UNIT III

INDUSTRIAL GAS ANALYZERS AND POLLUTION MONITORING

INSTRUMENTS
3.1 TYPES OF GAS ANALYZERS
There are several methods have been utilized for analysis of gases. These
methods mainly based on infrared absorption, para-magnetism, thermal
conductivity and gas density. These methods include visible and ultra-violet
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and some other
electromechanical methods. Analyzers can be designed so that the molecules
of measuring gases may be undergo a physical or chemical reaction, which
may reveal their nature and extent.

Different principles utilized for gas analyzer based on

1. No interaction of intra-molecular energy states
a) Thermal conductiovity
b) Paramagnetic susceptibility
2. With excitation of intra-molecular energy states
a) Absorption of electromagnetic radiation
b) Flame ionization
3. With chemical or electrochemical reaction
a) conducto metric method
b) potentio metric method
c) galvano metric
method OXYGEN ANALYSERS
1.Paramagnetic Oxygen analyzers
Oxygen has the property of being paramagnetic in nature. Simple dumb-bell
type instrument has formed the basis of modern instrument. The arrangement
incorporates a small glass dumb-bell suspended from a quartz thread between
the poles of a permanent magnet. The pole pieces are wedge-shaped in order to
produce a non-uniform field. When no oxygen is present, the magnetic forces
exactly balance the torque of the fibre. However, if oxygen is present in the gas
sample in the chamber surrounding the dumb-bell, it would displace the dump-
bell spheres and they would move away from the region of maximum flux
density. F = C (K – K0)
C = a function of the magnetic field strength, K = magnetic susceptibility of
the sphere, K0 = magnetic susceptibility of the surrounding gas
2.Magnetic wind instruments
This type of Analyzer based on the motion of Paramagnetic oxygen
molecules into non-uniform magnetic field. The flowing gas is made to pass
over a heated filament connected as one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
The gas cools the filament and unbalances the bridge circuit. The output
voltage from the bridge can fed to a recorder.

Oxygen analyzer Uses

i. It is used in the areas of oxygen absorption studies on plants and tissues.
ii. It is used in food processing industries.
iii. It is also used in respiratory studies.
Sources of error in oxygen analyzer
i. The filament temperature is affected by changes in the thermal conductivity of
the carrier gas.
ii. The cross tube must be horizontal to avoid an error due to gravitational
chimney- flow effects.
iii.Hydrocarbons & combustible gases in the sample stream react on the heated
filaments casus changes in temperature and their resistance, results in large error.
Applications of oxygen analyzer
i. It is used in the areas of oxygen absorption studies on plants and tissues.
ii. It is used in food processing industries.
iii. It is also used in respiratory studies.

𝑵𝑶𝟐 AND 𝑯𝟐𝑺

TYPES IR analyzers,
IR gas analyzers depend for their operation upon the fact that some gas
and vapor absorb specific wavelengths of infrared radiation. The most
commonly measuring gas using IR radiation absorption id carbon dioxide.
Two identical infrared sources in the pick-up head, emits beams of radiation
that are pulsed by a motor driven chopper. One beam passes through the
sample cell, the other beam through a reference cell, and both beams enter
opposite ends of the detection chamber. The detection chamber is a
permanently sealed unit divided into two compartments by a thin, metal
diaphragm. When the gas being measured enters the sample cell, it absorbs
infrared radiation at the same wavelength as the gas in the detection chamber.
The diaphragm bends towards the side of lower pressure, and this movement
is converted into electrical impulses.
Uses
1. It is used for single component analysis such as ethylene, CO, acetylene,
methane etc.,
2. Multiple component for cereal, meat and paper could also be analyzed.

