GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
1, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, U.P.
Important Questions with solutions : 2023-24
B. Tech. – I Year

Subject: Engineering Chemistry Paper Code: BAS-202

Q1. (i) Draw the molecular orbital diagram of N2. Compare the bond length, stability & magnetic behavior
+ -
of N2, N2 & N2 .
Ans. N2 molecule: Total no. of electrons in N2 molecule = 14
Electronic configuration: σ1s2σ∗1s2σ2s2σ∗2s2π2px2=π2py2 σ2pz2 π∗2px0= π∗2py0σ*2pz0

Bond order for N2 = (10-4)/2 = 3, Diamagnetic

for N2 + = (9- 4)/2 = 2.5, Paramagnetic
for N2 - = (10-5)/2 = 2.5, Paramagnetic

+ - + –
Bond length order: N2 < N2 < N2 Or N2 < N2 = N2
+ -
. Bond stability order: N2 > N2 > N2
 (ii) Draw the molecular orbital diagram of NO. Compare the bond length, stability & magnetic
+ -
behavior of NO, NO & NO .
Ans. NO molecule: Total no. of electrons in N2 molecule = 15

Electronic configuration: σ1s2σ∗1s2σ2s2σ∗2s2 σ2px2π2py2=π2pz2 π∗2py1= π∗2pz0σ*2px0

Bond order for NO = (10-5)/2 = 2.5, Paramagnetic

+
for NO = (10-4)/2 = 3, Diamagnetic
-
for NO = (10-6)/2 = 2, Paramagnetic
- + + -
Bond length order: NO >NO > NO . Bond stability order: NO > NO >NO .

Q2. What do you understand by liquid crystals? Discuss its classification and give their important
applications.
Ans: Liquid Crystals: Liquid crystals are substances that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties between
those of a conventional liquid, and those of a solid crystal. Hence LC show anisotropy.
 There are two types of liquid crystals:
1. THERMOTROPIC LIQUID CRYSTALS: These types of liquid crystals possess liquid crystalline
properties that depend on temperature. They exist in different mesophases as:
a. Nematic liquid crystals: It is the most common phase in which the molecules do not possess
positional order however, these molecules show long-range orientational order. These liquid crystals
possess fluidity, like an ordinary(isotropic) liquid. They can be easily aligned by externally applied
magnetics or electric field.
b. Smectic liquid crystals: In smectic liquid crystals the molecules/ mesogens show both positional
order as well as orientational order. The molecules are arranged in well-defined separate layers that
can easily slide over one another like soap.
c. Cholesteric liquid crystals: In cholesteric liquid crystals the molecules show neither positional
order nor orientational order. It is a special type of nematic liquid crystal that contains thin layers
of parallel molecules with longitudinal axes rotated to a certain angle in adjacent layers.

2. LYOTROPIC LIQUID CRYSTALS: These liquid crystals can be prepared when two or more mixed
substances possess one of the molecules as polar in nature. Example: soap in water.
At low concentration the solution looks like any particles of solute distributed randomly throughout
the solvent. When the concentration gets enough high molecules begin to arrange themselves in hollow
spheres, rod, loose patterns like bcc, fcc crystal lattice and lamellar phase.

Applications of Liquid crystals:

1. Liquid Crystal Displays: Used in display devices (LCDs) such as Laptops, watches, calculators,
clocks, etc.
2. Liquid Crystal Thermometers: Chiral nematic (cholesteric) liquid crystals reflect light and the
color reflected also is dependent upon temperature.
3. Optical Imaging: An application of liquid crystals that is only now being explored is optical imaging
and recording.
4. Some of the liquid crystals are used in hydraulic break/clutch system due to their high viscosity values.
5. Liquid Crystals are also used in medical applications.
Q3. What are the principles of green chemistry? Describe the green synthesis method for preparation of
paracetamol.
Ans. Green Chemistry is defined as the “design of chemical products and processes to reduce or eliminate
the use and generation of hazardous substances.” The twelve principles of green chemistry are:
1. Prevent waste: Design chemical syntheses to prevent waste. Leave no waste to treat or clean up.
2. Maximize atom economy: Design syntheses so that the final product contains the maximum
proportion of the starting materials. Waste few or no atoms.
3. Design less hazardous chemical syntheses: Design syntheses to use and generate substances with
little or no toxicity to either humans or the environment.
4. Design safer chemicals and products: Design chemical products that are fully effective yet have
little or no toxicity.
5. Use wafer solvents and reaction conditions: Avoid using solvents, separation agents, or other
auxiliary chemicals. If you must use these chemicals. use safer ones.
6. Increase energy efficiency: Run chemical reactions at room temperature and pressure
whenever possible.
7. Use renewable feedstocks: Use starting materials (also known as feedstocks) that are renewable rather
than depletable. The source of renewable feedstocks is often agricultural products or the wastes of
other processes: the source of depletable feedstocks is often fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, or
coal) or mining operations.
8. Avoid chemical derivatives: Avoid using blocking or protecting groups or any temporary
modifications if possible. Derivatives use additional reagents and generate waste.
9. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents: Minimize waste by using catalytic reactions. Catalysts are
effective in small amounts and can carry out a single reaction many times. They are preferable to
stoichiometric reagents, which are used in excess and carry out a reaction only once.
10. Design chemicals and products to degrade after use: Design chemical products to break down to
innocuous substances after use so that they do not accumulate in the environment.
11. Analyse in real time to prevent pollution: Include in-process, real-time monitoring and
control during syntheses to minimize or eliminate the formation of by-products.
12. Minimize the potential for accidents: Design chemicals and their physical forms (solid,
liquid, or gas) to minimize the potential for chemical accidents including explosions, fires, and
releases to the environment.
Green synthesis of paracetamol
Phenol reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of strong acid like HF to produce 4 hydroxy
acetophenone, which on reaction with hydroxylamine gives the corresponding ketoxime. Oximes in an
acidic medium (trifluoroacetic acid, CF3COOH) undergo Beckmann rearrangement to produce substitute
amides. Beckmann rearrangement of the above ketoxime gives paracetamol.
Q4. With the help of neat and well labeled diagram describe the structure of Graphite. Also explain its lubricating
and conducting nature.
Ans:

Graphite exists as layers of carbon atoms each held in place by three strong covalent bonds. Each layer is
held to the one above it by weak bonds. In graphite each C-atom is covalently bonded to three C-atom to
O 2
give triagonal geometry. Bond angle in graphite is 120 . Each C-atom in graphite is sp -hybridized.
Three out of four valance electrons of each C-atom are used in bond formation while the forth electrons
free to move in the structure of graphite. It has a high thermal and electrical conductivity due to presence
2
of free Π(pi) electrons as each C atom is sp hybridized. In hexagonal ring C-C bond length is 1.42Å. In
graphite these rings forms flat layers. These layers are arranged is parallel, one above the other. These
O
layers are 3.35A apart and are held together by weak vander waals forces only. These layers can slide
over one another hence show lubricating behaviour.

Q5. Give the structure, preparation, properties and applications of an allotrope of carbon having
truncated icosahedron geometry.
Ans. Fullerene: In 1985 a new allotrope of carbon (C60) was discovered. In geometry, the truncated icosahedron
is an Archimedean solid, whose 32 faces having two or more types of regular polygons and each corner is
having a pentagon. Sixty carbon atoms form the shape of a ball like a football with 20 hexagons, 12
pentagons, 32 faces, 60 vertices and no two pentagon share a common arm. Each carbon atom (shown
2
below as a circle) has three bonds (sp hybridization). This form of carbon was named after the American
architect Buckminster Fuller, who was famous for designing a large geodesic dome which looked similar to
the molecular structure of C60. These molecules have become known as buckyballs".
 Preparation: Fullerenes are prepared by vaporizing a graphite rod in the helium atmosphere, it provides a black
soot like dusty material containing 5 –15% fullerenes. On extraction with solvent mixture of fullerenes can be
obtained. Individual fullerenes can be separated from that mixture by using chromatographic techniques with
alumina –hexane solvent.
Properties:
1. In chemical reactions, fullerene acts as an electrophile.
2. Fullerenes when doped or crystallized with alkali or alkaline earth metals it show superconductivity
properties.
3. Very tough and thermally stable.
4. It forms deep magenta solution when dissolved in benzene.
5. The colour changes from brown to black with increasing thickness of fullerene
films. Applications: The best possible uses of fullerenes are:
1. Fullerenes are used as catalysts and lubricants.
2. They are also used in nanotubes for strengthening materials (for example sports equipment).
3. Sometimes used as a way of delivering drugs into the body.

