Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research

19 (1), e0901, 14 pages (2021)

eISSN: 2171-9292
https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2021191-17100
Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA)

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of
saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari1, Hamid-Reza Fallahi2,3 Hossein Sahabi4,5, Hamed Kaveh4,5 and Ferdinando Branca6
1
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept. of Agrotechnology, Mashhad, Iran 2 University of Birjand, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept.
of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Birjand, Iran 3 University of Birjand, Plant and Environmental Stresses Research Group, Birjand, Iran. 4 University of
Torbat Heydarieh, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept. of Plant Production, Torbat Heydarieh, Iran. 5 Saffron Institute, Torbat Heydarieh, Iran 6 University of
Catania, Dept. of Agriculture, Food and Environment (Di3A), Catania, Italy.

Abstract
Aim of study: To compare the flowering of saffron between open field and controlled environment and to study the possibility of saffron
transplanting.
Area of study: University of Birjand (Iran)
Material and methods: In a first experiment, saffron yield and quality produced by traditional production system (TPS) and by soilless
one (SPS) were compared. In a second experiment, the effects of the production method, by direct planting (DP) or by transplanting plant
(TP) in open field were studied.
Main results: Percentage of flowering corms grown by SPS was 39% and 65%, while by TPS was 6% and 56% in 2018 and 2019,
respectively. Flower and stigma yields were significantly higher by SPS than by TPS. Stigma obtained from SPS had higher L (lightness)
and crocin. Safranal content was higher in stigma produced by TPS. Leaf and root numbers and corm weight were higher for SPS, but after
transplanting there was better status for DP than for TP. At the end of the first growing season (2018-19), mean replacement corms weight
(4.4 vs 3.0 g), replacement corms yield (21.3 vs 12.8 g per plant), weight of main replacement corm (11.7 vs 6.0 g) and number of large
replacement corms (0.6 vs 0.1 corms per plant) for DP were significantly higher than for TP. However, during the second growing season
(2019-20), the plants in TP plots improved their performances.
Research highlights: Saffron production was more favorable under controlled environment. Transplanting is possible, but there is a need
to improve methods to gain more favorable results.
Additional keywords: crocin; flower; hydroponics; safranal; stigma; transplanting.
Abbreviations used: DP (direct planting); PM (production methods); PS (production systems); SPS (soilless production system); TP
(transplanting); TPS (traditional production system)
Authors’ contributions: MAS and HRF came up with the idea for the experiment. MAS, HRF and HS designed and performed the
experiment. HK performed qualitative analysis of samples. HRF and HK analysed the data. HRF and FB coordinated the research project
and paper writing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Citation: Aghhavani-Shajari, M; Fallahi, HR; Sahabi, H; Kaveh, H; Branca, F (2021). Production systems and methods affect the
quality and the quantity of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, Volume 19, Issue 1, e0901. https://doi.
org/10.5424/sjar/2021191-17100
Received: 28 Jun 2020. Accepted: 11 Mar 2021.
Copyright © 2021 INIA. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Interna-
tional (CC-by 4.0) License.

Funding agencies/institutions Project / Grant

The Saffron Institute, University of Torbat Heydarieh, Iran P/99736

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Correspondence should be addressed to Hamid-Reza Fallahi: [email protected]

Introduction Central Asia in the east to Spain in the west. This plant can
be cultivated in very diverse environmental conditions,
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) plant is native to the but the best climate for its growing is the Mediterranean
Mediterranean region and is cultivated mostly in Iran, climate (Koocheki & Khajeh-Hosseini, 2020). Saffron
which has near 90% of the world production (Behdani & stigma and corolla have many applications in cosmetic,
Fallahi, 2015). Saffron growing zones are spread from food, health and medical industries (Koocheki et al.,
10ºW to 60ºE longitude and 29-42ºN latitude, between 2019). Crocin (responsible for the colour) and picrocrocin
2 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