ANALYSIS BASED ON IONIZATION OF GASES:

Measurement of the emitted radiation can help in determination of
unknown concentration of a gas in a mixture. The measuring technique
utilized for measuring nitrogen wherein a gas sample is ionized,
selectively filtered and detected with a photocell. The detection of
nitrogen is detected by the emission of a characteristic purple color.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ANALYZERS
Thermal conductivity of gas is defined as amount of heat transferred in unit time
in a gas between two surfaces when the temperature difference between them is
1deg.celcious and distance is 1cm. all gases can conduct heat but in varying
degrees. This difference is used to quantitatively determine the composition of gas
mixtures. The change in temperature can be detected by platinum filament (hot
wire) or thermistors.
1. Hot wire thermal conductivity analyzer
There are four platinum filaments which are acted as sensing elements. They are
arrange in bridge circuit. Here each element is house din separate cavity in brass or
in steel block. The block acts as a heat sink. This filaments should have higher
temperature co-efficient of resistance.eg. tungsten, kovar 9 alloy of Ni, Co and Fe,
platinum. This bridge mimics the weatstone-bridge. There are two elements
(opposite arms) in the reference arms whereas other 2 filaments are connected in
gas stream which acts as measuring arms. This four- cell arrangement serves to
compensate for temperature and power supply variations. When reference gas is
flows through the cell bridge get unbalanced. This will be balance by potentio-
meter
D. when the gas stream flows through the measuring pair of filaments, the wires
are cooled and there will be changes in resistance of the filaments. Bridge get
unbalanced. The unbalance current can be measured by indicating meter.
2. Thermal conductivity analyzer using thermistor:
Here heat sensing element is thermistor. These elements are arranged in
weatstone bridge config. Sensitivity of thermistor is very high foe minute changes
in temperature. It has negative temperature co-efficient and it will give good
response. When used in gas analyzers, they are encapsulated in glass medium.
Thermal conductivity gas analyzers can be used in respiratory monitoring system
to follow the 𝐶𝑂2concentration changes while breathing. Analysis of multi
component
mixture is possible if all components but one have almost same thermal
conductivity.
So that the mixture is treated as binary mixture.