Q6. Give various synthesis methods of nanomaterials. Write the important applications of nanomaterials. Ans.
There are two approaches for the manufacturing of nanomaterials: The “top-down” approach, and “bottom-
up” approach.
(a) Top-down approach: It involves the breaking down of the bulk material into nanosized structures
or particles. Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and depend either on removal or division of
2
bulk material. Example: synthesis of nanocrystalline α-Al2O3 (surface area up to 100 m /g) by
high-energy ball milling (mechanical milling) of γ-Al2O3
(b) Bottom-up approach: Bottom-up approach refers to the build-up of material from the bottom: atom-
by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster. The alternative approach, which has the potential of
creating less waste and hence the more economical, is the „bottom- up‟.
Example: flame synthesis of TiO2 from gaseous TiCl4.
 Applications of nanomaterials: Due to the ability to generate the materials in a particular way to play a
specific role, the use of nanomaterials spans across various industries, from healthcare and cosmetics
to environmental preservation and air purification.
1. In the cosmetics industry, mineral nanoparticles –such as titanium oxide –are used in sunscreen, Nanosized iron
oxide is present in some lipsticks as a pigment.
2. The sports industry has been producing baseball bats that have been made with carbon nanotubes, making
the bats lighter therefore improving their performance.
3. In aerospace, carbon nanotubes can be used in the morphing of aircraft wings.
4. In healthcare field, for example, utilises nanomaterials in a variety of ways, with one major use being drug
delivery. One example of this process is whereby nanoparticles are being developed to assist the
transportation of chemotherapy drugs directly to cancerous growths.
5. Nanoparticles have a high surface area, and hence provide higher catalytic activity.
6. The military have developed sensor systems using nanomaterials, such as titanium dioxide, that can
detect biological agents.

Q7. What types of electronic transitions are involved in UV- visible spectroscopy? Explain the Absorption and
Intensity shift in the UV spectroscopy and support with examples.
Ans. The absorption of UV or visible radiation corresponds to the excitation of outer electrons. When an atom or
molecule absorbs energy, electrons are promoted from their ground state to an excited state. In UV-visible
region molecules undergo four type of electronic transition involving σ, Π and n electrons.
*
σ - σ Transitions
An electron in a bonding σ orbital is excited to the corresponding antibonding orbital. Saturated Compounds show
*
this type of transition. For example, methane (which has only C-H bonds, and can only undergo σ-σ Transitions.
*
n- σ Transitions
*
Saturated compounds containing atoms with lone pairs (non-bonding electrons) are capable of n - σ transitions.
*
These transitions usually need less energy than σ - σ transitions.
* *
Example: CH3OH gives σ-σ and n- σ transitions
*
π -π Transitions
Unsaturated compounds show these types of transition. e.g C=C, Acetylene etc.
*
n -π Transitions
*
Unsaturated compounds containing atoms with lone pairs (non-bonding electrons) are capable of n -π transitions.
*
Example: CH3COCH3 gives n -π transition along with other transitions.
Absorption and Intensity Shifts /Effect

Bathochromic Shift: When absorption maxima (λmax ) of compound shifts towards longer wavelength, it is
known as bathochromic Shift or Red Shift. The effect is due to presence of auxochrome or change of solvent.
For example auxochrome group like –OH, NH2, OCH3 causes absorption of compound towards longer
wavelength, benzene shows λmax 256 nm and aniline shows λmax 280 nm.

λmax benzene< λmax aniline

Hypsochromic Shift: When absorption maxima (λmax) of compound shifts towards shorter wavelength, it is
known as Hypsochromic or Blue Shift. The effect is due to presence of an group causes removal of conjugation or
change of solvent.

λmax Aniline > λmax Anilinium ion

Hyperchromic Effect: When absorption Intensity (Ɛmax) of compound increased. The Introduction of
an auxochrome usually causes hyperchromic shift.

Ɛmax =200 Ɛmax = 1430

The increase in the value of Ɛmax is due to the hyperchromic effect of auxochrome NH 2.
Hypochromic Effect: When absorption Intensity (Ɛmax) of compound decreased. This is caused by a group
which distorts the geometry of the molecule.

Biphenyl Ɛmax = 19,000 2-methyl biphenyl Ɛmax = 10250

Q8. What is the basic principle of NMR spectroscopy? Explain chemical shift, shielding and
deshielding in NMR spectroscopy.
Ans. Basic principle of NMR Spectroscopy:
Basic principle of NMR Spectroscopy:
Nuclear Magnetic resonance spectroscopy involves the interaction between an oscillating magnetic field of
electromagnetic radiation and the magnetic energy of the hydrogen nucleus or some other type of nuclei
when these are placed in an external static magnetic field.
If a proton is placed in a magnetic field, then it starts precessing at a certain frequency in the radio wave region
and thus will be capable of taking up one of the two orientations with respect to the axis of the external field.
1. Alignment with the field
2. Alignment against the field
If a proton is precessing in the aligned orientation, it can pass into the opposed orientation by absorbing
energy.
The transition from one energy state to the other is called flipping of the proton.
The transition between the two energy states can be brought by the absorption of a quantum of
electromagnetic radiation in the radio wave region with energy hυ.
∆E = hυ

Chemical Shift(Position of signal): The position of signal in the spectrum help us to know the nature of proton
i.e whether it is aromatic, aliphatic, acetylenic, vinylic or adjacent to some electron attracting group.
When a molecule is placed in a magnetic field, its electrons are caused to circulate and thus they produce
secondary or induced magnetic field. The rotation of electrons about the nearby nuclei generates a field that can
either oppose or reinforce the applied field at the proton. If the induced field opposes the applied field, then
proton is said to be shielded. Shielding shifts the absorption upfield. If the induced field reinforces (in same
direction) the applied field, the proton feels a higher field strength and thus such a proton is said to be
deshielded. Deshielding shifts the absorption downfield.
Such shifts compared with standard reference (TMS Tetramethyl silane) in the position of nmr absorptions
which arise due to the shielding or deshielding of protons by the electrons are called Chemical Shifts.

Chemical shift (δ) = ‫ט‬sample - ‫ט‬reference

Operating frequency in megacycles
TMS (Tetramethyl silane) has taken as reference due to:
1. Low electronegativity of silicon, all the 12 equivalent proton is highly shielded.
2. It is miscible with almost all organic substances.
3. It is highly volatile and is readily removed from the system.
Q9. Define optical isomerism. Write two examples of organic compounds that show optical isomerism without
chirality and then explain each of them.
Ans. Optical isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism in which the isomers have the same molecular formula
and the structural formula but differ in their direction of rotation of plane-polarized light. Allenes,
Biphenyls and spiranes show optical isomerism without a chiral center.

Optical Isomerism in Allene: A consecutive diene or a cumulated diene is known as an allene. The 3 carbon
atoms in allene are doubly bonded, so the central carbon atom is sp hybridized while the 2 carbon atoms on either
2
side are sp hybridized. In 3-D, as the p-orbitals are at right angles, the overlapping of perpendicular p-orbitals
results in one double bond being vertical while the other is horizontal. For allenes to exhibit optical isomerism, the
2
2 groups attached to sp hybridized carbon must not be the same. However, they may or may not be identical to
2
the groups attached to the other sp hybridized carbon. This way, no plane of symmetry or center of symmetry will
exist and will make them optically active.