(responsible for the taste) are two main components in stig- tive humidity of ~85%, for proper flower initiation (Mo-
ma, which constitutes 6-16% and 1-13% of saffron’s dry lina et al., 2004; Alonso et al., 2012; Mollafilabi, 2014).
matter, respectively. In addition, safranal (responsible for The levels of CO (carbon monoxide, which should not
the aroma) is the most important compound among more exceed 2500 ppm) and ethylene (which can break corm
than 160 volatile components and represents 30-70% of es- dormancy) are the other important factors during this sta-
sential oil and 0.001–0.006% of saffron dry matter (Kiani & ge (Alonso et al., 2012). The second stage of flowering
Minaei, 2016). is named flower emergence or flower appearance. During
Saffron botanically is an annual plant, because each this stage, flowers appear on the surface of the soil and na-
mother corm lasts for only a single year. Flowering occurs turally happen around mid-autumn, what mainly depends
in autumn before, concurrent or even after leaf appearan- on temperature and soil humidity. For proper performance
ce. The replacement of the initial corm and its propaga- of this stage under the controlled environment, it is neces-
tion occurs after flowering up to the end of the growing sary to reduce the temperature (~15-17 ºC), provide water
season in mid-spring, when real dormancy of produced and light with an interval of ~8 h light and 16 h darkness
corms/cormlets starts, and it continues with pseudo-dor- (Molina et al., 2004; Behdani & Fallahi, 2015).
mancy during the summer season (Koocheki et al., 2019). Mollafilabi (2014) concluded that the real dormancy
The saffron has been traditionally grown by perennial period of corms (around June) is the best time for corm/
growing cycle and its yield has a strong correlation with cormlets digging up, which are going to be used in saffron
the corm size (Branca & Argento, 2010). The only method cultivation under the controlled environment. The same
of traditional saffron cultivation is its production under author also found that 85-90 days is an appropriate dura-
open field conditions. Recently, however, mainly due to tion for corm incubation during summer. Sadeghi (2013)
climate change outcomes attention has been paid to its pro- also found that application of coco-peat around the incu-
duction under controlled conditions (Behdani & Fallahi, bated corms and incubation period of 60-150 days can
2015). In the last two decades, decrease in precipitation, improve saffron flowering under controlled conditions.
increased temperature during flower initiation stage and Maggio et al. (2006) revealed that saffron flowering in a
consequently the abortion of some initiated flowers, delay soilless system was higher in perlite compared to the mix-
in supplying the proper temperature for flower emergence ture of peat and perlite as growing media. Besides, saffron
in autumn, poor soils quality which renders difficulty the yield in glasshouse and growth chambers was double of
flower emergence; have led progressively to the decline those obtained in traditional field cultivation. Molina et
in the flowering capacity of saffron in several countries al. (2004) also reported that with the planting density of
(Fallahi et al., 2015, 2018a). Accordingly, its production 457 corms m-2, it is possible to produce 855 kg of saffron
under controlled environment conditions could represent spice in one hectare of a greenhouse. Fallahi et al. (2017a)
a possible solution for reducing the above-cited problems, observed that flowering in the soilless culture of saffron
due to the lack of soil, the proper temperature levels, and was 6.6 times higher than its soil cultivation in the field.
providing appropriate water availability in this production Souret & Weathers (2000) observed that stigma yield and
system (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). Saffron production un- quality of saffron were similar in three production sys-
der the controlled environment based on the hydroponic tems (aeroponics, hydroponics, and soil culture). Poggi et
method leads to an increase in water use efficiency, which al. (2010) found that stigma obtained from the controlled
is a great advantage in areas affected by drought stress environment was superior in yield and quality to that pro-
(Sadeghi, 2013). The microclimate and nutrition of the duced in the field. García-Rodríguez et al. (2017) reported
plants can also be carefully controlled, resulting in higher that cold storage and the incubation of corms imposed a
yield and perhaps better product quality (Mollafilabi, negative effect on the quality of stigma.
2014). Preventing the need for the labor force in a short After completing the second stage of flowering under
of time (by extending the flowering period), lower flower the controlled environment, saffron corms most probably
contamination, faster and easier harvesting of flowers, can be transplanted in the field for the production of re-
reducing the prevalence of weeds and pathogens and re- placement corms (Alonso et al., 2012; Sadeghi, 2013). At
leasing large volumes of water and land for the planting the end of the growing season in mid-spring when lea-
of other plants are the other benefits of hydroponically ves become senescent, large produced corms will be used
saffron production (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). for starting a new cycle of flowering under the contro-
Saffron corm has two separated stages to flower. The lled environment (Sadeghi, 2013). However, so far, this
first stage is called flower initiation, which takes place procedure has not been fully investigated. Molina et al.
during pseudo-dormancy stage in summer. Under the (2010) reported that leaves of transplanted plants grown
controlled environment, corms must be stored in dark in the greenhouse were longer but had lower photosyn-
conditions (to avoid etiolation, and the disproportiona- thesis rate than the field-grown ones and finally obtained
te growth of leaves and floral tube) for 55-150 days (the lower number of corms at the end of the growing season.
best: 90-120 days), at ~23-27ºC (the best: 25 ºC) and rela- Overall, despite the feasibility of saffron production under

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 3

the controlled environment, there are still doubts about tal diameter), selected to be used for establishing the ex-
the quality of produced stigma, as well as about the possi- periment. Each PS had three replications. In each replica-
bility of corm/plant transplanting in soilless systems. This tion, 100 corms were planted on October 17, in 90×30×15
study aimed to compare stigma yield and quality produ- cm trays or 1×1 m plots into the soil. Plant density of 370
ced under natural or controlled conditions and to investi- corms per m-2 was used in trays related to SPS, whereas
gate the possibility of transplanting those corms, which for TPS the corms were placed at 10 cm distances be-
flower in soilless conditions. tween and along the single rows reaching the crop density
of 100 corms/m2. In SPS, since the corms are only in the
planting trays during the flowering period and the corm
Material and methods propagation does not occur in this environment, high plan-
ting density considered for the proper use of space. While
Saffron yield and quality in relation to the in TPS, in addition to the flowering stage, the corms go
production system through the vegetative growth stage and the production
of replacement corms in the same environment, and plan-
In this experiment, the effect of production systems ting density should be reduced (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015).
(PS) and of its environmental conditions was evaluated on However, to accurately compare the two treatments, the
the yield and quality of saffron during flowering seasons number of corms planted in each plot (for TPS) was equal
of 2018 and 2019. The treatments were corm planting to the number of corms planted in each planting tray (for
under traditional production systems (TPS) into the soils SPS). The characteristics of soil used in the TPS plots are
or under soilless production systems (SPS). In previous presented in Table 1, while for SPS the corms were grown
studies (Molina et al., 2004; Sadeghi, 2013; Mollafilabi, in absence of soil on a linen fabric below corms plus 4 g
2014) on soilless production of saffron, both flower ini- synthetic superabsorbent (Table 1) per tray to hold water
tiation (during summer) and flower emergence (during and nutrients for roots.
mid-autumn) stages occurred under controlled conditions. In both planting environments, the first irrigation (ne-
However, in the present study, the first stage of flowering cessary for flower bud sprouting and flower emergence)
took place in the soil in open field conditions, and only was done on the 20th October. After corms irrigation,
the second stage of flowering occurred in a controlled experimental trays were transferred to a room with a
environment. Therefore, the flower initiation stage of all temperature of 18±1°C during days and 12±1°C during
corms was completed under field conditions in Sarayan nights (similar to daily temperature trend in nature). The
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Iran. Daily photoperiod was set with 8 hours of light and 16 hours of
air temperatures during this stage are presented in Fig. 1. darkness (Molina et al., 2004); while in TPS corms were
Corm batches were lifted from the soil on 15th Octo- grown under natural temperature and photoperiod (Fig.
ber 2018 and 2019, then corms were separated and those 2). The light intensity in SPS was around 26 µmol m-2
which were healthy and weighed 7-9 g (2.62 cm horizon- s-1, which was provided by fluorescent lamps. Under SPS,

