Outline

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Uses of Topographic Maps
7.3. Cultural and Natural features on Topographic Maps
7.4. Methods of representing Topography
ARCH 3124 7.5. Contour and Contour Interval

Chapter Seven 7.6. Characteristics of Contours

Topographic Surveying

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Introduction Introduction…
• Topography refers to the shape or configuration or relief
or a three–dimension of a surface. The field work in Topographic Surveying has two
• Topographic Surveying is a method for collecting aspects:
information and preparing in the form of maps showing 1. The establishment of a basic framework of
the locations of natural, cultural or man-made features horizontal and vertical control points ( Instrument
and elevations of points on the ground for multiple
points or Stations)
purpose, and it is made:
2. The determination of the horizontal and vertical
• To determine the relief of the earth’s surface and
locations of details in the vicinity of each instrument
locate critical points on it
point, Detailed information
• To determine the locations of natural, and cultural
features on earth’s surface, so that the map maker can
accurately represent their positions on the map.
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Topographic Map USES OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

A Topographic map is a special kind of map that • The planning of most construction begins with the

provides 3D-information in a drawing to define the topographic map, sometimes referred to as the

configuration of that surface. contour map or Mother Map.

• It is also known as a contour map, that shows the • A study of a topographic map should precede the

shape & Pattern of the land, using contour line to planning of route line projects, canals, tracts,

realize how high and low the ground is. computing volumes, shopping centers, airports, golf
courses, and other improvements.
Examples of maps
• Road or street
• Weather
• Topographic
• Shaded relief
• Thematic map, etc
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Topographic Surveying 1
 USES OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAP… METHODS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Generally, topographical surveys will help us to make
Topographic surveys are conducted by:
plans or maps of an area that show:
1.Terrestrial method (ground Surveying method) or
• The main physical features on the ground, such as:
2.Photogram metric method (Aerial surveying) and
rivers, lakes, reservoirs, roads, forests or large rocks ;
3.often a combination of them.
or the various features of the fish-farm, such as
ponds, dams, dikes, drainage ditches or sources of
water;
• The difference in height between land forms , such as:
valleys, plains, hills or slopes; or the difference in
height between the features of the fish-farm.
• These differences are called the vertical relief
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METHODS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING METHODS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING

• A map is a representation of portion of the earth’s Map scales are generally classified as large, medium and
surface, small scale maps.
• The map should have a known definite ratio Their respective scale ranges are as follows:
• This ratio is called scale and - Large scale maps: 1:1000 and above
• The scale of the topographic map depends on the - Medium scale maps: 1:1000 to 1: 10,000
following points: - Small scale maps: 1: 10,000 and below
• The surveyed features to be mapped
• The nature of the terrain
• The time and the cost of the survey.

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CULTURAL & NATURAL FEATURES IN CULTURAL & NATURAL FEATURES IN

What information is on a topographic map?
What information is on a topographic map?
Topographic maps identify numerous ground features,
which can be grouped into the following categories:
• Culture: buildings, urban development, power
• Relief: mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions as
transmission line, pipelines, towers
defined by contours
• Boundaries: international, provincial/territorial,
• Hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, rapids,
administrative, recreational, geographical
falls
• Vegetation: wooded areas
• Transportation: roads, trails, railways, bridges,
airports/airfield, seaplane anchorages

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 CULTURAL & NATURAL FEATURES IN TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
What information is on a topographic map?
The topographic map is in the form of:
• Toponoymy: place names, water feature names, landform
names, boundary names  Planimetry – location of features

