛼) =
Incident radiation

Reflected radiation
Reflectivity (𝜌)=
Incident radiation
Tramsmitted radiation
Transmitivity (𝜏) = Incident radiation

QA + QR + QT =Qi
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝑅 𝑄𝑇
+ + =1
𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑖

𝛼+𝜌+𝜏=1

Surface Emission properties

The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends on

i. Temperature of the surface

ii. Wavelength/frequency of radiation
iii. Nature of surface

Gray body: If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation falling on it, irrespective of
their wave length is known as Gray body.

White body: If all the incident radiation falling on the body is reflected, then it is known as White
body.

For a white body, 𝛼=0, 𝜏=0, ∴ 𝜌=1

Opaque body:

It is a body which does not transmits any radiation falling on it (𝜏=0).

∴𝛼+𝜌=1

Transparent body: It is one, which transmits a part of the radiation falling it.

Black body: A black body is an object which absorbs all the radiation falling on it.

For a black body, 𝛼=1, 𝜏=0, ∴ 𝜌=0

Concept of Black body

A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs
radiation in all frequencies, not because it only absorbs: a black body can emit radiation.

It is necessary to define a theoretical black body to compare the performances of other bodies. Black
body is one which absorbs all the radiation and none is reflected nor transmitted. In other words a
black body is one whose Absorptivity is 100%.

In practice a perfect black body does not exist, but the concept of a black body is very important in
radiation heat transfer. A black body is also a perfect emitter.

Cavity acts as a black body. A cavity with a small hole is shown in figure. An incident ray through
opening is emitted many times on the inside surface before escaping finally from the opening. With
each emission, there is a fraction of energy absorbed. After many such absorption, practically all the
incident radiation is absorbed.

Total Emissive power (E)

It is the total radiant energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wave length per
unit surface area per unit time (W/m2). The total emissive power depends on the surface temperature.
Monochromatic (Spectral) Emissive Power (Eλb)

The energy emitted by a surface in all directions at a given wave length is called monochromatic
Emissive power.

Mono chromatic Emissive power of a black body is denoted by Eλb.

Emissivity

It is the ratio of emissive power of a surface to emissive power of a black body at the same
temperature. It is denoted by Ԑ.

𝐄
Ԑ=
𝐄𝐛

Emissivity is the ability of a surface to radiate heat. It depends on the nature of the surface and
independent wave length.

Ԑ =1 for black body

Ԑ =0 for white body

Ԑ = 0 to 1 for Grey body

Laws of black body Radiation

The radiant energy is based on the following laws:

1. Stefan-Boltzmann law
2. Plank’s law
3. Wien’s displacement law
4. Kirchhoff’s law

Stefan-Boltzmann law
This law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of
its absolute temperature.

Eb = 𝝈 T4

Where, Eb= Energy emitted by a black body W/m2

W
𝝈 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8
m2−K4

T = absolute temperature (K)

Wien’s displacement law
This law states that the product of λmax and absolute temperature is a constant.

According to this law, λmax T = 2.898 x 10-3 m-K

= 2898 𝜇𝑚 − 𝑘

Where, λmax is the wave length at which maximum value of monochromatic power occurs.

Plank’s law
This law states that the total monochromatic emissive power (energy) emitted by the black body is in
all directions per unit area per unit wavelength interval around λ.

C1 λ−5
Ebλ = 𝐶
𝐸𝑥𝑝( 2 )−1
λT

C1 = 0.374 x 10-15 W-m2

C2 = 14.4 x 10-3 m-k

𝜆= Wavelength (𝜇𝑚)
T= Absolute temperature in K

Kirchhoff’s law

It states that at any temperature, the ratio of total emissive power (E) to the total Absorptivity ( α ) is a
constant for all the substances which are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

E
= Constant
α
Consider a large radiating body which encloses a small body (1) of surface area A1. Let Eb be the
energy falling on the surface of body (1). Of this energy, a fraction 𝛂 will be absorbed by the small
body.

∴ Energy absorbed by the small body (1) is 𝛼 1A1Eb

When thermal equilibrium is achieved, the energy absorbed by the body (1) is equal to the energy
emitted E1.

Thus at equilibrium, A1 E1 = 𝛼1 A1 Eb
 E1
∴ Eb =
α1

E2
Replacing the small real body (1) with another small body (2), having Absorptivity α2, then Eb =
α2

By considering the generality of the bodies, we obtain

E1 E2 E3 E
Eb = = = -------= α eq(1)
α1 α2 α3
𝐄 E
Also, by definition of emissivity Ԑ = i.e Eb = eq (2)
𝐄𝐛 Ԑ

Comparing equation eq(1) and eq(2),

E E
=
Ԑ α

∴Ԑ= α
Kirchhoff’s law also states that under thermal equilibrium, emissivity of a body is equal to
Absorptivity.