50 Minimum air temperature Maximum air temperature Average air temperature

40

30
Tempreature (oC)

20

10

0
22-Jun

22-Jul

22-Aug

22-Sep

CP
22-Oct

22-Nov

20-Dec
SF

-10

-20
Days of two flowering stages

Figure 1. Air temperature trend during both flower initiation and flower emergence stages (2018). CP= Corm
planting in field or flowering room; SF=start of flowering

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

4 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

Table 1. Soil characteristics of the field utilized for the traditional production system (TPS) and the main properties of superabsor-
bent polymer used for soilless production system (SPS)
Year Soil texture Phosphorous (ppm) Organic carbon (%) Total nitrogen (%) pH EC (dS m-1)
2018[1] Loam 4.9 0.21 0.019 8.10 3.02
2019[2] Loamy sand 4.7 0.35 0.018 8.03 3.00
Super absorbent polymer characteristics
Water holding Maximum
Density (g cm-3) Grain size (mm) pH EC (dS m-1)
capacity (g g-1) durability (yrs)
1.1-1.5 0.5-1 330 7 7.4 1.75
[1]
First flowering season (autumn 2018). [1] Second flowering season (autumn 2019)

corms were irrigated every two days with 1% solution, the UV-vis spectrometric method (ISO/TS 3632, 2011).
which was prepared with Dalfard 15® chemical fertili- Their contents were expressed as direct readings of the
zer (a specific fertilizer for saffron containing 12% N, 8% absorbance of 1% aqueous solution of dried stigma at
P2O5, 4% K2O, 2000 ppm Fe, 1000 ppm Zn, 1000 ppm 257, 330, and 440 nm, respectively. In addition, saffron
Mn, and 500 ppm Cu). For TPS there was no irrigation classification was done based on ISO normative (ISO/TS
up to the end of the flowering stage, but a crust breaking 3632, 2011), which classifies the saffron into three cate-
was applied five days after pre-flowering irrigation to help gories according to crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal com-
easier flower emergence through the soil. pounds. Color parameters (Hunter color values L, a, and
During the flowering season (started from 4th of No- b) of stigma were determined using a colorimeter (TES
vember), flowers were counted and harvested daily by 135, Shenzhen Youfu Tools Co., Ltd., Taiwan) (Fallahi et
hand, and then were transferred to the laboratory for mea- al., 2017b; Khayyat et al., 2018).
surements of their length and weight. After that, the style
and petals were separated and dried under room tempe-
rature (~ 25°C) at shade for 10 days. At the end of the Saffron vegetative growth in relation to the
flowering period (~two weeks), the daily sum of flowers production method
weight was considered as flower yield. Moreover, total
dried styles and petals were weighed with a precision of Corms which flowered in trays by SPS (in the first
0.001 g and considered as their yields. experiment), were transplanted to plots in the open field
The dried stigmas were used for qualitative evaluation beside the plots of the TPS, on the 25th of December. Ac-
including picrocrocin, crocin, and safranal content and cordingly, we compared two production methods (PM):
Hunter's color parameters. ISO 3632 was used for picro- (1) saffron growing in the natural environmental condi-
crocin, safranal, and crocin content measurement using tions by direct planting (DP), (2) saffron grown in SPS

70 Minimum soil temperature (oC) Minimum air temperature (oC)

Maximum air temperature (oC) Mean air temperature (oC)
60 Evaporation (mm) Sunny hours
Climatic factors

Precipitation (mm) Mean air humidity (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
planting

20-Oct

30-Oct

10-Nov
flowering

flowering
Start of
Corm

End of

Dates from corm planting on 17-Oct up to end of flowering on 18-Nov

Figure 2. Climatic parameters for traditional production system (TPS) from corm planting date up to the end
of flowering (2018)

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 5

and after in TPS by transplanting (TP). The soil used was corms weight would be more favorable, if the transferred
similar for both PS (Table 1) . plants stay in the same field for another year. At the end
For comparison of vegetative traits of saffron grown of the second growing season corm growth parameters,
by the two PM, six sampling dates were considered du- including their number and weight, were again measured
ring the vegetative growth stage on the 25th of December in both PM.
2018 and on 25th January, 15th February, 6th March, 9th
April, and 4th May 2019. On each sampling date, four
plants were removed from the soil of each plot, and then Data analysis
they were washed. The measured traits were: number of
leaves per plant, leaf length, cataphyll (leaf sheath=white In both experiments, SAS 9.2 was used for data analy-
and non-photosynthetic leaves) length, number of fibrous sis. The t-test was used to compare results between PS and
roots per plants, mean length of roots, the total length of PM, in terms of qualitative and quantitative parameters.
roots per plant, number of contractile roots per plant, the
weight of mother corm, number of replacement corms
per plant, weight of all replacement corms per plant and Results and discussion
weight of main replacement corm (the largest corm in each
plant, which has the most flowering capacity). In addition, Saffron yield and quality in relation to the
at the end of the growing season, the replacement corms production system
of five plants were removed from the soil to compare their
final growth status concerning the PM. Then, the number Flowering traits
of replacement corms in different weight groups (<3, 3-6,
6-9, 9-12, and >12 g), mean weight of replacement corms, There were significant differences between all flowe-
main replacement corm weight (largest corm), and total ring parameters of saffron planted in the two PS in both
yield of replacement corms per plant, were determined. flowering seasons (Table 2). In the first flowering season,
However, because the produced replacement corms in by fixing the planting density in the planting plots and
both PMs were not in the appropriate size at the end of the trays, while only 6% of planted corms produced flower
first growing season (3 and 4.4 g for TP and DP, respecti- by TPS, the flowering percent for SPS was 38.6%. The
vely), the experiment was continued for another growing considerable higher flowering percentage in SPS compa-
season (2019-20). Our hypothesis was the new replaced red with TPS is due to optimal environmental conditions,