Optical Isomerism in Biphenyl: Biphenyls are formed by 2 benzene rings attached via a single sigma bond.
2
When biphenyl rings are substituted over the ortho position, the carbon atoms in benzene are sp hybridised, thus
the rotation across the sigma bond is restricted. Also, to minimise steric hindrances, both rings lie perpendicular to
each other. Optical activity in biphenyls is observed when ortho substitution is present over both the rings and the
groups are not identical. Otherwise, a plane of symmetry will exist and it will become optically inactive.
Q10. Discuss the basic principle of IR spectroscopy. Explain the different types of molecular vibrations taking
place in IR spectroscopy.
Ans. Infrared spectroscopy: IR deals with the interaction of infrared radiation with matter. Absorption in the
Infra-red region is due to the changes in the vibrational and rotational levels. When radiation with a
-1
frequency range less than 100cm are absorbed, molecular rotation takes place in the substance. Molecular
4 2 -1
vibrations are set in when more energetic radiation in the region 10 to 10 cm is passed through the
sample of substance. Clearly, a single vibrational energy change is accompanied by a large number of
rotational energy changes. Thus, the vibrational spectra appear as vibrational rotational bands. In infra-red
spectroscopy the absorbed energy brings about predominant changes in the vibrational energy which
depends upon:
(i) Masses of the atoms present in a molecule.
(ii) Strength of the bonds.
(iii) The arrangement of atoms within the molecule
Molecular Vibrations: When Infrared light is passed through the sample, the vibrational and rotational energies of
the molecules are increased to give vibrations. Two kinds of fundamental vibrations are:
1. Stretching vibrations: In this type of vibrations, the bond length is increased or decreased at regular
intervals. but the atoms remain in the same bond axis There are two types of stretching vibrations.
Symmetrical stretching and asymmetrical stretching.
a) Symmetrical stretching- In this type of stretching, bond length increase or decrease symmetrically.
b) Asymmetrical stretching- In this type of stretching, length of one bond increases and the other one
decreases.

2. Bending vibrations: In this type of vibrations, a change in bond angle occurs between bonds with a
common atom, with respect to the original bond axis. The bending vibrations are also called as
deformation vibrations. Deformation vibrations are of two types.
a) In-plane Bending vibrations
b) Out of plane Bending vibrations.

a) In plane bending- In these types of vibrations, there is a change in bond angle. This type of bending
takes place within the same plane. In plane bending are of two types.
i. Scissoring in which two atoms move in opposite direction.
ii. Rocking in which the movement of the atoms takes place in the same direction.
b) Out of plane bending- This type of bending takes plane outside of the plane of molecule.
i. Wagging in which both atoms move up or below the plane with respect to central atom.
ii. Twisting in which one atom moves up plane while other moves down the plane with respect to the
central atom.
 Q11. What is the chemical composition of Portland cement? Draw labeled diagram of rotary kiln used for the
manufacture of Portland cement by wet process and state it’s working.
Ans. Chemical Composition of Portland cement:
Calcium Oxide (CaO) = 50-60%
Silica (SiO2) = 20-25%
Alumina (Al2O3) =5-10%
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) = 2-1%
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) =1-2%
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) =1-2%
Portland cement by rotary kiln technology:
Raw material: Limestone and clay. Portland cement is made by mixing substances containing CaCO 3 with
substances containing SiO2, Al2O3, Fe 2O3 and heating them to a clinker which is subsequently ground to
powder and mixed with 2- 6% gypsum.
Production steps:
Production steps:
1. Raw materials are crushed, screamed & stockpiled.
2. Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain “raw mix”. They are mixed either dry (dry
mixing) or by water (wet mixing).
3. Prepared raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln.
4. As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is raised up to 1300-1600 °C. The process of
heating is named as “burning”. The output is known as “clinker”.

CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

2CaO + SiO2 = 2CaO.SiO2 (dicalcium silicate (C2S))
3CaO + SiO2 = 3CaO.SiO2 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))odule: 5 N164
3CaO + Al2O3 = 3CaO.Al2O3 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3 (tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF))
5. Clinker is cooled & stored.
6. Clinker is ground with gypsum (3-6%) to adjust setting time.
7. Packing & marketing.
Q12. What is primary battery? Explain the construction, working and application of dry cell.
Ans. Primary Battery (Dry cells): Primary cells/batteries are those in which chemical reaction occurs only once and
the cell then becomes dead and cannot be used again. They are also known as non-chargeable batteries.
Example: Dry cell, mercury cell, silver button cell, voltaic cell, Daniel cell, etc.

Construction and working: It is also known as carbon-zinc cell, consisting of a carbon cathode and a zinc
anode. The electrolyte has no liquid component and is made up of ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, and
manganese dioxide in the form of a paste by the addition of starch.
The container of the cell is made up of zinc and works as an anode having party electrolyte into which a graphite
rod is immersed at the center and which functions as a cathode.

2+
The liberated NH3 reacts with Zn (ZnCl2) to form complex [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2.
2+ –
Zn + 2NH3 + 2Cl  [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2
A dry cell gives a voltage of about 1.5 V, and once the cell is discharged it cannot be recharged.

Applications of Primary Batteries

Primary batteries are found in many common consumer products such as:
(i) Remote-control garage door openers
(ii) Remote automobile door locks
(iii) Home smoke detectors
(iv) Remote controls for consumer electronic products such as television and stereo sets.
Q13. What is Electrochemical Corrosion? Write down mechanism involved in electrochemical corrosion.
Ans. Electrochemical theory of corrosion: Electrochemical corrosion involves two half-cell reactions; an oxidation
reaction at the anode and a reduction reaction at the cathode. For iron corroding in water with a near neutral pH,
these half cell reactions can be represented as:
2+ -
Anode reaction: 2Fe → 2Fe + 4e
- -
Cathode reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4OH
There are obviously different anodic and cathodic reactions for different alloys exposed to various environments.
There are four fundamental components in an electrochemical corrosion cell:
(i) An anode
(ii) A cathode
(iii) A conducting environment for ionic movement (electrolyte)
(iv) An electrical connection between the anode and cathode for the flow of electron current
Example: Rusting of Iron
The overall rusting involves the following steps,
(i) Oxidation occurs at the anodes of each electrochemical cell. Therefore, at each anode neutral iron atoms are
oxidised to ferrous ions.
At anode :

Thus, the metal atoms in the lattice pass into the solution as ions, leaving electrons on the metal itself. These
electrons move towards the cathode region through the metal.

(ii) At the cathodes of each cell, the electrons are taken up by hydrogen ions (reduction takes
+
place). The H ions are obtained either from water or from acidic substances (e.g. CO2 in water)
or
+ -
At cathode: H + e → H
The hydrogen atoms on the iron surface reduce dissolved oxygen. Therefore, the overall reaction at cathode of
different electrochemical cells may be written as,
+ -
4H + O2 + 4e → 2H2O
(iii) The overall redox reaction may
2+
be written
-
as,
Oxi. half reaction : [Fe(s) → Fe (aq) + 2e ] x 2 (E= -0.44V)
+ -
Red. half reaction : 4H + O2 + 4e → 2H2O (E= 1.23V)
+ 2+
Overall cell reaction: 2Fe(s) + 4H + O2 → 2Fe (aq) + 2H2O (Ecell= 1.67V)
The ferrous ions are oxidised further by atmospheric oxygen to form rust.
2+ +
4Fe (aq) + O2 (g) + 4H2O → 2Fe2O3 + 8H
Fe2O3 + xH2O → Fe2O3.xH2O (Rust)
Q14. Explain sacrificial anodic and impressed current cathodic protection method for prevention of corrosion.
Ans. Cathodic Protection; In this method, the corroding metal is forced to behave like a cathode. There are two types
of cathodic protection (a) Sacrificial Anodic protection (b) Impressed current cathodic protection
(a) Sacrificial Anodic protection: In this method, the metallic structure which is to be protected from corrosion
is connected to a more anodic metal by a wire so that the entire corrosion is concentrated on this more active
metal. The more active metal loses and get corroded and this metal is called sacrificial anode. Metals
commonly employed as sacrificial anode are Mg, Zn, Al and their alloys.