Solid angle (Cone angle):

It is the angle covered by the unit area of the surface of the sphere of unit radius R, when joined with
the centre of the sphere.
𝐀
∴ Solid angle, 𝛚=
𝐑𝟐

Where, A=Area of the surface of the sphere enclosed by the conical surface forming the angle

R= Radius of sphere

The unit of solid angle is steradian (Sr)

Intensity of radiation: It is the energy emitted by a surface of unit area at all wave lengths in a
particular direction through a unit solid angle.

𝐸𝑏 𝜎𝑇 4
I= =
𝜋 𝜋

Lamberts Cosine law:

𝜃 = Zenith angle ∅= Azimuth angle In= Normal intensity Iθ= Intensity at an angle θ

This law states that the rate of energy radiated by a diffuse surface in any particular direction is
proportional to the cosine of the angle between directions under considerations and normal to the
surface.

∴Iθ= In Cos θ

The energy radiated out decreases with increase in θ and becomes zero at 90°
Example:

The body having area of 1000 cm2 has effective temperature of 900 K. Find

1. Total rate of energy emission

2. The intensity of normal radiation
3. Intensity of radiation at 60o to the normal and
4. The wave length of max monochromatic power

Solution: Area A= 1000 cm2 = 1000 x 10-4 m2 T= 900 K

1 Total Emissive Power = 𝜎A T4 = 5.67*10- 8 x 1000 x 10-4 x 9004 =3720 W

𝐸𝑏 𝜎 T4 5.67∗10− 8 x 10−4 x 9004

2 Intensity of normal radiation I = = = = 11841.4 W/m2- Steradian
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

3 According to Lamberts’ cosine law, I𝜃 = In Cos θ = 11841.4 Cos 60° = 592.07 W/m2- Steradian

4 According to W1en’s displacement law, 𝜆maxT= 2.898 *10-3

𝜆max x 900 = 2.898 *10-3

𝜆max= 3.22 x 10-6 m = 3.22 𝜇m

Example:
An industrial furnace in the form of a black body emits radiation at 3000 K. calculate the following:
1. Monochromatic emissive power at 1 𝜇𝑚 wave length.
2. Maximum emissive power
3. Total emissive power
4. Compare the total emissive power of the furnace, if it is assumed as a real surface having
emissivity 0.8
5. Wave length at which emission is maximum

Solution:

𝐶1 𝜆− 5
1. From Planks law, monochromatic emissive power (Eλ) b = 2 −1]𝐶
𝐸𝑥𝑝[𝜆𝑇

0.374 ∗10−5 (1∗10−6 )− 5

= 14.4∗ 10−3
𝐸𝑥𝑝[ −1]
(1∗10−6 )∗3000

(Eλ)b = 3.103 * 1012 W/m2

2 Maximum emissive power, (Eλb) max = 1.287 *10-5* T5 = 3.127 * 1012 W/m2
3 Total Emissive Power = 𝜎 T4 = 5.67*10- 8 * 30004 = 4.59 *106 W/m2

4 Total emissive power of a real surface E= Ԑ 𝜎 T4 = 0.8 * 67*10- 8 * 30004 = 3.67 *106 W/m2

5 According to Wien’s displacement law, 𝜆maxT= 2.898 *10-3 = 𝜆max 3000= 2.898 *10-3

∴ 𝜆max = 0.966 x 10-6 m = 0.966 𝜇m

Example:
Determine the radiant energy emission between wave lengths 2 to 5 𝜇𝑚 at 1400 k by a black body of
area 1m2.

Solution: λ1= 2 𝜇𝑚 λ2= 5 𝜇𝑚 T=1400 k

λ1T = 2800 𝜇𝑚 − 𝐾

λ2T = 7000 𝜇𝑚 − 𝐾
From DHB P-83, the black body radiation functions at these values are

Eb0−2 Eb0−5
4 = 0.2278 and = 0.8081
𝜎T 𝜎 T4

Eb(5−2)
∴ = 0.8081- 0.2278 = 0.5802
𝜎 T4

Eb(5−2) = 𝜎 T 4 x 0.5802 = (5.67 x 10-8 x14004) 0.5802

Eb(5−2) = 1.26 x 105 W/m2

Example: The monochromatic emissivity [spectral hemispherical emissivity] of fire brick at 750 K as
a function of wave length is as follows:

Ԑ=0.1 for 0 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 2 𝜇𝑚
Ԑ=0.6 for 2 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 14 𝜇𝑚
Ԑ=0.3 for 𝜆 ≥ 14 𝜇𝑚
Calculate the hemispherical emissivity over entire wave lengths and overall radiant energy emission.