• Refer to the map legend for a complete listing of all  Topography – configuration of the ground
features and their corresponding symbols.  Both produce a topographic map which shows the
• Information along the map borders provides valuable true distance between objects & their elevations
details to help and understand and use a topographic above a given datum using color lines
map.
• For example, the map scale and other important
information about the map such as the year, the edition
and information pertaining to the map data.
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WHAT DO THE COLOURS OF LINES ON TOPOGRAPHIC WHAT DO THE COLOURS OF LINES ON TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS REPRESENT? MAPS REPRESENT?
Blue :represents water features, such as lakes, rivers, Black : shows cultural features such as buildings,

falls, rapids, swamps and marshes. railways and power transmission lines. It is also
used to show geographical names (toponymy),
The names of water bodies and water courses
certain symbols, geographic coordinates and
are also shown in blue, as are magnetic
precise elevations.
declination
and UTM grid information. Green: Green indicates vegetation such as wooded
areas, orchards and vineyards.
Brown – contour lines
Red – Highways, foot paths

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TOPOGRAPHIC MAP… TOPOGRAPHIC MAP…

Cultural features on the maps are the
The features that are included on the map are
products of people, and include
determined by the purpose of the map.
• Roads
Natural features: on the map includes:
•Railroads,
• Vegetation,
•Buildings
• Rivers
•Bridges,
• Lakes
•canals,
• Oceans, etc.
•Boundary lines, etc.

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 METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY…
• Relief of a landscape is basically the physical
The important methods of representing relief features
configuration or appearance of such a landscape
are
taking into account the elevations, slopes, and
Hachures, contours, form lines, spot heights, bench
shape of natural features found in it.
marks, trigonometrical points, hill shading, layer-
• On maps, cartographers usually use several
colouring, and so on.
methods to portray the relief of the terrain.
Each method has its own merits and demerits in
• These include; contouring, layer tinting, relief
depicting the relief of the land
shading, hachuring, benchmarks, trigonometric
points, and spot heights.

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METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY… METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY…

Hachuring
RELIEF SHADING
• Hachuring is one of the earliest
methods used by This method uses ‘light

cartographers to represent and shadows’ to

relief on the map. highlight the three-
• This method represents the dimensional
relief of an area by using appearance of terrain
hachures. on maps.
Hachures are short broken lines used on a map to indicate
the direction and steepness of the slope. They do not The relief would appear as if there is a light source
represent exact elevations but are mainly used to give a illuminated at the top-left corner of the map, giving the
good impression of the shape and slope of the ground. map a light-shadow effect.
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METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY… METHODS OF REPRESENTING TOPOGRAPHY…

Contouring
Form lines:
Contouring is an act of using
are like contours
contour lines when
representing features that
representing the relief of an
are not actually surveyed.
area on the map.
They are shown by broken
lines. Contouring is the most common method of showing
relief on topographic maps.
This is mainly because it has the ability to show all
five (5) aspects of relief (shape, orientation, size,
elevation, and slope) on the map.

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Topographic Surveying 4
 CONTOUR LINES CONTOUR INTERVAL & INDEX CONTOUR
• Contour Lines • Contour lines can be drawn for any elevation, but to
• Contour lines are lines drawn on a map connecting simplify things only lines for certain elevations are
points of equal elevation. If you walk along a contour drawn on a topographic map.
line you neither gain or lose elevation. • These elevations are evenly spaced vertically.

• The contour line represented by the shoreline • This vertical spacing is referred to as the contour

separates areas that have elevations above sea level interval.

• For example the maps above used a 10 ft contour
from those that have elevations below sea level.
• We refer to contour lines in terms of their elevation interval. Each the contour lines was a multiple of 10
ft.( i.e. 0, 10, 20, 30).
above or below sea level. In this example the
shoreline would be the zero contour line.

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CONTOUR INTERVAL & INDEX CONTOUR CONTOUR INTERVAL & INDEX CONTOUR
• Contour Interval Index contours
• The contour interval chosen for a map depends on the Unlike the simple topographic

topography in the mapped area. map used above, real

• In areas with high relief the contour interval is usually topographic maps have many

larger to prevent the map from having too many contour lines.

contour lines, which would makes the map difficult to It is not possible to label the

read. elevation of each contour line.