HYDRO CARBONS:
1. Flame ionization detector:
Organic compounds easily pyrolysis when introduced into an air hydrogen flame.
The pyrolysis produces ions that can be collected by cylindrical grid surrounding
the flame. The detector response would be in proportion to the number of carbon
atoms in the chain. (Example: propane would give three times the intensity of
response as compared to methane). Then this ions given to high input impedance
amplifier and then to the chart recorder which gives variations in ion intensity. The
following diagram shows the apparatus used for measuring hydrocarbons based on
flame ionization detection principle.
 The sample gas containing hydrocarbon controlled at a constant flow rate is
mixed with hydrogen for fuel use. The mixed gas is burned at the end of a very
fine nozzle. Two electrodes are placed on either side of a flame and appropriate
electric filed is applied to them. Ionic current will flow between the collector
electrode and the other electrode.
The current is then amplified and displayed on a meter-analog or digital. It may
be noted that the flame ionization detection method generally shows responses in
proportion to carbon numbers. However if carbon coexists with oxygen, the
response may differ depending on the kind of the hydrocarbon. The analyzer, in
general, in provides good linearity across a broad range of concentrations, high
sensitivity and fast response.
2. Gas chromatography:
This technique can be applied for detection and measuring of hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in air. They are generally detected with flame
ionization detectors. But this detector is not sensitive to carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide. These are first converted to methane by hydrogenation and then
measured with this detector.
3. Use of lasers:
Fixed frequency, infrared emitting lasers have demonstrated their potential in
atmospheric monitoring and research. This is based on the absorption of carbon
dioxide laser frequencies by some gases. For example, a tunable dual-line carbon
dioxide laser can be used for atmospheric spectroscopy and pollution monitoring.
This arrangement facilitates measurement of 0.5 and 2ppb densities of ethylene in
a calm and turbulent atmosphere, respectively. Ethylene is of considerable interest
as a pollutant to the petrochemical industry and for automobile exhausts.
NITROGEN OXIDES:
1. Colorimetry:
This method can be used for determination of nitrogen dioxide by using
Saltzman method. This method based on a reaction in which a pink colored dye
complex is formed when the air containing 𝑁𝑂2 is passed in an absorbing solution
consisting of the sulphantic acid and diamine dissolved in the acetic acid medium.
This method is sensitive in the ppm range. Nitric oxide may be determined by the
same procedure,
by first passing the sample through an acid permanganate bubbler, which oxidizes
nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide. The method used for monitoring 𝑁𝑂𝑥in stack
effluents in concentration range of 5 ppm to several thousand ppm, consists in
passing the sample into an evacuated flask containing a solution of 𝐻2𝑂2 in
sulphuric acid. The oxides of nitrogen are converted into nitric acid, and the nitrate
ions react with phenol-disulphonic acid to produce a yellow color, which is
measured colorimetricaly.
2. Use of CO laser:
The following block diagram shows the apparatus for detecting nitric oxide in
0.25 ppm concentration. The apparatus consists of a CO laser, which emits
radiation that is absorbed by the NO in the mixture, the amount of absorption being
proportional to the concentration of NO present. The wavelength match between
laser and NO is made exact, and hence the absorption is enhanced by placing the
NO in a magnetic field of a few KG intensity. The field shifts the absorption
wavelength of the NO into coincidence with the fixed laser wavelength. The CO
laser used is a dc- excited continuous working laser, which operates at a single
wavelength of 5.307 µ and at liquid nitrogen temperature. A diffraction grating is
used at one of the cavity as a line selector.
The laser yields 5-30 mw of single line power. The absorption cell is made of
pyrex and is of 15mm diameter and 90 cm length. It is evacuated to a pressure of
10−6 to 10−5 torr. In order to produce a modulating audio frequency magnetic field
along the axis of the cell, insulated wire is closely wound around the outside of the
cell about half its length. The coil is excited with a current of 1A in the frequency
range of 5-150 kHz. This produces a varying magnetic field of about 50G peak to
peak intensity. The dc magnetic field is produced by a solenoid, which produces a
filed up to 2.5kG. The detector is a liquid nitrogen cooled Ge- Au element. The
signal is amplified in a lock in amplifier, before it is given to the recorder. The
signal amplitude varies linearly with the concentration of NO in the sample.
3. Laser opto-acoustic spectroscopy:
Opto-acoustic detectors, in conjunction with thermal IR sources, have been
widely used in gas detection and measurement systems. These have been
developed for application in air pollution measurement. This technique has been
used to measure trace amounts of nitrogen oxides in the stratosphere. The opto-
acoustic detector involves the absorption of an amplitude modulated beam IR by a
gas which results in the generation of sound. The energy absorbed by the gas
molecules from the IR beam excites the molecules to the rotational-vibrational
energy levels above the ground state.

The main path for decay of these excited states is collisional de-excitation,
which results in transfer of absorbed energy into heat and raises the gas
temperature. The temperature rise causes a corresponding pressure rise in the gas.
When beam intensity is modulated, the gas temperature and pressure change
accordingly. Thus periodic pressure variations in the gases result in generation
sound. A block-diagram
of laser opto-acoustic detector is shown in following figure. The arrangement
makes use of a CO2 laser that is tuned by rotating a diffraction grating at one end
of the laser cavity. It is tunable to 64 different emission lines in the range from 927
to 1085 cm-1. The laser beam is brought to a focus at the chopping wheel and then
refocused into the detector. The chopping frequency is selected to optimize the
signal to noise ratio. The acoustic signal is amplified and then displayed. The
detector is highly sensitive and sample amounts as small as 20pg may be detected.
4. Chemi-luminescence:
The phenomenon of emission of radiation from chemi- excited species is known
as chemi-luminescence. It results due to the formation of new chemical bonds. The
species in the excited state possess higher energy levels than the ground state and
usually very short life time. This reaction is very useful for measurement of air
pollutants, particularly NO AND no2. Instruments based on the measurement of
chemi-luminescent emission, based on the following reaction have been developed.
NO+𝑂3  N𝑂2 +𝑂2
N𝑂2  N𝑂2 +hʋ
Since NO2 reacts only slowly with ozone and the reaction which produces no3
is not accompanied by chemi-luminescence, it is necessary to reduce NO2 to NO
before admission into the reactor.
N𝑂2  NO+1/2 𝑂2.
Nitric oxide and ozone containing gas stream are mixed in a vessel at a sub-
atmospheric pressure of about 2mm of Hg. Light emission is measured with a
photomultiplier. With the use of high gain, low dark current photomultiplier tubes,
extremely low levels of radiation can be measured. Response is 1 ppm to 1000
ppm of NO. The technique is extremely useful for measurement of NO in
automotive exhaust gases.