Solution: λ1= 2 𝜇𝑚 λ2= 14 𝜇𝑚 T=750 k

λ1T = 1500 𝜇𝑚 − 𝐾
λ2T = 10500 𝜇𝑚 − 𝐾
The black body radiation functions from DHB, at λ1T = 1500, is 0.013754 and at λ2T = 10500 is
0.923710 respectively.
E
= Ԑ = 0.1(0.013754 – 0) + 0.6(0.923710 - 0.013754) + 0.3(1- 0.923710)
𝜎 T4
Ԑ = 0.57
E E
Also, Ԑ = 4 i.e. 0.57 = (5.67 x 10−8 x 7504 )
𝜎T
Overall radiant energy emission, E= 10.223 W/m2
Show that the total emissive power is equal to 𝝅 times the intensity of radiation

𝜃 = Zenith angle ∅= Azimuth angle In= Normal intensity Iθ= Intensity at an angle θ

When the collector is located at an angle θ from the normal and subtending a solid angle dω, the rate
of energy emitted through the surface is given by

(dEb)𝜃 = Iθ dω dA = In Cos θ dω dA

Area of the receiver dA2= (Rdθ) (R Sinθ d∅)

dA2 (Rdθ) (R Sinθ d∅)
∴ Solid angle, 𝑑𝜔= 2 =
R R2

𝑑𝜔= Sinθ dθd∅

Then radiation leaving the emitter and striking the collector (receiver) is given by

(dEb)𝜃 = In Cos θ (Sinθ dθd∅ ) dA

The total energy Eb radiated by the emitter and passing through the spherical region can be obtained
by integrating the above equation over the limits:
𝜋
Θ=0° to 90° 𝑖. 𝑒 ( 2 ) and ∅ = 0° to 360° (𝑖. 𝑒 2𝜋)
𝜋
2𝜋
∫Sphere dEb = In dA ∫02 Sinθ Cos θdθ ∫0 d∅
𝜋
Sin2θ 2𝜋
Eb = In dA ∫02 dθ ∫0 d∅
2
𝜋
1 (−Cos 2θ) 2
= In dA 0 ] ∅]2𝜋
0
2 2
−1
= In dA( 4
) [Cos 𝜋- Cos 0] x [2𝜋]
−1
= In dA ( 4
) [-1 - 1] x [2𝜋]

Eb = In dA 𝜋 … (i)
Also the total emissive power of the emitter with area dA and temperature T is given by

Eb = 𝜎 T4 dA …. (ii)
Comparing the equations (i) & (ii)

𝜎 T4 dA = In dA 𝜋

Eb = In 𝝅

Example:

A surface with area 2 cm2 emits radiation as a black body at a temperature 1000 K. Calculate the
π
radiation emitted into a solid angle subtended by 0 ≤ ∅ ≤ 2𝜋 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ .
6

Solution: The radiation energy Eb emitted by an area a through the solid angle dω= Sinθ dθd∅ is given
by Eb = In Sinθ Cos θdθ d∅ A
π
The energy into solid angle subtended by the angles ∅ = 0 to 2𝜋 and θ = 0 to is
6
𝜋
2𝜋
Eb= In A ∫06 Sinθ Cos θdθ ∫0 d∅
𝜋
1 2𝜋
= In A ∫06 2 Sin2θ dθ ∫0 d∅

𝜋
6
1 −Cos 2θ
= 𝝈 T4 A 2 [ 2
]0 ∅]2𝜋
0

1
= (5.67 x 10-8 x10004) (2 x 10-4)(− 4 ){𝐶𝑜𝑠 60 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠0} 2𝜋 Cos 60°= 0.5

1
= (5.67 x 10-8 x10004) (2 x 10-4)(− 4 ){−0.5} 2𝜋

= 8.9 W

View factor or Shape factor

The radiation heat exchange between two surfaces depends on

1. The views of the surfaces have of each other, i.e how they see each other
2. The emitting and absorbing characteristics
Radiation shape factor is defined as “the fraction of the radiative energy that is diffused from one
surface and strikes directly at the other surface without intermediate reflection”.