• The contour interval is constant for each map. To make the map easier to read every fifth contour line
• It will be noted on the margin of the map. You can vertically is an index contour. Index contours are
also determine the contour interval by looking at how shown by darker brown lines on the map. These are
many contour lines are between labelled contours. the contour lines that are usually labelled.
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CONTOUR INTERVAL & INDEX CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

The proper choice of the contour interval depends up on: i) All points in a
contour line have
I) the slopes of the terrain-
the same elevation.
II) The scale of the map – ii) Flat ground is
III) Purpose and extent of the survey – indicated where the
contours are widely
IV) Time and expense of field and office work-
separated and
Horizontal Equivalent: is the horizontal distance between steep-slope where
two points on two consecutive contours is known as the they run close
together.
horizontal equivalent and depends upon the steepness of
ground.
Contour Gradient: a line laying on the ground surface
throughout and maintaining a constant inclination is called
contour gradient.
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Topographic Surveying 5
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…
v) A series of closed contour lines with increasing elevation
on the map represent a hill , if the higher values are
inside

80
75
70
65
60
HILL
60
65
70
75 A HILL
80

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…

vi) A series of closed contour lines with decreasing
elevation on the map indicate a depression if the
higher values are outside

80
75
70 DEPRESSION
65

60

70
A DEPRESSION
60
65
70
75
80

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…

vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.

100
A series of U shape If the bend is
90
indicates a ridge. towards the
The U shapes will
100

80 90
higher values are
70 point to lower 80 outside the bend,
60 elevations. If the 70 it represents a
50
higher values are 60
Valley
50
inside the bend or
loop in the contour, it
indicates a Ridge. VALLEY LINE
RIDGE LINE
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…
viii). Contours cannot end anywhere but close on ix). Contour
lines
themselves either within or outside the limits of crossing
the map. streams
form V’s
pointing
upstream

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…

xi). Contour lines
x).A series of U cannot merge or 40

shapes cross one another 30

indicates a on map except in 20

ridge. The U the case of an 10

shapes will overhanging cliff.

point to lower 40 30 20 10

elevation.

OVERHANGING CLIFF

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS… CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…

Xiii) Depressions between
xii) Contour lines never
50 summits is called a saddle.
run into one another
40
except in the case of a VERTICAL
It is represented by four
30
vertical cliff. In this sets of contours as shown.
CLIFF

20
case ,several contours
10 It represents a dip in a
coincide and the
ridge or the junction of
horizontal equivalent
two ridges. And in the case
becomes zero.
50
10 20 30 40 50

of a mountain range ,it Line passing through the

saddles and summits gives
takes the form of a pass . water shed line.
VERTICAL CLIFF
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Topographic Surveying 7
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS…

7 SADD 70
80
0 LE 80
9 90
0 90
100
110

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7. A contour line never splits. 9. As contour lines represent contours

of different elevation on the ground,
they cannot merge or cross one another
on the map, except in cases where
there is an overhanging cliff or cave, or
bridge abuttments.

10. As contour lines represents level

lines, they are perpendicular to the
8. A closed contour indicates lines of steepest slope. They are
either a summit or perpendicular to ridge and valley
depression. A hachured, lines where they cross such lines.
closed contour line indicates
a depression.
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11. On uniform slopes, the contour 13. Contours deflect uphill at valley
lines are spaced uniformly. lines and downhill at ridge line; line
crossing are perpendicular: U-shaped
for ridge crossings; V-shaped for
valley crossings.

Valley

Ridge

12. No two contours can run

into one.

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Topographic Surveying 8
 GATHERING FIELD DATA
Data Acquisition
When collecting topographic data, there two important
issues:
• Ensuring sufficient data is collected to define the
object
• Ensuring two types of information is gathered for
each station:
• Location
• Elevation

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GATHERING FIELD DATA

Performing Reconnaissance
• The term reconnaissance means the first inspection of the
target area interims of existing control points, possible
sites for new observation stations, as well as the permanent
marking of those stations, detections of possible solutions
A. Performing Reconnaissance to overcome them etc.
• This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be
surveyed.
• It may be either ground reconnaissance or aerial
reconnaissance survey.

