Disease & Immunity
Chapter 10
Disease and Immunity
Pathogens
• A pathogen is a disease-causing organism
• Pathogens are passed on from one host to another and therefore the
diseases they cause are known as transmissible diseases
• Pathogens can be passed on from host to host in different ways,
including:
• Direct contact – the pathogen is passed directly from one host to another by
transfer of body fluids such as blood or semen (eg HIV, gonorrhoea, hepatitis
B & C)
• Indirect contact – the pathogen leaves the host and is carried in some way to
another, uninfected individual
The Body Defences
1. Mechanical barriers
Structures that make it difficult for pathogens to get past them and into
the body.
• Skin - covers almost all parts of your body to prevent infection from
pathogens. If it is cut or grazed, it immediately begins to heal itself,
often by forming a scab
• b) Hairs in the nose - these make it difficult for pathogens to get past
them further up the nose so they are not inhaled into the lungs
2. Chemical barriers
Substances produced by the body cells that trap / kill pathogens before
they can get further into the body and cause disease
• a) Mucus - made in various places in the body, pathogens get trapped
in the mucus and can then be removed from the body (by coughing,
blowing the nose, swallowing etc)
• b) Stomach acid - contains hydrochloric acid which is strong enough
to kill any pathogens that have been caught in mucus in the airways
and then swallowed or have been consumed in food or water
3. Cells
Different types of white blood cell work to prevent pathogens reaching
areas of the body they can replicate in
• a) By phagocytosis - engulfing and digesting pathogenic cells
• b) By producing antibodies - which clump pathogenic cells together
so they can’t move as easily (known as agglutination) and releasing
chemicals that signal to other cells that they must be destroyed
Antigens and Antibodies
• All cells have proteins and other substances projecting from their cell
membrane
• These are known as antigens and are specific to that type of cell
• Lymphocytes have the ability to ‘read’ the antigens on the surfaces of
cells and recognise any that are foreign
• They then make antibodies which are a complementary shape to the
antigens on the surface of the pathogenic cell
• The antibodies attach to the antigens and cause agglutination (clumping together)
• This means the pathogenic cells cannot move very easily
• At the same time, chemicals are released that signal to phagocytes that there are cells present
that need to be destroyed
Agglutinated pathogens cannot move easily
• The initial response of a lymphocyte encountering a pathogen for the first time and making
specific antibodies for its antigens can take a few days, during which time an individual may
get sick
• Lymphocytes that have made antibodies for a specific pathogen for the first time will then
make ‘memory cells’ that retain the instructions for making those specific antibodies for
that type of pathogen
• This means that, in the case of reinfection by the same type of pathogen, antibodies can
very quickly be made in greater quantities and the pathogens destroyed before they are
able to multiply and cause illness
• This is how people can become immune to certain diseases after only having them once
• It does not work with all disease-causing microorganisms as some of them mutatefairly
quickly and change the antigens on their cell surfaces
• Therefore, if they invade the body for a second time, the memory cells made in the first
infection will not recall them as they now have slightly different antigens on their surfaces
(e.g. the cold virus)
Active Immunity
• Making antibodies and developing memory cells for future response to infection
is known as active immunity
• There are two ways in which this active immune response happens:
• The body has become infected with a pathogen and so the lymphocytes go through the
process of making antibodies specific to that pathogen
• Vaccination
• Active immunity is slow acting and provides long-lasting immunity
Passive Immunity
• This is when ready-made antibodies, from another source, are introduced to the
body
• Passive immunity is a fast-acting, short-term defence against a pathogen by
antibodies acquired from another individual, eg:
• From mother to infant via breast milk – this is important as it helps the very
young to fight off infections until they are older and stronger and their immune
system is more responsive
• Injected antibodies for certain diseases where the individual is already infected
and a fast response is required, like rabies or tetanus
• The body does not make its own antibodies or memory cells in passive
immunity, hence the name
Diseases Caused by the Immune System
• Occasionally, the cells of the immune system start to attack the body’s own
cells
• This is rare as lymphocytes usually recognise their own body cells by
the antigens on the cell surfaces and do not respond to them
• In this situation, specific body cells are targeted by lymphocytes and
antibodies are made against them, destroying them
• One example of this type of disease is Type 1 diabetes
• People who suffer from this disease no longer make their own insulin and so
are unable to regulate their blood glucose levels
• This is because their immune system is targeting and destroying the
pancreatic cells which are responsible for making the insulin, eventually
leading to dangerously high glucose levels in the blood
What is vaccination?
Vaccinations give protection against specific
diseases and boost the body’s defence against
infection from pathogens without the need to
be exposed to dangerous diseases that can
lead to death
The level of protection in a population
depends on the proportion of people
vaccinated
How does Vaccination Work?
• Vaccines allow a dead or altered form of the disease-causing pathogen,
which contains specific antigens, to be introduced into the body
• In this weakened state, the pathogen cannot cause illness but can provoke
an immune response
• Lymphocytes produce complementary antibodies for the antigens
• The antibodies target the antigen and attach themselves to it in order to
create memory cells
• The memory cells remain in the blood and will quickly respond to the
antigen if it is encountered again in an infection by a ‘live’ pathogen
• As memory cells have been produced, this immunity is long-lasting
How does Vaccination Control the Spread of Disease?
• If a large enough percentage of the population is vaccinated, it provides
protection for the entire population because there are very few places
for the pathogen to breed – it can only do so if it enters the body of an
unvaccinated person
• This is known as herd immunity
• If the number of people vaccinated against a specific disease drops in a
population, it leaves the rest of the population at risk of mass infection,
as they are more likely to come across people who are infected and
contagious
• This increases the number of infections, as well as the number of people
who could die from a specific infectious disease
Herd Immunity
• Herd immunity prevents epidemics and pandemics from occurring in
populations
• This is the reason that many vaccinations are given to children, as they are
regularly seen by medical practitioners and can be vaccinated early to
ensure the entire vaccinated population remains at a high level
• In certain instances, vaccination programmes are run with the aim
of eradicatingcertain dangerous diseases, as opposed to controlling them
at low levels
• An example of a disease which has been eradicated as a result of a
successful vaccination programme is smallpox, which was officially
eradicated in 1980 after a vaccination programme run by the World Health
Organisation since the mid-1950s
Ways to Prevent Transfer of Pathogens
• The simplest way to prevent disease is to stop pathogens from
spreading
• This means using simple measures such as good
hygiene and effective sanitation and waste disposal to contain
pathogens and dispose of them safely
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