Applications: Important applications of sacrificial anodic method include protection of buried pipe
lines, underground cables, marine structures etc.
(b) Impressed current cathodic protection: In this method, an impressed current is applied in the opposite
direction to nullify corrosion current so as to convert the corroding metal from anode to cathode. Impressed
current can be derived from a direct current source like battery. An inert or insoluble electrode like graphite or
silica act as anode to complete the circuit. The surroundings of anode should be filled with salts and carbon to
increased the conductivity.

Application: This type of cathodic protection has been applied to water coolers, water tanks, buried oil and water
pipes, transmission towers etc. This type of protection is employed when
1. Long term protection is needed
2. Large structures are to be protected
3. There is a cheap source of electrical power.
Q15. What is secondary storage battery? Write charging and discharging reaction of lead-acid battery along with
its applications.
Ans. A secondary cell or battery is one that can be electrically recharged after use to their original pre-discharge
condition, by passing current through the circuit in the opposite direction to the current during discharge.
Lead Acid Battery: It is an example of secondary batteries. In lead acid battery there is a group of cells and in
each cell there is one group of positive plates and one group of negative plates. The positive plates are made of
lead peroxide (PbO2) and negative plate is made of spongy lead.

Figure: Lead- acid battery

There are 4 stages in discharging-charging process:
1. Fully charged 2. Discharging
3. Fully discharged 4. Charging

Charging Reactions of Lead Storage Battery:

+ 2- -
At Anode PbSO4(s)+2H2O →PbO2(s)+ 4H (aq)+SO4 (aq)+ 2e
- 2-
At Cathode PbSO4(s)+2e →Pb(s)+SO4 (aq)
+( 2-
Overall Reaction: PbSO4(s)+2H2O → Pb(s)+ PbO2(s) + 4H aq)+SO4 (aq)
Discharging Reactions of Lead Storage Battery:
2- -
At Anode Pb(s)+ SO4 (aq)→ PbSO4(s)+ 2e
+ 2- -
At Cathode PbO2(s)+ 4H (aq)+SO4 (aq)+ 2e → PbSO4 +2H2O
Overall Reaction: Pb(s)+ PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq)→2PbSO4(s)+ 2H2O
Applications:
1. In automobile industries.
2. In domestic use like inverter batteries.
 Q16. How can corrosion be minimized by proper selection of metal and design?
Ans. Corrosion can be minimized by:
1. Proper selection of metal 2. Proper selection of design
1. Proper selection of metal:
i. Using Pure Metals: Impurities in a metal cause heterogeneity which lead to corrosion. Therefore, the
corrosion can be minimized by increasing the purity of the given metal.
ii. Using Metal Alloys: Corrosion can be minimized by alloying the metals with suitable elements in either
of the two ways- (a) Homogeneous alloys– completely soluble solid solution e.g., stainless steel (Fe, C)
(b) Heterogenous alloys- mixture of two separate phases e.g.; Si-Fe alloy for acid resistance
2. Proper selection of design:
i. The contact between different metals and alloys should not be made, especially if they are far apart in the
galvanic series. If this is not followed, the more active metal will get corroded.
ii. If two dissimilar metals are in contact, the combination of small anode and large cathode should be avoided.
Screw, nuts and bolts will act as cathodes (small area) so that limited cathodic reaction occurs which leads
to decreased rate of corrosion e.g., copper (cathode) rivets are used to fasten steel sheets.
iii. Welding technique, welded butt joints, should be preferred than mechanical fasteners.

iv. The design should be such that water is drained completely and retention of moisture should be as low as
possible.

v. Design having sharp corners (e.g., A, L, V, T) and recesses should be avoided because dust and
moisture particles may accumulate and can cause corrosion due to differential aeration.

vi. The anodic parts should be either readily replaceable or made thicker for longer life.
vii. The diameter of the pipelines should be increased for decreasing velocity of flowing fluid.
viii. The equipment should be supported on stands to allow circulation of air.

ix. Proper insulation of the materials should be done to avoid leakage of current.
Q17. Define calorific value. How the calorific value of solid fuel is determined using Bomb-calorimeter experiment?
Ans. Calorific Value: It is the total amount of heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt in
presence of oxygen. It is of two types: Gross calorific value (GCV) and Net calorific value (NCV).

Determination of Calorific value by bomb calorimeter:

Principle: A known amount of the fuel is burnt in excess of oxygen and heat liberated is transferred to a known
amount of water. The calorific value of the fuel is then determined by applying the principle of calorimetery i.e.
Heat gained = Heat lost

Calculations
Let weight of the fuel sample taken = x g
Weight of water in the calorimeter = W g
Water equivalent of the Calorimeter, stirrer, bomb, thermometer = w g
o
Initial temperature of water = t1 C
o
Final temperature of water = t2 C
Higher or gross calorific value = L cal/g
Heat gained by water = W x ∆t x specific heat of water
= W (t2-t1) x 1 cal
Heat gained by Calorimeter = w (t2-t1) cal
Heat liberated by the fuel = x L cal
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat gained by water and calorimeter
x L = (W+ w) (t2-t1) cal L
= (W+ w)(t2-t1) cal/g
x
Net Calorific value:
Let percentage of hydrogen in the fuel = H
Weight of water produced from 1 gm of the fuel = 9H/100 gm
Heat liberated during condensation of steam = 0.09H 587 cal
Net (Lower calorific value) = GCV-Latent heat of water formed
= GCV - 0.09H 587 cal/gm.
Q18. Explain proximate analysis of coal and report the method of its determination.
Ans. Proximate Analysis gives information about the practical utility of coal. It determines the moisture, ash, volatile
matter and fixed carbon of coal.
o
1. Moisture Content: Air dried moisture is determined by heating a known amount of coal to 105-110 C in an
electric hot air oven for about one hour after which it is it is taken out from the oven and cooled in a desiccator
and weighed.
Percentage of moisture = X 100
2. Volatile Matter: It is determined by heating a known weight of moisture-free coal sample in a covered
o
platinum crucible at 950 20 C for 7 minutes.
Percentage of volatile matter =
3. Ash: Coal contains inorganic mineral substances which are converted into ash by chemical reactions during the
combustion of coal. Ash content is determined by heating the residue left after the removal of volatile matter at
o
700  50 C for ½ an hour without covering

Percentage of ash =
4. Fixed Carbon: Fixed carbon content increases from lignite to anthracite. Higher the percentage of fixed
carbon greater is its calorific value and better is the quality of coal.

% of fixed carbon = 100 - [% of moisture + volatile matter + ash]

Q19. Discuss the ion exchange process for water softening also mentions its advantages and disadvantages.
Ans. Ion – exchange resins are insoluble, cross – linked, long chain organic polymers with a micro porous
structure, and the functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion – exchanging properties.
The ion – exchange resins may be classified as:
+
(i) Cation Exchange resins (RH ): Resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH, SO3H etc.) are
+
capable of exchanging their H ions with other cations present in water.
-
(ii) Anion Exchange Resin (ROH ): Resins containing basic functional groups (-OH) are capable of exchanging
their anions with the anions, in the water.
+2
Process: The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column, which removes all the cations as Ca ,
+2 +
Mg etc. form it, and equivalent amount of H ions are released from this column to water. Thus:

After cation exchange column the hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the
-2 -2 -
anions like SO4 , CO3 etc. present in the water and equivalent amount of OH ions are released from this
column to water, thus;

+ –
H and OH ions (released from cation exchange and anion exchange columns respectively) get combined to
produce water molecule.

Thus, water coming out from the exchanger is free from cations as well as anions. Ion free water is known as
deionized or demineralised water.
 Regeneration: The exhausted cation exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil. HCl (or) dil.
H2SO4. The exhausted anion exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil. NaOH. The column is
washed with deionized water. The regenerated ion exchange resins are then used again.

Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Ion exchange column

Advantages:
(a) The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
(b) It produces water of very low hardness (say 2ppm). So it is very good for treating water for use in high
pressure boilers.

(c) The softened water is completely free from salts.

Disadvantages:
(a) The equipment is little expensive.
(b) If water contains turbidity then the output of the process is reduced. The turbidity must be below 10ppm.

Q20. Explain the zeolite process for water softening also mentions its advantages and disadvantages.
Ans. Zeolites are hydrated sodium alumino silicates capable of exchanging its sodium ions with hardness producing
cations in water. Na2O Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O , where x=2 to 10 and y= 2 to 6
There are two types of Zeolites:-
(i) Natural Zeolites are amorphous and non-porous in nature. They are derived from green sand, by washing,
heating and treating with NaOH. e.g. Natrolite- Na2O Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O
(ii) Synthetic zeolites are porous and are prepared by heating together solutions of sodium silicate,
sodium aluminate and aluminium sulphate.
Principle: Zeolites can be represented as Na2Z,from which Na can easily be replaced by Ca and Mg ions
present in hard water.
Ca(HCO3) 2+ Na 2 Z → CaZ + 2NaHCO3
Mg(HCO3) 2 + Na 2 Z → MgZ +2NaHCO3
 MgCl2+Na2Z → MgZ + 2NaCl
CaSO4 +Na2Z → CaZ + Na2SO4
MgSO4 +Na2Z → MgZ + Na2SO4
Regeneration:- After sometime, sodium Zeolites are completely converted into Calcium and Magnesium
Zeolites i.e. get exhausted. The process by which exhausted Zeolite is converted into sodium Zeolite again by
treating with 10% brine solution is known as Regeneration.
CaZ + 2 NaCl → Na2Z + CaCl2
MgZ + 2 NaCl → Na2Z + MgCl2
Advantages of Zeolite process
1. Water of about 15 ppm hardness is obtained.
2+ 2+
2. If large quantities of Fe and Mn are present in water it converts zeolite into iron and manganese
zeolite which cannot be regenerated.
3. Acid radicals which are not removed during softening cause caustic embrittlement and boiler corrosion.
Disadvantages of zeolite process:
1. Turbid water cannot be used-the suspended impurities will clog the pores of zeolite.
2+ 3+
2. If water contains large amounts of coloured ions suchasMn andFe it must be pretreated because
the corresponding manganese and iron zeolite cannot be easily regenerated.
2+ 2+ -
3. Zeolite treatment replaces only the cations like Mg and Ca , leaving all the anions like HCO3

Q21. What is the basic principle of Lime- soda process? Explain hot lime soda process of water softening. Give its
advantages over cold lime soda process.
Ans. Lime Soda process: Lime soda process is based upon the precipitation of soluble calcium and magnesium salts
by addition of Lime and Soda. Calcium ions are precipitated as CaCO3 and magnesium ion as Mg(OH)2
Hot lime Soda process: This process is operated at a higher temperature of 90 – 100ºC. No coagulant is
needed in this process. The softening unit consists of two parts: a reaction cum settling tank and a filtering
set up. Superheated steam, raw water and chemicals are introduced into the tank. The sedimentation of sludge
takes place in the sedimentation tank and can be removed from the outlet periodically. The filtering bed consists
of sand/ gravels anthracite coal, calcite or magnesite. The L-S plants remove the hardness and the residual
hardness is generally 15 – 30 ppm.
 Advantages of Hot lime-soda process over cold lime soda process:
1. The reaction rate is increased and the softening reaction is completed in about 15 minutes.
2. Sludge settles faster and the addition of coagulants is not required.
3. At high temp, dissolved gases such as CO2 are driven out of the solution to some extent.
4. Soft water obtained by this method is alkaline and so has less corrosion.
5. It is very economical.

Q22. Write short note on:

(a) Reverse Osmosis (b) Calgon conditioning (c) Scale and sludges
Ans. (a) Reverse Osmosis: The flow of solvent from a region of low concentration to region of high
concentration when two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi permeable
membrane is known as osmosis. Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure which must be applied to
the solution of higher concentration, in order to just prevent osmosis.
If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied to the high concentration side, the flow
of solvent gets reversed Therefore, when the solution side (the side where the solute concentration is high)
is subjected to a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure, the solvent particles on the solution side move
through the semipermeable membrane to the region where the solute concentration is low. Such inverse
solvent movement through the semipermeable membrane is called reverse osmosis.

(b) Scales and sludges: When water is evaporated in boilers to produce steam continuously the concentration
of the salts present in the water increases progressively. As the concentration reaches a saturation point
the salts are thrown out of water as precipitates either as sludge or as scale adhering to the walls of the
boiler.
 Scales: Scales are hard deposits, which stick very firmly to the inner surface of the boiler. Scales are difficult
to remove even with the help of hammer and chisel. Scales are the main source of boiler troubles. Scales may
be formed inside the boiler due to decomposition of calcium bicarbonate, deposition of calcium sulphate and
hydrolysis of magnesium salts.
Sludge: Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy deposit formed within the boiler as shown in Figure. Sludge can
easily scrap off with a wire brush. It is formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and collects in
areas of the system, where the flow rate is slow or at bends. Sludge is formed by substances that have greater
solubility in hot water than in cold water. ex: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.

(c) Calgon conditioning: Calgon is a complex salt that is used to soften hard water. The chemical
name of Calgon is hexametaphosphate (NaPO3)6. In this process, when Calgon is added to
hard water, it causes the magnesium and calcium ions present in hard water to displace sodium
ions from the anion complex of Calgon. It results in the elimination of magnesium and calcium
ions from hard water

2CaCl2 (aq) + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] (s) → Na2[Ca2 (PO3)6] (aq) + 4NaCl (aq)

2MgSO4 (aq) + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] (s)→Na2[Mg2 (PO3)6] (aq) + 2Na2SO4 (aq)

Q23. Give the chemical composition of biogas and explain its production with the help of neat and well labelled
diagram. Also mention its advantages and limitations.
Ans. Chemical composition of biogas: The composition of biogas may vary according to the substrate used
and conditions available for anaerobic decomposition of substrate.

Gases Formula Percentage

present

Methane CH4 55
Carbon 35
CO2
dioxide

Nitrogen N2 2.6

Hydrogen H2 7.4
Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of cattle dung in the presence of water. Anaerobic degradation
means breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in the absence of oxygen. Production of biogas basically is the
fermentation of biomass. An anaerobic digester that treats cow dung and other agricultural waste is called a biogas
plant.
 Figure: Biogas plant

It has following parts-Mixing tank, Inlet chamber, digester, gas storage tank and outlet chamber.
Working of biogas plant- The various forms of biomass like cow dung, dead plants, agricultural waste,
food waste etc. are mixed with an equal amount of water in the mixing chamber or tank. This mixture is
called slurry. Now this slurry is moved into the digester through the inlet chamber. The digester must be
half filled with slurry. Digester is closed and oxygen is prevented to enter the digester to let the
fermentation process take place. pH level in digester should be neutral or seven and temperature should
o
be 30-35 C for maximum yield. Let the fermentation take place for 2 months. During these two months
Eubacteria convert organic material into Biogas. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide, the major constituent is methane.
Biogas has the following main advantages:
1. Non-polluting
2. Reduces Landfills
3. Renewable source of energy
4. Creates employment

Q24. Discuss the deterioration of cement and its preventive measures.