Table 2. Effect of production system on saffron flowering descriptors during flowering seasons of 2018 and
2019.
Flowering parameters Year SPS TPS t value p value
Percentage of flowered corms 2018 38.66 06.00 -13.59 0.0002
2019 65.20 56.70 -8.89 0.0009
Flower length (cm) 2018 8.48 5.25 -103.89 0.0001
2019 7.47 5.67 -5.75 0.0045
Mean flower weight (g) 2018 0.43 0.34 -8.14 0.0012
2019 0.41 0.36 -3.13 0.0353
Flower yield (g per 100 planted corms)[1] 2018 16.80 02.03 -24.09 0.0016
2019 26.70 20.60 -2.79 0.0495
Stigma length (cm) 2018 6.00 3.67 -11.11 0.0072
2019 2.51 2.34 -2.54 0.0542
Pistil fresh yield (g per 100 planted corms) 2018 1.86 0.62 -72.96 0.0001
Pistil dry yield (g per 100 planted corms) [1] 2018 0.263 0.025 -85.58 0.0001
2019 0.416 0.324 -5.13 0.0068
Petal dry weight (g per 100 planted corms) [1]
2018 1.80 0.20 -31.38 0.0001
2019 2.81 2.30 -3.88 0.0178
SPS: soilless production system. TPS: traditional production system. For each descriptor, the value of p re-
presents the significant differences between two planting systems. [1]These 100 corms were planted in 0.27
m2 (30×90 cm trays) and 1 m2 (100×100 cm plots) for SPS and TPS, respectively. Therefore, to report yield
values in SPS based on unit area, the table numbers must be multiplied by 3.7.

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

6 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

especially proper temperature, during the flower emergen- the real dormancy period and then kept under appropriate
ce stage (Koocheki & Khajeh-Hosseini, 2020) and the ab- climatic parameters up to the end of the both flowering
sence of soil physical resistance against flower emergence phases (Mollafilabi, 2014). As reported by Molina et al.
(Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). It has been reported that about (2010), 1.5 flowers per corm were produced, when cor-
70% of saffron flowering variation is determined with ms were kept in 25 oC for 105 days to pass their flower
temperature parameters. A relative increase in air tempe- initiation stage (formation of flower primordial) and then
rature the during flower emergence stage, will postpone were transferred to a growth chamber with appropriate
blooming and will reduce the percentage of flowered cor- temperature (17oC). Compared with Molina et al. (2010),
ms (Askari-Khorasgani & Pessarakli, 2019; Rezvani Mo- the flowering capacity of corms under SPS was lower
ghaddam, 2020). In the present study, air temperature on (0.38 and 0.65 flowers per corm in the first and the second
some days was not optimal for saffron flower emergence, flowering seasons, respectively). One reason for this di-
which resulted in lower flowering in TPS. In addition, soil fference is the lower weight of the corms (7-9 g with 2.62
structure of the experimental plots in the first year of study cm horizontal diameter), which were used in the present
was not suitable enough for flower emergence (Table 1). study. However, the more important reason is that in their
These two factors probably caused a severe difference in experiment both flowering stages were carried out under
the flowering percentage of corms between the two PS. favorable controlled conditions.
The flowering percentages for the second growing Molina et al. (2010) stated that it is possible to gain
season were 65% and 56% for SPS and TPS, respecti- 600-700 kg ha-1 spice during 8-9 harvests from Sep-
vely (Table 2). Considerable increase in flowering of TPS tember to May under greenhouse conditions, when all
in the second flowering season compared with the first flowering stages were passed under an optimum contro-
flowering season is probably related to the better soil pro- lled environment. Mollafilabi (2014) also reported that
perties used as corms substrate in the second growing sea- 1.38 flowers per corm (average weight of 15.5 g) were
son, where the soil was lighter with higher organic carbon produced when saffron corms were kept under contro-
and slightly less electrical conductivity (Table 1). In su- lled conditions for 90 days during the flower initiation
pport of this hypothesis, Fallahi et al. (2018b) concluded stage and then transferred to the flowering room during
that saffron flowers emerged more easily when corm plan- flower emergence stage. Poggi et al. (2010) kept saffron
ting was done in a soil with a lighter texture and higher or- corms under the controlled climate during both flowe-
ganic matter content. The results of Cardone et al. (2020) ring stages and then harvested 1.08 and 3.01 flowers per
also revealed that saffron corm planting in a loam and corm, when the weight of planted corms was 10 and 20
sandy-loam soil, not very calcareous, with a sub-alkaline g, respectively. Maggio et al. (2006) planted corms with
and neutral pH, low electrical conductivity with a content a diameter of 3 cm in greenhouse (ambient temperature
of organic matter between 5.46 and 8.67 g kg-1, is more in the dark conditions under black mulching during incu-
favorable to improve its growth and yield. In addition to bation and natural sunlight during flowering) and grow-
soil properties, the mean air temperature during the flowe- th chamber (25 and 17 ºC during flower initiation and
ring stage was around 1.2 oC lower in the second flowe- flower emergence stages, respectively and artificial light
ring season, which is considered as a motivation factor in during flowering). Their results revealed that the number
flower emergence (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). of flowers per corm was 4.5 and 4.7 for the greenhouse
Higher flowering of saffron under the controlled en- and growth chamber, respectively, when perlite was used
vironment can be caused by lack of heat stress during as substrate. These values were 4.9 and 5.4, respectively,
flower initiation stage (around mid-summer), proper tem- when vermiculite was used as corms substrate. They also
perature to stimulate flower emergence (in mid-fall), and observed that the mean greenhouse temperature (average
removal of soil physical resistance against flower emer- minimum and maximum daily temperatures during the
gence through the soil (Molina et al., 2004; Fallahi et al., corm incubation period, from the 10th August to 1st of No-
2018a). Considering that in the present research, in both vember, were 16 and 31°C, respectively) was very simi-
PS, the plants at the flower initiation stage were grown lar to the saffron requirements. This shows that in some
under open field conditions, higher flowering under SPS areas high yields of saffron can be obtained under cold
mainly arises from the last two reasons. Assuming that greenhouses, with no need to create facilities to control
almost all corms can produce flower when both flowering environmental factors.
stages (flower initiation and flower emergence) be pas- In the first and the second flowering seasons, flower
sed under a well-controlled environment (Behdani & Fa- length (39 and 31%, respectively), flower weight (26 and
llahi, 2015), we found that about 10-30% of the increase 14%, respectively), and stigma length (63 and 7%) in SPS
in flowered corms in SPS is related to providing optimal were higher than the ones produced under TPS (Table 2).
environmental conditions during flower emergence sta- This observation probably arises from the lack of physi-
ge. Accordingly, it is possible to gain a higher flowering cal resistance of the planting bed against the emergence
percentage, if mother corms get out from the soil during of flowers in SPS. In a previous study on saffron, also the