Properties of Shape factor:

1. By Summation rule: If N surface, makeup an enclosure then all the radiation streaming
from one surface has to be received by the remaining(n-1) surfaces and by the surface
itself.

F1-1 + F1-2 + F1-3+…..F1-N = 1

Normally, F1-1 = 0

2. By reciprocity theorem: the shape factors F1-2 and F2-1 between two surfaces 1 and 2 are
related by
F1-2 A1= F2-1 A2

3. By Geometry
The shape factor of convex surface or Flat surface with the other surface enclosing the
first is always unity. This is because all the radiation coming out from the convex surface
is received by the enclosing surface.
F1-2 =1 and F1-1 = 0

The concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant Energy coming out
from one part of the surface is received by the part of the same surface.
F1-1 ≠ 0
Example: A bulb hanging at the centre of the roof of the room is measuring (6x4x3) meters. The bulb
is assumed to be spheres of diameter 50 mm. determine the shape factor of the room with respect to
bulb.

Solution:

Body 1: Bulb (Sphere), Area A1=4𝜋r2

A1= 4𝜋 0.0252= 0.0314 m2

Body 2: Room,
Area A2= (6x4x2) + (4x3x2) + (6x3x2) = 108 m2

F12=1 (for convex sphere)

According to reciprocity theorem, F12 A1=F21 A2
1 x 0.0314 = F21 x 108

∴ F21=2.9 x 10-4
Example: Determine the shape factor from the floor of the furnace of 1 m x 2 m x 1.5 m size to the
side surfaces and the roof.

Solution:

Case 1: From floor to the side surfaces (perpendicular rectangles) (1 to 2)

L2/B= 1.5/2= 0.75 and L1/B= ½=0.5

From DHB (P 94), F12 = 0.27

Case 2: From floor to the roof (for equal parallel rectangles) (1 to 3)

L/D= 2/1.5= 1.33 and B/D= 1/1.5= 0.67
Corresponding to these levels, from DHB (P 92), F1-3= 0.18
Example:
Determine the shape factor from the base of a cylinder to the curved face. Also find the shape factor
from the curved surface to base and curved surface to curved surface itself.

Solution:

For N shapes, F1-1 + F1-2+ F1-3 = 1

∴ F1-2+ F1-3 = 1

(i) Shape factor from the base of a cylinder to the curved face (F1-3)
d/L= 1
From DHB (P91), at d/L=1 and referring curve 1, shape factor F1-3 = 0.18
F1-2+ 0.18 = 1
F1-2 = 0.82

(ii) Shape factor from the curved surface to base

Using reciprocal theorem, F1-2 A1 = F2-1 A2
𝑑2
0.82 x 𝜋 = F2-1 𝜋𝑑𝐿
4
F2-1=0.21

(iii) Shape factor curved surface to curved surface itself

F2-1 + F2-2 + F2-3= 1 Because of symmetry, F2-1= F2-3
2 F2-1 + F2-2 = 1
(2 x 0.21) + F2-2 = 1
∴ F2-2=0.58

Example: Determine the shape factor F1-2 and F2-1 for the following cases

Solution:
Case (1): Surface 1 is the base of hemisphere. All the radiation from the surface1, reaches surface 2

∴ F1-2=1
Using Reciprocal theorem, F1-2 A1 = F2-1 A2
𝑑2 𝑑2
1x𝜋 = F2-1x 2 𝜋 r2 Area of circular plate, A1= 𝜋
4 4

F2-1=0.5 Area of hemisphere, A2= 2 𝜋 r2

Considering the surface 2, F2-1 + F2-2 =1

0.5 + F2-2 =1 ∴ F2-2 =0.5

Case (ii) for long duct considering the surface 1, (it does not see itself)

∴ F1-2 =1
Using Reciprocal theorem, F1-2 A1 = F2-1 A2

1 x (2r X) = F2-1 (1.5 𝜋 r. X) X= length of the duct

F2-1= 0.424
Considering the surface 2,
F2-1 + F2-2 = 1
0.424 + F2-2 =1

∴ F2-2 =0.575
Assignment: Considering the following long grooves of width 2R determine the shape factors
from the grooves to the outside and also groove itself.
Radiation heat exchange between parallel plates
Consider two surfaces of area A1and A2 (A1=A2) maintained at temperature T1 and T2 as shown in
fig.