CARBON MONOXIDE:
1. Non dispersive infrared analyzers
This is depends upon the characteristic energy of absorption of CO molecule at
wavelength of 4.6µ. IR energy is also absorbed by gases like CO2, H2O, SO2, and
NO2. The differentiation of CO from other gases is depends upon energy absorbed
, as infrared radiation is passed through a sample cell containing CO and a
reference cell containing a fixed quantity of N2, CO and water vapor. The
following shows a block diagram of the instrument. The reference cell contains a
fixed quantity of the gases whereas air sample is made to flow at about 150 ml/
min through the sample
cell. CO analyzers based on IR absorption would give greater sensitivity with
larger cell path lengths. Response time varies from 1 to 5 min. it can be calibrated
by known ppm concentration of CO in nitrogen into sample cell. The zero is set by
pure nitrogen sample. The effects of interfering gases can be minimized by optical
filters ahead of the sample cell.

Non- dispersive IR absorptiometry has the following advantages.

1. The effect of the flow rate is small.
2. The response speed is high.
3. High sensitivity measurements are possible.
4. The effects of interfering components is small.
5. The equipment are easy to maintain.
2. Gas chromatography:
When an air sample containing CO is passed through a stripper column, the
heavy hydrocarbons are retained and CO and methane are passed into a chromate
graphic column and then in to a catalytic reducing chamber. The methane would
pass through the reducing chamber unaffected, while CO is reduced to methane.
By using hydrogen ionization detector, both methane can be detected. The first
peak is due to methane, while the second peak would correspond to CO. the
accuracy is about +/- 2 %. Peak heights of CO and CH4 would give sensitivity of
about 50ppb.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE:
1. Colorimetry:
A known volume of air is passed through an aqueous solution, which contains
reagents that absorb 𝑆𝑂2 and produce a colored substance. The amount of colored
substance is proportional to the component of interest (𝑆𝑂2). This is determined
by measuring a solution’s optical absorbance spectro-photo metrically. Within
limits, the absorbance is linearly proportional to the concentration of the colored
species,
in accordance with the Beer’s law. Widely used method involving colorimetry for
determining 𝑆𝑂2 is west Gaeke method, which is applicable in the range of 0.005
– 5 ppm. The air to be analyzed is passes through an aqueous solution of 0.1M
sodium
tetra chloro mercurate. The sulphur dioxide reacts with the mercuric salt to form a
sulphatomercuric compound.
The solution is further treated with acid-bleached para-orosaniline and
formaldehyde which would result in a red purple color. The amount of color is
determined photometrically. Sulphur dioxide may also be determined by measuring
the decolorization of an aqueous starch iodine solution; which normally has a deep-
blue colour. When SO2 is passes through the solution containing starch-iodine
solution, the iodine is reduced by sulphur dioxide, which in turn results in decrease
of starch-iodine colour.
The advantaged of colorimetry are its simplicity, high sensitivity and good
specificity. Colour intensity is sensitive to temperature, purity of reagents, pH,
development time and age of solutions. This method is free from interference from
H2SO4, SO3, NH3, etc.
2.Conductivitimetry:
This analyzer is based on measuring the change in conductivity of a solution.
When a sample of air containing sulphur dioxide is bubbled through it are the
oldest and most commonly utilized instruments for ambient air monitoring. The
solution consists of sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The change in electrical
conductivity takes place due to formation of sulphuric acid by oxidation of the
sulphur dioxide.
H202+SO2H2SO4->H+HSO-4
Characterized by fast response and high sensitivity. Performance gets affected due
to interference by non-SO2 gases, that produce or remove ions in solution.
Employed when interfering gases are not in high concentration, or if they can be
effectively removed from the air sample.
The figure describes the construction of a conductivity cell for the continuous
measurement of sulphur dioxide in air. The cell C is made of glass, 1 cm inside