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 7

positive role of reduction in soil resistance against flower study. This differences on one hand is due to more corm
emergence has been proved (Aghhavani-Shajari et al., weight used in their experiment (15.5 g vs 8 g in ours)
2015). One probable reason for longer flowers under SPS and on the other hand again shows the vital role of flower
is due to longer cataphylls (Fig. 3C), the organs that the initiation stage on flowering parameters, because in their
flowers within them reach to the top of the soil. The fi- study both stages of flowering passed out under appro-
nal outcome of improved reproductive growth of saffron priate condition in the controlled environment. Conside-
under SPS was observed as increased fresh flowers (727 ring heat stresses occurred during the flower initiation
and 30% for the first and the second flowering seasons, stage (mid-summer) (Fig. 1), which was higher than the
respectively) and dry pistil yields (952 and 28% for the results of Molina et al. (2004, 2010) on the appropriate
first and the second flowering seasons, respectively), in temperature for this stage (~25ºC), the appropriate results
comparison with TPS, which mainly was resulted from of saffron production in SPS, especially in areas with hot
an increase in the percentage of flowered corms (Table summers, certainly will gain when both stages of flowe-
2). Poggi et al. (2010) similarly reported that stigma pro- ring passes out under controlled conditions.
duction per corm under SPS conditions was twice higher
than that obtained in the field. They also reported that
alternated flowering and higher corm density (6-9 times) Quality of stigma in relation to the production
under controlled conditions remarkably increase the system
greenhouse production per square meter. In the study of
Mollafilabi (2014), mean flower weight of saffron in the The production system had a significant effect on
controlled environment was 0.53 g, which is around 22% L and a color parameters, and also safranal and crocin
higher than in our observations. Similarly, flower yield content of stigma at least during one flowering season (Ta-
was around 4 times higher than of those obtained in our ble 3). Stigmas obtained from SPS had higher L and crocin

16 30
p=0.0335 A B
14
25 p=0.3486
Average length of leaf (cm)
Leaf number per plant

12 p=0.047 p=0.3806 p=0.1948

10 20
p=0.0474
8 p=0.0572 15
p=0.044
6
p=0.183 10
4
p=0.0051
2 5

0 0
25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May 25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May
Sampling date Sampling date

12 C

10 Direct planting
Transplanting
Cataphyll length (cm)

8 p=0.2392
p=0.05

6
p=0.0608
4 p=0.0673
p=0.4211

0
25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May
Sampling date

Figure 3. Effect of production method of saffron on number of leaves (A), leaf length (B) and cataphyll length (C) during
its vegetative growth stages. The green parts of leaf considered in measurements. Date of transplanting: 25th December 2018
(The first sampling was also done on this day). For each descriptor and sampling date, the value of p represents the significant
differences between two planting methods based on t-test.

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8 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

Table 3. Effect of production system on saffron stigma quality during flowering seasons of 2018 and 2019.
𝟏𝟏% 𝟏𝟏% 𝟏𝟏%

L a b Safranal ( λ𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ) Crocin( λ𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ) Picrocrocin ( λ𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 )

(330 nm) [1, 4] (440 nm) [2, 4] (257 nm) [3, 4]
2018 2019 2018 2019 2018 2019 2018 2019 2018 2019 2019
SPS 44.2 49.95 20.1 16.46 8.67 8.16 44.2 40.13 182.7 186.2 78.7
TPS 27.9 48.66 27.9 10.58 8.72 7.60 54.2 47.33 170.7 170.9 77.1
t value -3.93 -0.52 3.25 -5.57 0.07 -0.41 7.27 4.69 -0.95 -3.89 -0.89
p value [5] 0.0170 0.6304 0.0315 0.0051 0.9477 0.7008 0.0019 0.0093 0.3945 0.0176 0.320
SPS: soilless production system. TPS: traditional production system. [1] Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 330 nm. [2]
Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 440 nm. [3] Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 257 nm. [4] Based on ISO
normative, stigmas produced in both production system belonged to II, I and I categories in terms of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal
content, respectively (see more information in Cardone et al., 2020). [5] For each descriptor, the value of p represents the significant
differences between the two planting systems.