Let the emissivity of plate 1= Ԑ1

Let the Absorptivity of plate 1= 𝛼1
Let Ԑ2 and 𝛼2 be the corresponding values of plate 2.
Heat energy emitted by plate 1= σ A1 Ԑ1 T14
Heat received by the plate 2 = F12 σ A1 Ԑ1 T14 where F12= Shape factor
Heat absorbed by the plate 2 = 𝛼 2 F12 σ A1 Ԑ1 T14
Heat transferred from plate 1to plate 2 is Q1 = Ԑ2 F12 σ A1 Ԑ1 T14 …… (1) From Kirchhoff’s law Ԑ2 = 𝛼 2
Similarly, Heat transferred from plate 2 to plate 1, Q2= Ԑ1 F21 σ A2 Ԑ2 T24 ……(2)
Net Heat transferred between two plates = Q12 = Ԑ1 Ԑ2 σ [F12 A1 T14 - F21 A2 T24 ]
But, F12 = F21
∴ Net Heat transferred between two plates = Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A1 [𝐓𝟏𝟒 - 𝐓𝟐𝟒 ]
Where, Ԑ̅ = equivalent emissivity = Ԑ1 Ԑ2

Net Radiation heat exchange between two long parallel plates (Real surfaces)
Consider two long parallel plates of surface area A1 and A2 as shown in figure. The surface
emissivities are Ԑ1 and Ԑ2 respectively. Since the plates are very long and parallel to each other and is
equal area (i.e A1 = A2 =A), the amount of heat leaving one surface is completely reaching the other
surface, the shape factor F12 = 1.
Radiation energy emitted by plate 1= E1= Ԑ1σ T14

Heat absorbed by plate 2(at first incidence) = E1𝜶𝟐 ……. (1)

The reminder is reflected by the plate 2 = E1 [1- 𝛼2 ]

Energy absorbed by the plate 1 = E1 [1- 𝛼2 ] 𝛼1

The reminder is reflected by the plate 2 = E1 [1- 𝛼2 ] [1 − 𝛼1 ]

Energy absorbed by plate 2 on second incidence = E1 𝜶𝟐 [1- 𝜶𝟐 ] [𝟏 − 𝜶𝟏 ] …… (2)

Similarly energy absorbed by the plate 2 on third incidence = E1 𝜶𝟐 [1- 𝜶𝟐 ]2 [𝟏 − 𝜶𝟏 ]2 ……. (3)

Hence radiant energy emitted by plate 1 and absorbed by plate 2, is given by

Q1= E1𝛼2 + E1 𝛼2 [1- 𝛼1 ] [1 − 𝛼2 ] + E1 𝛼2 [1- 𝛼1 ]2 [1 − 𝛼2 ]2 ………

= E1 𝛼2 [1 + (1- 𝛼1 ) (1 − 𝛼2 ) + (1- 𝛼1 ) 2 (1 − 𝛼2 )2…….]

1
Q1= E1𝛼2 [1−[1−𝛼 ]
1 ][1−𝛼2 ]

𝛼2
∴ Q1= E1 [ ] By Kirchhoff’s law, Absorptivity = emissivity i.e 𝛼 = Ԑ
1−[1−𝛼1 ][1−𝛼2 ]

Ԑ
= E [1−[1−Ԑ 2][1−Ԑ ]]
1
1 2

Ԑ2 Ԑ2
= E1 [ ] = E1 [ ]
1−1+Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2 ] Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2 ]

Ԑ1
Similarly, Q2 = E2 [ ]
Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2 ]

E1 Ԑ2 − E2 Ԑ1
∴ The net heat flow from plate 1 to plate 2 is, Q12 = Q1- Q2 =
Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2

But E1= Ԑ1σ T14 and E2= Ԑ2σ T24

[Ԑ1 Ԑ2 σ T41 − Ԑ2 Ԑ1 σ T42 ] [Ԑ1 Ԑ2 ]

Q12 = = σ [ T14 - T24 ]
Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2 Ԑ1 +Ԑ2 −Ԑ1 Ԑ2

1
Q12 = 1 1 σ [ T14 - T24 ]
+ −1
Ԑ1 Ԑ2
 1
Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟏 - 𝑻𝟒𝟐 ) where, Ԑ̅ = equivalent emissivity = 1 1
+ −1
Ԑ1 Ԑ2

Net Radiation heat exchange between two long concentric cylinders (Real
surfaces)
Consider two long concentric cylinders as shown in fig.