with a jet J, orifice 0.5 mm diameter, located 1 cm above the reagent surface. The
two electrodes E made of 18 SWG stainless steel wire are inserted through a
Perspex cap
P. The cap is sealed to the base of the cell. Reagent enters the cell from a central
tube inserted in the Perspex cap. A small glass bead B in the cell as non-return
valve on the entry of the feed tube and prevents sulphuric acid diffusing from the
cell. The end of the jet is made from a piece of capillary tube. A filter is placed
before the jet to prevent blocking due to solid materials. The flow of air through
the jet is maintained at approximately 200ml/min. The ceil is of small size (1.5ml)
and its capacity to absorb SO2 is thus limited.
 It is therefore operated intermittently, the electrolyte being discharged and
replaced at regular intervals of 15 min, the resulting output is recorded as a saw-
tooth waveform. To measure the conductivity of the cell, 5V alternating current is
applied across the electrodes. Alternating current avoids polarization. When
normal urban concentrations of SO2 are measured, the current through the cell
increases from its zero value of 20uA to up to 40uA at the end of 15 min. sampling
period. In conditions of heavy pollution, it may go to 2 mA. Because the current is
recorded every 15 minuted, the concentration of sulphur dioxide at any instant is
proportional to the slop of the saw – tooth at that instance. The calibration is
carried out by using known concebtration of sulphur dioxide in air.
3. Gas chromatography:
There are two problem when gas chromatographic technique is employed for
measuring pollutants in air.
a. Most of the pollutants ate extremely reactive material. Therefore may not
pass through the column and appear at the detector which required
special column and support materials
b. The amount of pollutants of interest is generally so small that when a
reasonably sized gas sample is injected into the carrier gas stream, it is
not detected by ordinary GC detectors. Hence extremely sensitive and
specific detectors must be employed.
These detectors measure the emission from sulphur compounds introduced into
hydrogen rich flame. A narrow band optical filter selects the 394 nm emission
band. These detectors are not susceptible to interference from non-sulphur
pollutants. However, they are subject to interference from other sulphur
compounds. This type of interference can be minimized by using selective filters.
4.Coulometry:
The ability of sulphur dioxide to reduce iodine can be employed to monitor
𝑆𝑂2 by using iodine coulometry in an aqueous solution. The mass of I2 reacted per
unit time during any given interval of time would indicate concentration of 𝑆𝑂2 in
air. A coulometric arrangement would require two electrodes made of platinum,
which act as anode and cathode. These electrodes maintain a trace of I2 in
equilibrium with potassium bromide to maintain conductance. The shift in the
anode-cathode potential is sensed by a third reference electrode, when 𝑆𝑂2 from
sample air is bubbled through the solution in a detector cell. The coulometric
method provides a detection limit of 0.001 ppm. The response is not instantaneous
and it may take about 4 minutes for the 90 per cent of the singnal to appear for any
concentration of 𝑆𝑂2.
5.Flame-photometric detector:
Flame photometers in which sample air is introduces into a hydrogen-rich
flame by using a narrow band interference filter that shields the photomultiplier
tube detector from all but 394nm emission energy of flame-excited sulphur atoms,
offer another method for monitoring combined sulphur. Research has continued to
increase the specificity of the method to actual SO2 rather than total sulphur
measurements. Suitable filters have been developed to remove interferences from
hydrogen sulphide and some other organic sulphur. It is expected that
improvements in selective filtration will result in a flame photometer for
monitoring ambient SO2 within acceptable accuracy levels. Sensitivity to total
sulphur by this method is 0.01 ppm.
6.Ultraviolet fluorescence method:
Flame method is based on the principle that SO2 molecules absorb UV light
and become excited at a particular wavelength. These molecules then decay to a
lower energy state emitting UV light at particular wavelength. The intensity of
fluorescence is proportional to the S𝑂2 concentration.