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GATHERING FIELD DATA…

Performing Reconnaissance
A reconnaissance of the area to be mapped is absolutely
indispensable and should therefore be carried out
thoroughly.
B. Establishment of Control
Objectives of reconnaissance:
1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing
Points
route or track through the area.
2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a
map
3. To estimate probable cost and draft a report

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Topographic Surveying 9
 GATHERING FIELD DATA…
Establishment of Control Points
If the existing control network is not dense enough, it
is necessary to establish horizontal and vertical
control points
C. Detailing & Collecting Data
This is the most essential part of topographic
surveying, since the three-dimensional coordinates
for Contouring
(x,y,and z) of each point to be surveyed can only be
determined with respect to well established reference
points.

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GATHERING FIELD DATA… GATHERING FIELD DATA…

Detailing & Collecting Data for Contouring Detailing & Collecting Data for Contouring
• The process of collecting data for the graphical
portrayal (potting) of topographic features is called • Terrain break lines are where the charges of slope

detailing. are very abrupt.

• Sketching the details of each station makes the • The outlines (borders) of a furry site are, for

process very easy. example, typical terrain break lines.

• The sketch should contain all features such as • However, most commonly, terrain break lines exist

roads, buildings, trees, ditches, fences, manholes, along man made features such as the settings &

spot heights (prominent points, such as summits embankments along roads or ditches.
and depressions), etc.
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GATHERING FIELD DATA…

Detailing & Collecting Data for Contouring

• Freehand sketches must not be drawn to scale.

• If possible use a ruler and a template to draw them. D. Computing
Make detail sketches for those cases where the
original sketch is not big enough (but do not forget
to make a reference to the original sketch!).
• If you use symbols and abbreviations, do not forget
to explain them

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Topographic Surveying 10
 COMPUTING
is the mathematical manipulation of the data.

Once sufficient data is collected ( detailing) the

horizontal distance, the horizontal distance and the
elevation of all the points will be computed.

The computation to obtain the necessary parameters

E. Interpolation
can be either manually or electronically.

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INTERPOLATION INTERPOLATION
Drawing contour lines to produce a topographic map
Interpolation can be done by:
requires the ability to interpolated between points.
is the process of spacing the contours proportionately estimation for low precision maps.
between the plotted ground points. It should be done by calculation and
Interpolation is required because contour lines are
measurement for higher precision maps.
lines of constant elevation and the station elevations
A combination of methods can also be used,
that are measured in the field seldom fall on the
desired contour elevation. depending on the use of the map.

Interpolating is finding the proportional distance from

the grid points to the contour line elevation.
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Methods of Interpolation
Interpolating can be done:

By estimation method -for low precision

By Arithmetic Calculation - for high precision

Methods of Interpolation By Graphical method

A combination of methods - can also be used,
depending on the use of the map.

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Topographic Surveying 11
 INTERPOLATING BY ESTIMATION INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION
Study the illustration. Proportional distance is calculated using an equation.
Logic or intuitive reasoning would conclude that when
High elevation - Contour elevation
Proporiton =
the grid points are at 102 feet elevation and 98 feet High elevation - Low elevation
elevation, then a contour line of 100 feet elevation For the previous example this would result in:
would be half way in between. 
102 - 100 2
Proporiton = = = 0.5
102 - 98 4

The 100 foot contour line would be located 0.5 or

 Note: that a dashed line has been drawn between the
half
of the distance between the two stations.
two points. In topographic surveying it is assumed
that the area between two measured stations is a
plane.
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INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & ESTIMATION

INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT
The same equation is used for all grid Start by selecting a contour interval and two grid
distances and all contour lines.
Example: Determine the location of the 96 points.
foot contour line for the illustration.
This example starts with the 110 foot interval.

HE - CE 99 - 96 The first step is to calculate the position of the 110

Dist = = = 0.75
HE - LE 99 - 95 foot contour between stations A1 and A2.