Let,

A1 = Area of inner cylinder of radius r1

A2 = Area of outer cylinder of radius r2
Ԑ1 = Emissivity of inner cylinder
Ԑ2 = Emissivity of outer cylinder
L = Length of cylinder

Since the two cylinders are long and concentric, the shape factor F12 is unity and the net heat
exchange between them is given by
1
Q12 = Ԑ̅ σA (𝑻𝟒𝟏 - 𝑻𝟒𝟐 ) where, Ԑ̅ = equivalent emissivity = 1 A1 1
+ ( − 1)
Ԑ1 A Ԑ2 2

Example:
Determine the net radiation heat exchange between two parallel black rectangular plates (60x80) cm,
separated by a distance of 40 cm, if their surface temperatures are 500℃ and 200℃.

Solution: as per notations, L=80 cm, B=60 cm and D=40 cm

L/D= 80/40=2 and B/D=60/40= 1.5
Corresponding to the above values, from DHB (P-92&93), F12=0.37
Heat exchange between two black bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A [T14 - T24 ]
Ԑ̅ = equivalent emissivity = Ԑ1 Ԑ2 =1 for black body
∴ Q12 = 1x (5.67 x 10-8) 0.37 (0.6x0.6) [ 7734 - 4734 ]
Q12 = 3107.68 W
Example: It is desired to calculate the net radiant heat exchange between the floor of a furnace
(3x2) m and a side wall (4x2) m. The emissivity of the floor material is 0.63 and that of the wall is
0.2. If the temperatures of the floor and the wall are 600℃ and 400℃, calculate the net heat exchange
between them.
Solution:
As per the notations, L1= 3 m, L2= 4 m and B= 2 m
L2/B= 4/2= 2 and L1/B= 3/2=1.5
Corresponding to above values from DHB (p-94 & 95), shape factor, F12= 0.18
Heat exchange between two bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A1 [T14 - T24 ]
But, Ԑ̅= Ԑ1 Ԑ2 = 0.63 x 0.2 = 0.126
A1= 6 m2
Q12 = 0.126 x (5.67 x 10-8) 0.18 (6) [ 8734 - 6734 ]
Q12 = 2931.55 W

Example: Two black discs of diameter 60 cm are arranged directly opposite to each other and
separated by a distance of 120 cm. The temperatures of the discs are 1200 K and 600 k. Estimate the
heat flow by radiation between the discs for the following cases.
1. When no other surfaces are present
2. When the discs are connected by a black right cylindrical non flux surface. (Refractory).

Solution: d=0.6 m, L=1.2 m, T1= 1200 k, T2= 600 K

1 When no other surfaces are present

𝜋 𝑑2
Area A= = 0.2827 m2
4
Ratio d/L= 0.6/1.2= 0.5
From DHB (P 91) referring curve 1 for discs not connected by other walls, F12= 0.07
Ԑ1 = Ԑ2 =1 (Black body)
Ԑ̅= Ԑ1 Ԑ2=1
Heat exchange between two bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A [T14 - T24 ]
Q12 = 1 x (5.67 x 10-8) x 0.06 x 0.2827 x [12004 – 6004]
Q12 =1879 W
2 When the discs are connected by a black right cylindrical non flux surface. (Refractory)

From DHB (P 91) referring curve 1 for discs not connected by other walls, F12=0.34

Heat exchange between two bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A [T14 - T24 ]
Q12 = 1 x (5.67 x 10-8) x 0.34 x 0.2827 x [12004 – 6004]
Q12 =10650 W

Example: Two closely spaced parallel plates radiating only to each other are maintained at a
temperature of 900 K and 450 K respectively. Each plate has an area of 5 m 2. Compare the net heat
exchange between the plates for the following cases:

1. Both the plates are black

2. Plates have an emissivity of 0.4

Solution: T1= 900 K, T2=450 k, A=5 m2

1. Both the plates are black

Ԑ1 = Ԑ2 =1 (Black body)

Ԑ̅= 1

F12=1 (Parallel plates closely spaced)

Heat exchange between two bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A [T14 - T24 ]
Q12 = 1 x (5.67 x 10-8) x 1 x 5 x [9004 – 4504]
Q12 =174379 W

2. Plates have an emissivity of 0.4

Ԑ1 = Ԑ2 =0.4
1 1
Equivalent emissivity, Ԑ̅ = 1 1 = 1 1 = 0.25
+ −1
Ԑ1 Ԑ2
+ −1
0.4 0.4
Heat exchange between two bodies is given by, Q12 = Ԑ̅ σ F12 A [T14 - T24 ]
Q12 = 1 x (5.67 x 10-8) x 0.25 x 5 x [9004 – 4504]
Q12 =43594.75 W
Example: Two concentric spheres 25 cm and 35 cm in diameter with the space between them
evacuated are used to store liquid air at -150℃ in a room at 20℃. The surfaces of the sphere are
flushed with aluminum (Ԑ=0.04). Calculate the rate of evaporation of liquid air if the latent heat of
vaporization of liquid air is 218 KJ/kg.