values while safranal content was significantly lower in Saffron growth in relation to the production
comparison to TPS (Table 3). This means that stigma pro- method
duced under TPS was some darker in appearance but had a
higher aroma. There is low information about the quality of The aerial parts growth trend
saffron produced in SPS. In a primary research on saffron,
it was reported that crocin and crocetin content were higher Based on t-test results, there were significant differen-
in stigma obtained by aeroponically grown corms, while ces between DP and TP methods in terms of the number
picrocrocin was a little bit greater in soil culture (Souret of leaves per plant in most sampling dates during saffron
& Weathers, 2000). In the study of García-Rodríguez et growing season. Production of new leaves in DP continued
al. (2017) the corms were first kept in ultra-low oxygen up to early April, while the maximum number of leaves in
cooling chambers for 40 and 70 days, then transferred to TP was obtained in mid-February (Fig. 3A). Transplanted
different incubation periods (0, 30, and 60 days) and finally plants had significantly more leaf length up to late January,
were grown in hydroponics in a flowering room. Their re- but after that, there were no significant differences between
sults showed that the cold storage and the incubation time the two planting methods (Fig. 3B). In a similar study on
provided a negative effect on the quality parameters inclu- saffron, leaves of the transplanted plants were longer with
ding safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin contents than control higher leaf area but had a lower photosynthesis rate than
treatment (corm planting in the flowering room at 18 ºC the DP ones (Molina et al., 2010). In both DP and TP treat-
without any ultra-low oxygen or incubation pre-treatment). ments, the highest values of leaf length were obtained in
In their study, there was no control field-grown treatment. early April; then, simultaneously with the onset of leaf
However, safranal content of hydroponics samples was aging, showed a sharp decreasing trend (Fig. 3B). In sa-
higher, while picrocrocin content was similar to those re- ffron, at the end of the growing season simultaneous with
ported in other open field studies. Finally, they stated that an increase in temperature and decrease in soil moisture,
some treatments were able to provide stigma of high qua- photoassimilates reallocate from the leaves to the new
lity according to the ISO standard. Mollafilabi (2014) also cormlets and the leaves start to senescence (Lopez-Corco-
found that saffron produced in stone wool and peat moss les et al., 2015). The change in sink-source relations and
beds under the controlled environment, was graded as ex- reallocation of photoassimilates during the last growing
cellent according to Iranian national standards for stigma phase of saffron has also been reported by Behdani et al.
quality. Poggi et al. (2010) compared the quality of stigma (2016) and Fallahi & Mahmoodi (2018a). Similar to our
produced under greenhouse with others obtained in field findings, Gholami et al. (2017) in an open-field study found
and concluded that crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal con- that saffron leaf length reached its highest value (from 7
tents of saffron produced in the chamber was better (values to 40 cm) between 30 and 110 days after emergence, whi-
~20% higher) according to ISO 3632-1 specification. In le during the two last months of the growing season was
the present study, based on ISO normative, stigmas pro- constant. Reduction in leaf length during the first month
duced in both production systems belonged to II, I, and of sampling (Fig. 3B) is due to the high production rate
I categories in terms of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal of new leaves during the early phase of vegetative growth
contents, respectively (Table 3). Overall, it seems that (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). Cataphyll length in TP was
saffron production under SPS can meet the indices defined in higher than in DP throughout the vegetative growth stage,
saffron quality standards, although more studies are required although this difference was statistically significant only at
to judge accurately. the first sampling date (Fig. 3C). These white membranous

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 9

structures cover and protect the true green leaves of saffron had similar amounts in the two production systems, after
as such as the vegetative apex. Behdani & Fallahi (2015) mid-February (Fig. 4A). In relative similarity with the
reported that early irrigation causes cataphylls to manifest findings of Renau-Morata et al. (2012), the trend of new
before blooming therefore, more water availability in the root production during vegetative growth was increasing
TP (when they were under controlled condition) may be the up to February and then followed by a rapidly decreasing
reason for longer cataphylls. trend in both methods of planting (Fig. 4A). Accordingly,
Fallahi & Mahmoodi (2018b) found that foliar nutrition
is more effective than soil application of nutrients, when
Saffron root growth in relation to the production the growth of the root system starts to decrease. Average
method root length had a different trend between the two produc-
tion methods. Corms that emerged under the controlled
The effect of the planting method was significant on environment had longer roots (in transplanting day) but
the number of roots per plant for the first (transplanting their enlargement stopped after transplanting, while root
day) and the second sampling dates. TP plants showed the length in corms that were planted directly in the soil
more roots than DP ones, and the latter showed the same increased up to the mid-February and then decreased
amount of roots one month after transplanting. This index (Fig. 4B). Therefore, the root was longer in the controlled

60 A
p=0.0181 6 p=0.0014 B
50 p=0.9605
5
Number of root per plant

Average length of roots (cm)

40
4
p=0.8330 p=0.6035
p=0.0229
30
3
p=0.0079
p=0.05 p=0.032
20 2

p=0.3465
10 1

0 0
25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May 25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May
Sampling date
Sampling date

300 4,5
C D
Total length of roots per plant (cm)

p=0.0024 4
Number of contractile root per plant

250 Direct planting

3,5
p= 0.0202 Transplanting
200 3

150 2,5
p=0.0854 p=0.0132
2
100 p=0.0078
1,5
p=0.0579
p=0.0178 p=0.0186
50 1 p=0.0132

0,5 p=0.0001
0
25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May 0
25-Dec 25-Jan 15-Feb 06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May

Sampling date Sampling date

Figure 4. Effect of production method of saffron on the number of roots (A), root length (B), total roots length (C) and number
of contractile roots (D) during its vegetative growth stage. Date of transplanting: 25th December 2018 (The first sampling was
also done on this day). For each descriptor and sampling date, the value of p represents the significant differences between two
planting methods based on t-test.