Ans. The deterioration of cement or concrete can be caused due to the following factors:
1. Corrosion of Embedded Metals: Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is the leading
cause of deterioration in concrete. When steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater volume than the
steel. Corrosion of embedded metals in concrete can be greatly reduced by placing crack-free concrete with low
permeability and sufficient concrete cover.
2. The Role of Chloride Ions: Exposure of reinforced concrete to chloride ions is the primary cause of premature
corrosion of steel reinforcement.
3. Carbonation: Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide from the air penetrates the concrete and reacts with
hydroxides, such as calcium hydroxide, to form carbonates. In the reaction with calcium hydroxide, calcium
carbonate is formed: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O This reaction reduces the pH of the pore solution to as
low as 8.5, at which level the passive film on the steel is not stable
4. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion: When two different metals, such as aluminum and steel, are in contact within the
concrete, corrosion can occur because each metal has a unique electrochemical potential.
 5. Freeze-Thaw Deterioration: When water freezes, it expands about 9%. As the water in moist concrete
freezes, it produces pressure in the capillaries and pores of the concrete. If the pressure exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete, the cavity will dilate and rupture.
6. Chemical Attack: In general, portland cement concrete does not have good resistance to acids. In fact, no
hydraulic cement concrete, regardless of its composition, will hold up for long if exposed to a solution with a pH
of 3 or lower. The chlorides and nitrates of ammonium, magnesium, aluminum, and iron all cause concrete
deterioration, with those of ammonium producing the most damage.
7. Abrasion/Erosion: Abrasion damage occurs when the surface of concrete is unable to resist wear caused by
rubbing and friction, wind-borne particles can cause abrasion of concrete, the two most damaging forms of
abrasion occur on vehicular traffic surfaces and in hydraulic structures, such as dams, spillways, and tunnels.
8. Fire/Heat: Concrete performs exceptionally well at the temperatures encountered in almost all applications.
But when exposed to fire or unusually high temperatures, concrete can lose strength and stiffness.
9. Restraint to Volume Changes: Restraint to volume changes, especially contraction, can cause cracking if the
tensile stresses that develop exceed the tensile strength of the concrete.

Q25. Describe in brief about conducting polymers with their applications.

Ans. Conducting polymers: Most polymeric materials are poor conductors of electricity because of the non-
availability of large number of free electrons for the conduction process. Thus most of the polymers are used
as insulators. However some polymers have electrical conductivity and can be used in place of metals due to
their light weight and low cost, Polymeric materials which possess electrical conductivities on par with the
metallic conductors are called conducting polymers. Conducting polymers are classified into following types:
a) Intrinsically conducting polymer (ICP) (or) Conjugated – Electrons conducting polymer
b) Doped conducting polymer (c) Extrinsically conducting polymer
a) Intrinsic conducting polymers:
These are characterized by intensive conjugation of π-bonds in their structure. This is a polymer whose back
bones or associated groups consisting of delocalized electron pair or residual charge, which increases their
conductivity to a large extent. The conduction process is due to the overlapping of orbitals containing
conjugated π-electrons, resulting in the formation of valence bands as well as conduction bands

N n
n H

Polyacetylene Polypyrrole
b) Doped conducting polymers:
The conducting polymers having π-electrons in their backbone can easily be oxidized or reduced because they
possess low ionization potential and high electron affinities. Hence their conductance can be increased by
introducing a positive charge or negative charge on polymer backbone by oxidation or reduction. This process is
similar to semiconductor technology and is called doping. Doping is again two types.

(1) Creating a positive site on the polymer backbone called p-doping.

(2) Creating a negative site on the polymer backbone called n-doping.
p-doping:
p-doping is carried out by oxidation process by the removal of an electron from conducting polymer with a Lewis
acid or iodine. This is called oxidative doping. During oxidation process the removal of π electrons from polymer
back bone lead to the formation of a delocalized radical ion called polaron. The second oxidation of the polaron
leads to the formation of bipolaron, which are mobile because of delocalization. These delocalized charge carriers
(holes) are responsible for conductance when placed in electric field.
 n-doping:
n-doping is carried out by reduction process by the addition of an electron to conducting polymer with reducing
agents like sodium napthalide Na(C10H8). Formation of polaron, bipolaron takes place in two steps, which
yields two negative charge carriers on the polyacetylene chain. These delocalized charge carriers (electrons) are
responsible for conductance when placed in electric field.
c) Extrinsically conducting polymers: Extrinsically conducting polymers are those polymers whose
conductivity is due to the presence of an externally added ingredient in them. These are of the following two
types.
(a) Conductive element filled polymer: It is a resin or polymer filled with conducting elements such as carbon
black, metallic fibres, metal acids, etc. In this, the polymer acts as the binder to hold the conducting elements
together in the solid entity.
(b) Blended conducting polymer: It is the product obtained by blending a conventional polymer with a
conducting polymer either by physical or chemical change.
Applications of conducting polymers:
(1) The conducting polymers are used in rechargeable batteries.
(2) Conducting polymers are also used for making analytical sensors for different gases like O2, NOx,SO2, NH3.
(3) The conducting polymers are used control release of drug.
(4) The conducting polymers are used for making electronic displays and optical fibres
(5) The conducting polymers are applicable in photovoltaic devices, LED‟s and data storage.

Q26. Differentiate between following:

(a) Thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers (b) Addition and condensation polymers
Ans. (a)
Thermoplastic Thermosetting
1.They soften on heating. 1.They do not soften on heating.
2. They consist of long chain linear 2. There are three-dimensional network
macromolecules. crosslinked structure.
3.They are formed by addition polymerization. 3. they are formed by condensation
polymerization.
4. By heating it can be softened, reshaped, and 4. They cannot be reshaped and reused.
reused.
5. They are soluble in some organic solvent. 5.They are insoluble in almost all organic
Examples: polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, solvents.
polypropylene etc Examples: Bakelite, Polyurethanes etc

(b) Addition polymers:

These type of polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomer molecules. The polymer is
formed by polymerization of monomers with double or triple bonds (unsaturated compounds). Note, in
this process, there is no elimination of small molecules like water or alcohol etc (no by-product of the
process). Addition polymers always have their empirical formulas same as their monomers. Example:
ethene n(CH2=CH2) to polyethene -(CH2-CH2)n-.
 Condensation polymers:
These polymers are formed by the combination of monomers, with the elimination of small molecules
like water, alcohol etc. The monomers in these types of condensation reactions are bi-functional or tri-
functional in nature. A common example is the polymerization of Hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
to give Nylon – 66, where molecules of water are eliminated in the process.

Q27. How is Grignard reagent prepared? Give the reaction of CH3CH3MgBr with HCHO, CH3CHO and CH3COCH3.
Ans. Preparation of Grignard reagent:
Grignard reagents are prepared by the action of activated magnesium on organic halides in suitable
solvents like Diethyl ether, Et2O or Tetrahydrofuran, THF in anhydrous conditions.

Reactions of Grignard reagent

(i) Reaction of CH3CH2Mg Br with HCHO

(ii) Reaction of CH3CH2Mg Br with CH3CHO

(iii) Reaction of CH3CH2Mg Br with CH3COCH3

Q28. What are organometallic compounds? Give method of preparation of LiAlH4 and also write at least five
applications of LiAlH4.
Ans. These are class of substances containing at least one metal to carbon bond in which the carbon is the part of an organic
group. Generally, this bond is covalent in nature. The metals with relatively high electro positivity (such as sodium and
lithium) form these compounds
Organometallic compounds provide a source of nucleophilic carbon atoms which can react with electrophilic carbon
to form a new carbon-carbon bond. Examples are: Grignard reagent R-Mg-X, Zeise‟s salt and Diethyl zinc
Preparation of LiAlH4
1. LiAlH4 was first prepared from the reaction between lithium hydride (LiH) and aluminium
chloride: 4 LiH + AlCl3 → LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl
Applications:
1. Reduction of carbonyl compounds using LiAlH4: The aldehydes or ketones are reduced by LiAlH4 to the
corresponding primary or secondary alcohols respectively.

2. The carboxylic acids, esters and acid halides are reduced to corresponding primary alcohols by
Lithium aluminium hydride. E.g. The reduction of Acetic acid, methyl acetate and acetyl chloride by
LiAlH4 furnish the same ethyl alcohol.