Solution: d1= 25x 10-2 m, d2= 35 x 10-2 m, T1= -150+273= 123 K, T2= 20+273= 293 K

Surface area of inner sphere A1= 4 𝜋 𝑟12 = 0.1962 m2,

Surface area of outer sphere A2= 4 𝜋 𝑟22 =

1 1
Equivalent emissivity Ԑ̅ = 1 A1 1 = 1 2
4 𝜋 𝑟1 1
= 0.0268
+ ( − 1)
Ԑ1 A2 Ԑ2 + 2 ( − 1)
0.04 4 𝜋 𝑟2 0.04

F12=1 (Concentric spheres)

Net radiant heat exchange = Q12 = Ԑ̅ σA F12(𝑇14 - 𝑇24 )
Q12= 0.0268 x (5.67 x 10-8) 0.1962 x [1234 – 2934]
Q12= -2.13 W -ve sign indicates the heat flow inside

Also, Q= mf x hfg
2.13 = mf x 218
Rate of evaporation, mf =9.7 x10-6 kg/sec
Radiation shields

In many engineering problems it is necessary to reduce the radiant heat transfer between surfaces.
One method is use materials which are highly reflective. Another method is to use radiation shields,
between the heat exchange surfaces. These shields do not deliver or remove any heat from the overall
system; but they only place another resistance in the heat flow path, resulting in decreasing in overall
heat transfer.

Example: Two black discs of diameter 60 cm are arranged directly opposite to each other and
separated by a distance of 120 cm. The temperatures of the discs are 1200 K and 600 k. Estimate the
heat flow by radiation between the discs for the following cases.
1. When no other surfaces are present
2. When the discs are connected by a black right cylindrical non flux surface. (Refractory).

Heat transfer from plate 1 to plate 2, without radiation shield (shown in fig.1.)
𝟏
Q12 = 𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟏 -𝑻𝟒𝟐 ) …….(1)
+
Ԑ𝟏 Ԑ𝟐
− 𝟏
When the radiation shield is placed (refer fig.2), the transfer

𝟏
Q13 = 𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟏 - 𝑻𝟒𝟑 ) ……..(2)
+
Ԑ𝟏 Ԑ𝟑
− 𝟏
𝟏
Heat transfer from plate 3 to plate 2, Q32 = 𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟑 - 𝑻𝟒𝟐 ) ……..(3)
+
Ԑ𝟑 Ԑ𝟐
− 𝟏
Since, the sheet does not deliver or remove the heat from the system, Q13 = Q32

𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟏 - 𝑻𝟒𝟑 ) = 𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟑 - 𝑻𝟒𝟐 )
+ −𝟏
Ԑ𝟏 Ԑ𝟑
+
Ԑ𝟑 Ԑ𝟐
− 𝟏

If Ԑ1 = Ԑ2 = Ԑ3 = Ԑ, then (T14 - T34 ) = (T34 - T24 )

 T41 + T42
T34 = ( )
2
Substituting this value in eq(2), we get

1 T41 + T42
Q13 = 1 1
+ −1
[
σ A 𝑇14 - (
2
) ]
Ԑ1 Ԑ3
1 T41 − T42
Q13 = 1 1
+ −1
σA[
2
] but, Ԑ1 = Ԑ3 = Ԑ
Ԑ1 Ԑ3
4 4
σ A [T1 − T2 ]
Q13 = 2 .......(4) and
2 ( Ԑ −1 )
4 4
σ A [T1 − T2 ]
Equation (1) becomes, Q12 = 2 .......(4)
( Ԑ −1 )
Dividing Q13 by Q12
𝑄1−3 1
=
𝑄1−2 2
𝟏
Heat transfer with shield =
𝟐 heat transfer without shield
1
If there are N shield, QN = Q0
N+1
𝟏
Q with N shield = Q without shield
𝐍+𝟏

Example: Two parallel plates at T1=900 K and T2= 500 K, have emissivities Ԑ1=0.6 and Ԑ2=0.9
respectively. A radiation shield having an emissivity Ԑ31=0.15 on one side and emissivity Ԑ32=0.06 on
the other side is placed between the plates. Calculate the heat transfer by radiation per sq meter with
and without radiation shield.

Solution: T1=900 K, T2= 500 K, Ԑ1=0.6, Ԑ2=0.9, Ԑ13=0.15, Ԑ32=0.06, Q12 w/o shield =?
Q12 with shield =?