7.Gas chromatography:
The gas chromatographic technique has been applied for the detection and
measurement of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in air. They
are generally detected with flame ionization detectors. Flame ionization detectors
are
not sensitive to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These are first converted to
methane by hydrogenation, and then measured with this detector.
8.Use of lasers:
Fixed frequency, infrared emitting lasers have demonstrated their potential
in atmospheric monitoring and research. This is based on the absorption of co2
laser frequency by some gases. For example, a tunable dual-line co2 laser can be
used for atmospheric spectroscopy and pollution monitoring. This arrangement
facilitates measurement of 0.5 and 2 ppb densities of ethylene in a calm and
turbulent atmosphere, respectively. Ethylene id of considerable interest as a
pollutant to the petrochemical industry and for automobile for automobile exhaust.

SMOKE METERS
The most popular meter used commercially to detect the percentage of smoke
into flue gas from the boiler or some chemical processes is described below.
1. Photo cell type smoke meters
These works on the principle of passing a focussed light beam through the duct
or chimney photocell and the variation in signal of the photocell circuit will be a
measure of variation of the obscuration of the light source due to the smoke and
dust in the gas. The indicator is scaled in percentage obscuration. It has been found
that when the length of the light path of the smoke meter is equal to the diameter of
the chimney at the top then 64% obscuration as shown by the smoke meter of this
type corresponds to the mostly accepted standards for pollution control.
The smoke meter equipment consists of a stabilized power supply a lamp and a
projector mounted on one side of the duct and a receiver fitted with a photo cell
which may be of either selenium or cadmium sulphide type on which the light is
beamed, mounted on the opposite side of the duct a control unit with indicator,
warning lamps, alarm and recorder.
A big problem with smoke detector is the fouling of the projector or receiver
lens by smoke and dust. It has been experimentally determined that the dust will
not be deposited at the end of the tube at right angle to the dust if the ratio of the
length to the diameter is atleast 4:1 for the coarser particles and 16:1 for the finer
dust and fumes. Thus in order to keep the lens windows clean for lengthy periods
of operation, its usual to mount the lamp and photocell units on extension tubes
with the possibility of the lengths being varied from ratio 4:1 to 16:1. The tubes are
usually hexagon sections.
The further difficulty in the use of such instruments is the inability to check
regularly Zero drift. The zero drift is introduced due to aging of lamp, photocell
and other components and any slight build-up of dust on the lenses.
2. Dust Measurement
In power houses it is essential to control the amount of dust into flue gases in
order to comply with the requirements imposed by municiple laws to control
pollution. Many instruments have been designed for monitoring dust emissions.
These got an indication in accordance with some function of particle size. It is
possible to calibrate such instruments by means of dust sampling tests, but the
calibrated relationship between the instrument reading and dust emission, on a
weight basis, will only hold good provided that the dust particle size grading does
not significantly change from that obtained during the calibration tests. There are
four types of dust monitors found in common use.
3. Optical type flow dust monitors
It periodically collects a sample of grit and dust on a glass plate and measuring
the obscuration caused by this deposition using optical means. The dust and grit
enter an opening in the sampling hut which is permanently inside the duct and fall
on a glass plate. A light source is beamed to the glass plate on to photocell and the
percentage obscuration caused by the deposition of the dust on the plate in a
predetermined time is measured by the movement of a motor driven circular
optical wedge. The glass plate is then blown clean by compressed air.
As the sampling is non-isokinetic and by deposition only, the collection favours
the larger particulars and it is claimed that this type of instrument particularly gives
a warning of an emission likely to cause a nuisance.
4. Electrical type flow dust monitor
It withdraws a continuous sample of the dust-laden gas at constant velocity;