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

10 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

environment but up to a short period after transplanting. were flowered under controlled condition (TP), there was
Accordingly, it seems that transplanting caused a stress, no significant difference between them and the DP ones
which resulted in a reduction in root system growth. Sou- in terms of mother corm weight (Fig. 5A). Mother corm
ret & Weathers (2000) stated that root development of reservoirs were used to produce flowers, leaves, and roots
saffron under hydroponic conditions decreases if oxygen (Behdani et al., 2016). Rapid breakdown of reservoirs of
supply for the root system is low or if the root is exposed to mother corms in soilless culture led to further growth of
light. Overall, root length —especially during February and aerial (Figs. 3A, B, C) and underground (Figs. 4A, B, C,
March with significant differences— was higher in DP du- D) parts of saffron at the beginning of the growing season.
ring most part of the vegetative growth stage (Fig. 4B). This is a useful occurrence because a higher rate of vege-
Root number and length, calculated as total root length tative growth after flowering will lead to further growth
per plant, showed an increasing trend up to mid-February of replacement corms, provided that this condition was
and then decreased for both DP and TP. Although total continued after transplanting.
length of the root system was higher under the controlled Corm proliferation affected negatively by transplanting,
environment compared with DP, the TP showed reduced so that, number of corms per plant in DP and TP were 3.83
values of the above-cited characteristics, especially du- and 2, respectively, one month after transplanting which
ring January and February, when these differences were were, respectively, 70% and 0%, higher than the date of
different significantly (Fig. 4C). The number of contrac- transplanting. However, these significant differences disa-
tile roots had a similar trend between the two methods of ppeared in the next sampling dates during vegetative grow-
saffron planting, but with higher amounts in TP during th and reached to 4.83 and 4.33 replacement corms per
the whole plant growing season. The differences between plant for DP and TP, respectively, at the end of the growing
the two planting methods were significant during plant season (Fig. 5B). The highest rate of corm proliferation for
growing season and the highest values were gained during DP was during January, but for TP was with a one-month
February (Fig. 4D). Souret & Weathers (2000) reported delay, during February (Fig. 5B), which indicates a stress
that saffron plants were grown hydroponically or aeropo- imposition on the transplanted plants exactly after trans-
nically had shorter and thicker roots and more contractile planting. This time delay in corm proliferation resulted
roots than soil cultured plants. They stated that the un- in a less significant yield of replacement corms (Fig. 5C)
usual morphology of roots in their experiment was due and lower weight of main replacement corm (Fig. 5D)
to mechanical impedance associated with the NFT (nu- in TP compared with the DP, during the last two months
trient film technique) channel in hydroponic and the wall of the growing season. Really, the active period for corm
of mist chamber in aeroponics culture systems. Moreover, filling in TP was one month shorter with a delay in corm
they said that contractile roots production, which redu- proliferation. The yield of replacement corms per plant and
ces corms growth, may be related to planting depth and the weight of the main replacement corm at the end of the
light intensity. In another study, the high soil humidity, growing season for DP were 66% and 94% higher than
inappropriate planting date, and also untimely irrigation TP, respectively (Fig. 5C, D). Accordingly, transplanting
(delayed spring, summer, and early fall irrigations) were of corms that flowered under the controlled environmen-
considered as the reasons for the increase in contractile tal conditions could not produce replacement corms with
roots development in saffron (Koocheki et al., 2016). the desired weight which can be used in the new flowe-
ring cycle under SPS. In our research, there was no specific
nutritional management for transplanting treatment despite
Saffron corm growth in relation to the production low availability of nutrients in the soil (Table 1). Therefo-
method re, it seems that we need an appropriate nutrition program
both before and after the TP or we should try to find new
Differences between the two planting methods in ter- strategies to reduce the negative effect of stress caused by
ms of mother corm weight were significant only in the transplanting. Similarly to Behdani et al. (2016), our re-
first sampling date (25th December = transplanting day). sults also revealed that the last two months of vegetative
After two months from the first irrigation time, 55.5 and growth, when the production rate of new corms was very
27.2% of mother corm reservoirs were depleted by both slow (Fig. 5B), is a critical period for replacement corms
TP and DP, respectively (Fig. 5A). The main result of growth (Fig. 5C, D). In the study of Fallahi & Mahmoodi
this event was an increase in flowering percent in SPS (2018a) also the highest rate of corm proliferation (mid-Fe-
(Table 2), because flowers produce only by relying on bruary up to mid-March) was observed before the highest
planted corms reserves (Koocheki et al., 2019). Results rate of corm filling (End-March up to mid-May). Re-
of Renau-Morata et al. (2012) under field conditions also nau-Morata et al. (2012) found that in saffron when leaf and
revealed that 20-30% of the mother corm reservoirs are root development ends, the exponential growth stage of re-
used for the flowering and the emergence of the roots and placement corms starts. In another study on saffron, also the
leaves. However, after transplanting of those corms that highest crop growth rate was obtained during the last two

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 11

25 Direct planting C
Replacement corms weight per plant (g)

Transplanting p=0.0014
20

15
p=0.0010

10
p=0.0102

0
06-Mar 09-Apr 04-May

Sampling date

Figure 5. Effect of the production method on the mother corm weight (A), number of replaced corms (B), weight of all
replaced corms (C) and weight of main replaced corm (D) during saffron vegetative growth stage. Date of transplanting: 25th
December. For each descriptor and sampling date, the value of p represents the significant differences between two planting
methods based on t-test.

months of the growing cycle (Fallahi & Mahmoodi, 2018b). higher in the field-grown plants compared to TP ones.
Gholami et al. (2017) also reported that rapid replacement Moreover, the replacement corms in TP plants were
corms growth starts about 80 days after leaves emergence. so small, which was unlikely to produce flowers in the
following season. The same authors also found that lower
photosynthesis in transplanted plants may be the reason
Final growth of replacement corms in relation to the for that observation. In their study, although transplan-
production method ting of plants from the growth chamber to the field resul-
ted in a higher photosynthetic rate, it did not reach that
The planting method had a significant effect on most of the DP plants. In addition, stomatal conductivity in the
criteria related to the final growth status of replacement field-grown plants was considerably higher than in those
corms (Table 4). Replacement corm growth parameters that flowered in the controlled environment (Molina et
in terms of number, weight, and percentage of large pro- al., 2010). Totally, at the end of the first growing season
duced corms in DP were higher than TP method at the we found that without a proper strategy, transplanting of
end of the first growing season (Table 4). In a similar corms that flowered under controlled conditions cannot
study on saffron, Molina et al. (2010) concluded that the lead to a favorable outcome in terms of replacement cor-
plant dry weight and number of replacement corms at ms growth. Therefore, we guessed that more favorable
the end of the vegetative growth stage in spring, were results would be achieved if the transplanted plants stay