Heat transfer without shield

𝟏
Q12 w/o shield= 𝟏 𝟏 σ A (𝑻𝟒𝟏 -𝑻𝟒𝟐 )
+ −𝟏
Ԑ𝟏 Ԑ𝟐
 1
= 1 1 (5.67 x 10-8) 1(9004- 5004)
+ −1
0.6 0.9

Q12 w/o shield=18932 W/m2

Heat transfer with shield, Q12 with shield

σ A (𝑇41 −𝑇42 )
Heat transfer with shield, Q12 with shield= 1 1 1 1
[ + − 1]+ [Ԑ32 + Ԑ2 − 1]
Ԑ1 Ԑ13
(5.67 x 10−8 ) 1[ 9004 − 5004 ]
= 1 1 1 1
[ + − 1]+ [0.06 + 0.9 − 1]
0.6 0.15

Q12 with shield=1396 W/m2

(Q12 )without shield −(Q12 )with shield 18932−1396

% reduction of heat transfer = x 100 = x 100
(Q12 )without shield 18932
% reduction of heat transfer = 92.62 %

Example: Two large brass plates are maintained parallel to each other and one at 4000C and other at
400C. Find the % reduction in the heat transfer when polished aluminum sheet is placed between
them. Also find the temperature of aluminum sheet.
For brass, Ԑ=0.1 For aluminum, Ԑ=0.06 (facing higher temperature)
Ԑ= 0.03 (facing lower temperature)

Solution: T1= 400+273=673 K T2= 40+273=313 K

Heat transfer without shield

1
Q12 w/o shield= 1 1 σ A (T14 -T24 )
+ −1
Ԑ1 Ԑ2
 1
= 1 1 (5.67 x 10-8) 1(6734- 3134)
+ −1
0.1 0.1

Q12 w/o shield=583.55 W/m2

Heat transfer with shield, Q12 with shield

σ A (𝑇41 −𝑇42 )
Heat transfer with shield, Q12 with shield= 1 1 1 1
[ + − 1]+ [Ԑ32 + Ԑ2 − 1]
Ԑ1 Ԑ13
(5.67 x 10−8 ) 1[ 6734 − 3134 ]
= 1 1 1 1
[ + − 1]+ [0.03 + 0.1 − 1]
0.1 0.06

Q12 with shield=163 W/m2

(Q12 )without shield −(Q12 )with shield 𝟓𝟖𝟑.𝟓𝟓−163

% reduction of heat transfer = x 100 = x 100
(Q12 )without shield 𝟓𝟖𝟑.𝟓𝟓

% reduction of heat transfer = 72 %

To find Temperature of shield (Aluminum sheet)

Under steady state conditions, Q13= Q32

σ A (𝑇41 −𝑇43 ) σ A (𝑇43 −𝑇42 )

1 1 = 1 1
[
Ԑ1+ Ԑ13− 1] [
Ԑ32+ Ԑ2− 1]

(6734 −𝑇43 ) (𝑇43 −3134 )

1 1 = 1 1
[ + − 1] [ + − 1]
0.1 0.06 0.03 0.1

(6734 −𝑇43 ) (𝑇43 −3134 )

=
25.67 12.34

T3=601.9 K
Example: Two large parallel plates with Ԑ=0.5 each, maintained at two different temperatures are
exchanging heat only by radiation. Two equally large radiation shields with surface emissivity Ԑ=0.05
are introduced in parallel to the plates. Find the percentage heat reduction in net radiation heat
exchange.
Solution:
Heat transfer without shield

σ A (𝑇41 −𝑇42 )
Q12 w/o shield= 1 1 let, C= σ A (𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )
[ + − 1]
Ԑ1 Ԑ2
C
= 1 1
[
0.5
+ 0.5− 1]
Q12 w/o shield = 0.33 C

Heat transfer with shield

σ A (𝑇41 −𝑇42 ) C
Q12 with shield= 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 1 1 1
[ + − 1]+ [Ԑ3 + Ԑ4 − 1]+[Ԑ4 + Ԑ2 − 1] [ + − 1]+ [0.05 + 0.05− 1]+[0.05 + 0.5 − 1]
Ԑ1 Ԑ3 0.5 0.05
C
= [ ]+ [ ]+[ ]
21 39 21

Q12 with shield = 0.012 C

(Q12 )without shield −(Q12 )with shield
% reduction of heat transfer = x 100
(Q12 )without shield
% reduction of heat transfer =96.27 %