3. The amides are reduced to secondary amines by Lithium aluminium hydride,

E.g. Diethyl amine can be prepared starting from acetyl chloride as follows:

4. The nitriles are reduced to primary amines by LiAlH4. E.g. Acetonitrile is reduced to ethyl amine.

5. Lithium aluminium hydride reduces the oxiranes (epoxides) to alcohols. E.g. 2-methyloxirane gives 2-
propanol predominantly.
Q29. Write the preparation, properties and applications of the following compounds
(a) Buna –N (b) Teflon (c) Nylon 6 (d) Bakelite (e) Kevlar
(f) Buna –S (g) Lucite (h) Nylon 6-6 (i) PET (j) Thiokol
Ans. (a) Buna-N: It is prepared by copolymerization of acrylonitrile and butadiene in 1:1 ratio.

Properties:
1. Buna-N is resistant to oil, fuel, and other chemicals
2. It is resistant to aliphatic hydrocarbons.
3. It has high tensile strength as well as excellent abrasion and compression set resistance
Applications:
1. Buna-N is used in the automotive and aeronautical industry to make fuel and oil handling hoses, seals,
and grommets.
2. It is used to make protective gloves in the nuclear industry.

(b) Teflon: PTFE is produced by the free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.

Properties:
1. Teflon is one of the chemically inert substances not affected by strong acids and aqua- regia.
2. It is stable at high temperatures.
3. It is a thermoplastic polymer that appears as a white solid at room temperature.
Applications:
1. It is used in high-friction areas of footwear as in soles.
2. It is widely used in medical synthesis, tests and many more medicines.

(c) Nylon 6: Nylon 6 is synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam.

Properties of Nylon:
1. They possess high-temperature stability and good abrasion resistance.
2. Their moldings and extrusions have good physical strengths (especially high impact strength) and self-
lubricating properties.

 Nylon 6 are used for moulding purposes for gears, bearings, electrical mountings, etc.
 Nylon bearings and gears work quietly without any lubrication.
(d) Bakelite: It is a condensation polymer made from the monomers of phenol and formaldehyde.

Properties of Bakelite:
1. Bakelite comes in a wide range of vibrant colours and can be moulded quickly.
2. It is very resistant to electrical, thermal, and chemical activity.
Applications:
1. Bakelite is used to manufacture various products, including utensil handles, bangles, and vehicle parts.
2. It may be dyed into various colors, allowing it to be employed in creating vivid and appealing products.

(e) Kevlar: It is prepared by a polycondensation reaction between aromatic dichlorides like terephthalic acid
dichloride (terephthaloyl chloride) and aromatic diamines like 1,4-phenylene diamine.

Properties:
1. Exceptionally strong (5 times stronger than steel).
2. High heat stability, flexibility and high electron density.
Applications:
1. Aerospace and Aircraft industry
2. Making ropes, cables, protective clothing bullet proof wests,
(f) Buna-S: Buna-S is formed from the copolymerization of butadiene and styrene.

Properties:
1. It is very tough and a good substitute for natural rubber.
2. It possesses high abrasion resistance.
3. It has a high load-bearing capacity.
Applications:
1. It is used for making floor tiles, footwear components, cable insulation etc.
2. It is used for the manufacture of passenger car tires and treads, motorcycle and scooter tires, cycle tires,
and tubes.
(g) Lucite: It is obtained by polymerization of methyl methacrylate CH 2=C(CH3) COOCH3 in presence of acetyl
peroxide or hydrogen peroxide.

Properties:
1. It is a hard, fairly rigid material with a high softening point of about 130-140 °C
2. It becomes rubber-like at a temperature above 65 °C.
3. It has outstanding shape-forming properties
Application:
1. Lenses, optical parts of instruments, aircraft light futures, artificial eyes, windscreens, bone splints, decorative
articles, etc.

(h) Nylon 6-6: Nylon – 6;6 is obtained by the polymerization of adipic acid with hexamethylene diamine.

Properties:
1. Nylon 6,6 pursues excellent abrasion resistance and a high melting point.
2. Nylon 6,6 has high tensile strength and exhibits only half of the shrinkage in steam.
Applications:
1. Nylon 6,6 is waterproof in nature so it is also used to make swimwear.
2. It is suitable to be used in airports, offices, and other places which are more liable to wear and tear.

(i) PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) or Dacron: It can be prepared by the condensation of ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid.

Properties:
1. It is a hard, stiff, strong, dimensionally stable material that absorbs very little water.
2. It has good gas barrier properties and chemical resistance except to alkalis (which hydrolyze it).
Applications:
1. It is an excellent water and moisture barrier material used for soft drinks, fruit juice concentratesand sauces,
and wide-necked jars for coffee.
2. It is also used as a substrate in thin-film solar cells.
 (j) Thiokol: Thiokol rubber is obtained by the reaction of 1,2-dichloroethane with sodium polysulphide

Properties:
1. Thiokol is resistant to the action of oxygen and ozone.
2. It is also resistant to the action of petrol lubricants and organic solvents.
Applications:
1. It is used in hoses and tank linings to handle and store oils and solvents.
2. It is used in the lining of vessels used in the manufacture of chemicals.

Q30.(i) Define GCV and NCV. Calculate the GCV and NCV of a coal sample from the following data obtained from
the bomb calorimeter. Weight of coal 2.15gm, Weight of water in the calorimeter1800gm, Water equivalent
0 0 0
of calorimeter 500gm, initial temperature 20 C and final temperature 27 C, cooling correction 0.05 C, fuse
wire correction 10cal, acid correction 50cal, % of Hydrogen 6.5 and latent heat of steam is 587cal/gm.
Ans. Gross Calorific Value: It is the total amount of heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
in oxygen and the products of combustion are cooled down to room temperature.
Net Calorific Value: It is defined as the net heat produced when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.
Provided, Weight of coal= 2.15 g, Weight of water in the calorimeter (W) =1800 g,
0 0
Water equivalent of calorimeter(w) = 500 g, initial temperature(t1) = 20 C, final temperature(t2) = 27 C
0
Cooling correction = 0.05 C, fuse wire correction = 10 cal, acid correction = 50 cal, % of hydrogen =
6.5 And latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g
0
=27–20=7 C

= 7513.95 Cal/g
Cal/g
Cal/g
= 7170.55 Cal/g
(ii) Calculate the GCV and NCV of coal having the following compositions C=75%, H=5%, S=3%, N=3%,
ash=4% and latent heat of steam=587 Cal/g.
Ans. Provided, C=75%, H=5%, S=3%, N=3%, ash=4% and latent heat of steam=587cal/g
So, Oxygen = [100 – (75 + 5 + 3 + 3 + 4) ]
= 10%
kcal/kg
Kcal/kg
Kcal/kg
kcal/kg
Kcal/kg
Kcal/kg
Q31. A zeolite softener was 80% exhausted by removing the hardness completely when 50,000L of hard water
sample passed through it. The exhausted zeolite bed required 250L of 2% sodium chloride solution for its
complete regeneration. Calculate the hardness of water solution.
Provided, Volume of NaCl solution used = 250L, Strength of NaCl solution = 2%, Volume of water = 50000L
2% NaCl = 20g/L
NaCl contained in 250L of NaCl solution = 250L x 20g/L
= 250 x 20 x 50 g eq. of
CaCO3 58.5
= 4273.50 1000 mg eq. of CaCO3
As zeolite softener was 80% exhausted, so = 80% of 50,000L
= 40,000L of water
40,000L of water = 4273.50 1000 mg eq. of CaCO3
1L of water = 4273.50 x 1000 mg eq. of CaCO3
40,000
= 106.84 mg eq. of CaCO3
So, hardness of water sample = 106.84 mg/L

Q32. (i) 100 mL of water sample has hardness equivalents of 25 mL of 0.05N CaSO4. Calculate its hardness in ppm.
Ans. Assuming 1 N of 1mL of CaSO4 = 1 N of 1mL of CaCO3
N1 = Normality of CaSO4 = 0.05
V1 = Volume of CaSO4 = 25 mL
V2 = Volume of Water = 100 mL
N2 = Normality of water
N1V1 = N2V2
N2 = N1V1/V2
= 0.05 x 25
100
= 0.0125 N