charges the dust electrically and then measures this charge which will be
proportional to the total surface area of the dust. If the size grading of the dust
remains constant, instrument indication will be proportional to the dust weight.
5. Electrostatic type flow dust monitor
It withdraws a sample of gas at constant velocity and imparts a swirl to the gas
and passes it through a tube made from one of a number of special materials
according to the particular application, the swirling dust gives an electrostatic
charge to this tube by friction, and this charge, if the size grading remains,
constant, is the measure of the dust on a weight basis
6. Reflected light dust monitor
It measures the light reflected or scattered from dust instead of recording the
light absorbed by dust. In this type of instrument a simple lamp and a photocell are
mounted by side. The light from the lamp, is beamed into the duct through a
suitable opening, some of this light will be reflected back on the photocell the
indication from which will vary with variation of the dust quantity in the gas. If the
dust size grading remains constant the instrument can be calibrated on a weight
basis. The advantages of this type of monitor are that it has not got any
alignment problems, it scans a
larger volume of dust laden gas, and is relatively free from corrosion due to
absence of components within the duct.
7. Visible Emission Monitoring System
Basically, the visible emission monitoring system is a transmission meter which
measures the transmittance of light through an optical medium. This consists of an
optical transmitter/receiver (transceiver) unit mounted on one side of a stack or
duct, and a reflector unit on the other side. A light source, a detector electronic
circuitry are all contained In the transceiver unit, while a special retro reflector is
housed in the passive reflector unit Output from this transceiver is transmitted to a
control- room unit that simultaneously provides an indication of optical density and
opacity corrected for stack -exit condition
8. Electro optical system
The advanced electro-optical system of this system utilizes a focused, auto
collimated, optical system and chopped, dual-beam, measurement technique. As
illustrated, the light emitted by an incandescent source in the transceiver is split
into a reference beam and a measuring beam, modulated-at separate frequencies by
a rotating disc so that they can he detracted by the same photocell. The measuring
beam is projected across the entire diameter or width of the smoke channel to a
retro reflector which directs the beam back through the smoke channel to the
photocell detector, regardless of small alignment variations between the two units.
Within the hermetically-scaled transceiver casing, the reference beam is projected
onto the same photocell detector. The signals are separated according to their
respective frequencies. The system is totally insensitive to ambient light since a
responds only to light chopped at one of the Iwo frequencies. The electronic
circuitry then compares the intensity of the measuring beam with that of the
reference beam. In this way, compensation is automatically provided for variation
in source intensity, component ageing and temperature fluctuations and a precise
measurement of smoke density is obtained.
9. Spectral Sensitivity
The optical system is specially designed to respond to a narrow range of light
wavelength corresponding to the sensitivity of the light-adapted human eye; this is
known as "photopic” spectral response. This characteristic response includes
wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 micron, with a maximum between 0.5 and 0.6 micron.
This light beam is attenuated by particulate matter as small as 0.2 micron, and
near- infrared absorption by water vapour is precluded. Thus, readings taken with
the system corresponds to visual measurements made by trained observers under
ideal conditions, but without being subject to errors by human judgment.
10. Alignment
This system tolerates most commonly encountered alignment variations arising
from stack or dust wall shifts due to thermal or mechanical loading. This tolerance
results from the focused light beam which provides very uniform illumination
(maximum variation of ± 2%) of the retro reflector and a large raw of illuminated
area to effective reflector area. The system is equipped with an optical bull meal
device to quickly and conveniently verify and, if necessary, adjust the alignment at
any time during operation.