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

12 Mahsa Aghhavani-Shajari, Hamid-Reza Fallahi, Hossein Sahabi et al.

Table 4. Effect of production method of saffron on final growth status of replacement corms at the end of first (2019) and second
(2020) growing seasons
Weight
Parameter Year DP TP value p value
group
Number of replacement corm per <3 g 2019 3.16 2.50 -2.00 0.1161
plant in different weight groups
2020 8.20 2.04 11.58 0.0003
3-6 g 2019 0.31 1.15 25.00 0.0016
2020 0.10 2.12 -4.48 0.0110
6-9 g 2019 0.48 0.31 -2.24 0.0890
2020 0 0 - -
9-12 g 2019 0.27 0.27 0.00 1.00
2020 0 0 - -
>12 g 2019 0.6 0.1 -8.66 0.0131
2020 0 0 - -
Total 2019 4.83 4.33 -1.34 0.2508
2020 8.30 4.16 7.57 0.0016
Mean replacement corm weight (g) 2019 4.41 3.00 -10.11 0.0005
2020 1.36 3.45 -6.46 0.0030
Yield of replacement corms per plant (g) 2019 21.33 12.86 -7.83 0.0014
2020 11.30 13.83 -1.93 0.1259
Weight of main replacement corm (g) 2019 11.70 6.02 -7.05 0.0021
2020 2.62 5.52 -8.97 0.0009
DP: direct planting. TP: transplanting. For each descriptor and for each year, the value of p represents the significant differences
between two planting methods based on t-test results.

in the same field for another year. At the end of the se- inputs (such as water and fertilizers) in large quantities,
cond growing season, although the mean replacement compared to the conventional (traditional) saffron culti-
corm weight in TP increased by 15% compared with the vation. The results showed that at least one third of the re-
end of the first growing season (Table 4), but the results placement corms yield in transplanting method was at the
were still not as desired. It should be noted that no new desired weight. The same authors also proposed that other
strategy like nutritional management was also applied items such as transplanting depth, soil organic matter con-
during the second growing season. In addition, in the DP tent, soil texture, transplanting as basin or in-furrow, etc.
method the mean weight of replacement corms at the end might probably affect the success of saffron transplan-
of the second growing season reduced severely mainly ting. Maggio et al. (2006) found that a mixture of peat
due to increasing competition for resources resulted from and perlite as substrate was more suitable for increasing
a considerable increase in the number of replacement saffron corm growth under cold glasshouse, compa-
corms (72%) per plant in that year compared with the red with pure perlite. It should be noted that variation
end of the first growing season (Table 4). These results in nutrients, pH, and EC could strongly affect saffron
are in a good agreement with those reported by Fallahi et growth in soilless systems than soil-based culture due to
al. (2018b) who revealed that the end of the first growing the buffering capacity of soils. Therefore, precise regula-
season is more suitable time for obtaining big replace- tion of these factors in the planting bed of SPS is crucial
ment corms when large mother corms (6 g) are used for for optimal plant growth (Askari-Khorasgani & Pessa-
planting, while the end of the second flowering season is rakli, 2019). In another study on saffron, corms that were
a more favorable time to obtain big replacement corms, flowered in incubator were transferred to pots filled with
when planted mother corms are small (<4 g). perlite, in an open room. The hypothesis was that it is pos-
Overall, although we found that saffron transplanting sible to obtain replacement corms with the suitable weight,
is possible; but more researches are needed on how it is by improving the physical properties of the planting bed.
possible to overcome the problem of this method. In a re- However, the production of contractile roots, early drying
cent study on saffron transplanting, Fallahi et al. (2021a) of the aerial parts (in mid-March) and no full allocation
for increasing the weight of replacement corms, used the of mother corm reservoirs to plant vegetative growth,

Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901

 Production systems and methods affect the quality and the quantity of saffron 13

led to the rejection of the hypothesis (Fallahi et al., Cardone L, Castronuovo D, Perniola M, Scrano L, Cic-
2021b). The same authors proposed that combined appli- co N, Candido V, 2020. The influence of soil physical
cation of organic and mineral substrates and corm plan- and chemical properties on saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
ting from the beginning in non-soil substrates (to remove growth, yield and quality. Agron 10: 1154. https://doi.
the stress caused by transplanting) could probably lead to org/10.3390/agronomy10081154
more favorable results. Fallahi HR, Mahmoodi S, 2018a. Impact of water availa-
In conclusion, the articulated plan of trials carried out bility and fertilization management on saffron (Crocus
provides information on the effects of production systems sativus L.) biomass allocation. J Hort Posthar Res 1
and methods for saffron production. The great interest for (2): 131-146.
reducing the surface and to increasing the yield and the Fallahi HR, Mahmoodi S, 2018b. Influence of organic
quality of the products suggested using soilless growing in and chemical fertilization on growth and flowering of
some growth stage. The traditional production system in saffron under two irrigation regimes. Saffron Agron
the open field could be integrated during the first growing Tech 6 (2): 147-166.
cycle from the soilless cultivation of the corms and increase Fallahi HR, Alami S, Behdani MA, Aghhavani Shajari M,
the production of propagation organs during the following 2015. Evaluation of local and scientific knowledge in
years. Saffron had a much higher flowering capacity and saffron agronomy (Case study: Sarayan). J Saffron Res
stigma yield in SPS than in the TPS under field conditions. 3 (1): 31-50.
In the SPS, the value of the chromatic parameter L increa- Fallahi HR, Zamani G, Aghhavani-Shajari M, Samadza-
sed but the values registered for a chromatic parameter and deh A, 2017a. Comparison of flowering and growth of
for the safranal content decreased compared with TPS. The saffron in natural and controlled culture systems. Proc
SPS supported much better growth of saffron plant, both 6th Nat Cong of Medicinal Plants, Tehran (Iran), May
for epigeous and hypogeous organs, but transplanting it in 9-10. pp: 3.
the open field reduced all these parameters compared with Fallahi HR, Ghorbani M, Aghhavani-Shajari M, Samad-
the direct planting method. zadeh A, Khayyat M, Maraki Z, Asadian AH, 2017b.
Effects of irrigation management, mycorrhizal inocu-
lation and humic acid application on color characte-
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Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research March 2021 • Volume 19 • Issue 1 • e0901