= 0.0125 N x 50 x 1000 mg/L

= 625 mg/L or 625 ppm.
(ii) Calculate the temporary and total hardness of water sample of water containing Mg(HCO3)2 = 93 mg/L,
Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L, MgCl2 = 87 mg/L, CaSO4 = 126 mg/L, NaCl = 15 mg/L and SiO2 = 10 mg/L.
Ans.
Constituent Amount Multiplication CaCO3 Equivalent
mg/L Factor mg/L
CaSO4 126 100/136 126x100/136 = 92.64
MgCl2 87 100/95 87x100/95 = 91.57
Mg(HCO3)2 93 100/84 93 x100/84 = 110.72
Ca(HCO3)2 162 100/162 162x100/162 = 100
NaCl 15 Does not impart hardness
SiO2 10 Does not impart hardness
Temporary hardness = hardness due to Mg(HCO3)2 + hardness due to
Ca(HCO3)2 = 110.72 + 100 = 210.72 mg/L
Total hardness = hardness due to (Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 + MgCl2 + CaSO4)
= 110.72 + 100 + 91.57 + 92.64
= 394.93 mg/L
 (iii) 100 mL of a raw water sample on titration with N/50 H2SO4 required 12.4 mL of acid to phenolphthalein end
point and 15.2 mL of acid to methyl orange end point. Determine the type and extent of alkalinity.
Ans. For Phenolphthalein end point N1V1 = N2V2
N1 x 100 = 1/50 x 12.4
N1 = 1 x 12.4 = 0.00248
50 x 100
Strength of alkalinity upto phenolphthalein end point (P) = N1 x 50 x 1000 ppm
= 0.00248 x50 x 1000 ppm
P = 124 ppm
For Methyl orange end point N1V1 = N2V2
N1 x 100 = 1/50 x 15.2
N1 = 1 x 15.2 = 0.00304
50 x 100
Strength of alkalinity upto Methyl orange end point (M) = N1 x 50 x 1000 ppm
= 0.00304 x50 x 1000 ppm
M = 152 ppm
-2 -
P >1/2M then both CO3 and OH ions are present.
-
Alkalinity due to CO3 -2 = 2(M-P) Alkalinity due to OH = 2P-M
= 2 (152-124) = (2x124-152)
= 56 ppm = 96 ppm
(iv) A standard hard water contains 1.5 gm of CaCO3 per litre, 20 mL of this solution requires 25 mL of EDTA
solution, while 100 mL of the sample water required 18 mL of EDTA. The sample water after boiling required
12 mL EDTA solution. Calculate the temporary hardness of the sample solution.
Ans. 1 mL of Std. hard water = 1.5 mg of CaCO3
Now, 25 mL of EDTA solution = 20 mL of SHW = 20 x 1.5 mg of CaCO3
1 mL of EDTA solution = (20 x 1.5)/25 mg of CaCO3
= 1.2 mg of CaCO3
Total hardness of water
100 mL of sample water = 18 mL of EDTA solution
1 mL of sample water = (18 x 1.2)/100 mg of CaCO3
So, 1000 mL of sample water = (18 x 1.2) x 1000 mg of
CaCO3 100
=216 mg of Ca CO3
Total hardness of water = 216 mg/L
Permanent hardness of water
100 mL of boiled sample water = 12 mL of EDTA solution
1 mL of boiled sample water = (12 x 1.2)/100 mg of CaCO3
So, 1000 mL of boiled sample water = (12 x 1.2) x 1000 mg of
CaCO3 100
=144 mg of Ca CO3
Permanent hardness of water = 144 mg/L
Temporary hardness of water = Total hardness – permanent hardness
= (216 – 144)mg/L
= 72 mg/L
Q33. (i) Give the number of 1H NMR signals and their splitting pattern in the following compounds:
(a) (CH3)3COCH3 (b) CH3CH(Cl)CH2Cl (c) CH3CH2CH2OH (d) CH3CHCHCHO no of
Ans. a b
signal 2
a) (CH3)3COCH3
Splitting Pattern for (CH3)3 = 0+1 =1 singlet
Splitting Pattern for CH3 = 0+1 =1 singlet

a b c
b) CH3CH(Cl)CH2Cl no of signal 3
Splitting Pattern for CH3 = 1+1 =1 Doublet
Splitting Pattern for CH = 3+1x2+1=12 multiplet
Splitting Pattern for CH2 = 1+1 =1 Doublet

a b c d
c) CH3CH2CH2OH no of signal 4
Splitting Pattern for CH3 = 2+1 =1 triplet
Splitting Pattern CH2 (b) = 3+1x2+1=12 multiplet
Splitting Pattern CH2 (c) = 2+1 = triplet
Splitting Pattern for OH = singlet

a b c d
d) CH3CHCHCHO no of signal 4
Splitting Pattern for CH3 = 1+1 =2 doublet
Splitting Pattern for CH (b) = 3+1x1+1=8 multiplet
Splitting Pattern for CH (c) =1+1x1+1=4 Quartet
Splitting Pattern for CHO (d) = 1+1=Doublet

(ii) Assign E-Z configuration to the following compounds:

Ans.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Q34. (i) The ammonia evolved from the treatment of 2.3 gm of an organic compound for the estimation of nitrogen was
evolved passed in 50 mL of 0.1N H2SO4. The excess of acid required 24 mL of 0.1N sodium hydroxide solution
for complete neutralization. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the organic compound.

Ans. Provided, Weight of sample = 2.3g, V1= 50mL, V2= 24mL and Normality = 0.1N

(ii) A sample of coal was analyzed as follows: Exactly 1.5gm of coal was weighed into a silica crucible. After heating
0
for one hour at 100 C, the residue weighed 1.345gm. The crucible was then covered with a vented lid and strongly
0
heated for exactly seven minutes at 950 C the residue weighed 0.528 gm. The crucible was then heated without the
cover, until a constant weight was obtained. The last residue was found to weight 0.254gm. Calculate the percentage
of above analysis.
Ans. Provided, Weight of coal sample(x) = 1.5gm,
Weight of residue after heating one hour(y) = 1.345gm,
0
Weight of residue after strong heating at 950 C for 7 minutes (z) = 0.528gm,
Weight of last residue (a) = 0.254gm,
 Q35. (i) Write the net cell reactions of the following cell:
2+ + 0
Zn/ Zn (0.2M)//Ag (0.002 M)/Ag(s). E cell =1.54 V, find the EMF of the cell at 298 K.
2+ -
Ans. Oxidation Reaction Zn(s) →Zn +2e
+(
Reduction Reaction 2Ag aq) + 2e-→2Ag(s)
2+
Cell Reaction: Zn(s)+ 2Ag+(aq)→ Zn +2Ag(s)
0
Using Nernst equation, Ecell = E – 0.0591 log[Product]
cell
n [Reactant]
2+
= 1.54 – 0.0591 log[Zn ]
+ 2
2 [Ag ]
= 1.54 – 0.02955 log[0.2]
2
[0.002]
4
= 1.54 – 0.02955 log 5x 10

= 1.54 – 0.139
= 1.401 V

(ii) Using the Nernst equation, find Ecell for the following cell at 298 K:
+3 +2 +3 +2
Al(s) / Al (0.30M)// Fe (1.1 M)/Fe(s). Given (E0 Al /Al = -1.67 V, E0 Fe /Fe = -0.44
3+ -
V) Ans. Oxidation Reaction 2x [Al(s) →Al +3e ]
+2(
Reduction Reaction 3x [Fe aq) + 2e-→Fe(s)]
+2( 3+
Cell Reaction: 2Al(s)+ 3Fe aq)→ 2Al +3Fe(s)
0 0 0
E cell = E Cathode- E Anode
= -0.44-(01.67)
= +1.23 V
0
Using Nernst equation, Ecell = E cell – 0.0591 log[Product]
n [Reactant]
3+ 2
= 1.23 – 0.0591 log[Al ]
2+ 3
6 [Fe ]
2
= 1.23 – 0.00985 log[0.30]
3
[1.1]

= 1.241 V