HE - CE 125 - 110
 %=  = 0.6
HE - LE 125 - 100

The next step is to measure and mark the

position of 0.6.

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INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT

P = 0.6 x 1.5 = 0.9

Next, determine which direction the contour goes between the

diagonal and the other three sides of the grid. Mark the next
 points.
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Topographic Surveying 12
 INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT
The 110 foot contour line passes
Determining the proportion for line
between B1 and B2, therefore the B1:B2.

next station is the diagonal.

HE - CE 112  110
Dist =   1  0 .167 HE - CE 112 - 110
HE - LE 112  100 dist = = = 0.182
HE - LE 112 - 101
0 .167 x 2.1 = 0.35
0.182 x 1.5 = .27
These steps are followed one

grid line at a time until the 
contour closes, or reaches the
edge of the map.
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INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT

The grid lines and diagonals for
each square are considered and The next grid line is between B2 and
the contour is extended. C2.

HE - CE 112 - 110 HE - CE 112 - 110

Dist = = = 0.14 Dist = = = 0.167
HE - LE 112 - 98 HE - LE 112 - 100

0.167 x 1.5 = 0.25

0.14 x 2.1 = 0.294




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INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT INTERPOLATION BY CALCULATION & MEASUREMENT

Each grid line and diagonal is considered
• When the contour points
and the contour line is extend between the form a closed shape or
appropriate points.
have extended from one
edge of the map to
HE - CE 112 - 110
Dist = = = 0.60 another, a smooth line is
HE - LE 112 - 100
drawn connecting the
0.60 x 2.1 = 1.26
points.
• The contour lines must

be labeled.

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Topographic Surveying 13
 Estimation Method

Estimation Method

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Estimation Method… Estimation Method…

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Estimation Method…

Arithmetic Calculation Method

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 Arithmetic Method- Simple Proportion Applying Simple Proportion
Consider the upper left grid, using the
Grid 20m

X2 = 13.33m
2 X1 = 4.07m1
40m
40m 30m

3 60m 70m 60m 90m

50m 80m 70m
4

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Applying Simple Proportion Applying Simple Proportion…

- There are two contours that will
Consider the upper left grid, using the pass through b/n corners (1)
Grid and (2) being CI is 10m:
the 30m and 40m contour
20m
X2 = lines
2 1 -To locate the 30m contour
13.33m X1 = 4.07m
line,
40m D= 20m
30m ∆E = 47.2 – 25.6 = 21.6m
∆e = 30m – 25.6m = 4.4m
X1 e X 4.4m
  1   X 1  4.07 m
D E 20 m 21 .6

-To locate the 40m contour

line,
D= 20m
50m60m70m 80m 90m ∆E = 47.2 – 25.6 = 21.6m
3
∆e = 40m – 25.6m = 14.4m
4
X2 e X 14 .4m
  2   X 2 13 .33m
D E 20 m 21 .6
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Applying Simple Proportion… Applying Simple Proportion…

• Since the contour interval is 10m, all contour lines should Solutio
be multiples of 10. n:
40 30 40 50 60 70
30 30 70
40
50 60
60 50
70 50
80
90 40

50 60 70 80 90 90 80 70 60 50 40
90
50
40
60 80
70 70 60 50
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Topographic Surveying 15
 Graphical Method Graphical Method…
• A sheet of tracing paper is needed on which parallel
lines are drawn to represent the desired contour
interval.
• The distance b/n two parallel lines on the tracing
paper must be chosen in a way, that the distance,
perpendicular to the lines on the tracing paper, for
the elevation difference b/n points A and B is shorter
than the distance AB itself.

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What must be on ALL maps Common mistakes in Topo surveys:

Scale
1. Improper selection of contour interval
Legend 2. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method
for the particular survey and terrain
Location/title conditions
Key 3. Insufficient horizontal and vertical control
of suitable precision
Longitude/latitude 4. Omission of some topographic details
Magnetic declination

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Topographic Surveying 16