Central Force:

Definition: The central force is defined as a force, the magnitude of which is a function of the
distance from a fixed point (𝑟) and directed towards or away from the fixed point (±𝑟̂ ).
Mathematically, for a central force 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ .

Examples: 1. Gravitational force between two particles of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 (between a planet
and the sun or between a satellite and the earth):

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹⃗ (𝑟) = 𝑟̂ = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ , 𝑓(𝑟) =
𝑟2 𝑟2
2. Coulomb force between two particles of charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 (between the electron and the
nucleus/proton in hydrogen atom):
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗ (𝑟) = 𝑟̂ = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ , 𝑓(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

Properties:

 Central force is conservative, i.e. total mechanical energy of a particle moving under the
central force remains conserved. Mathematically, the central force is an irrotational vector
field i.e. for a central force ⃗∇⃗ × 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 0.
𝑟⃗
𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ = 𝑓(𝑟)
𝑟
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕| 𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑦
⃗∇⃗ × 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | = 𝑖̂ [ (𝑓 ) − (𝑓 )] + ⋯
| 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝑓
= 𝑖̂ [𝑧 ( ) − 𝑦 ( )] + ⋯
𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝑟 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖̂ [𝑧 ( ) −𝑦 ( ) ]+⋯
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
𝑦𝑧 𝜕 𝑓 𝑦𝑧 𝜕 𝑓
= 𝑖̂ { ( )− ( )} + ⋯ = 0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
 Angular momentum of a particle moving under the central force is constant of motion.
The angular momentum of a particle having linear momentum 𝑝⃗ with respect to the fixed
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗.
point is 𝐿

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 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × + × 𝑝⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × (𝑚𝑣⃗) = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ = 0
⃗⃗ = constant
∴ 𝐿
 Motion under central force occurs in a plane.
As we observe, angular momentum of a particle moving under the central force is constant
⃗⃗ = constant.
i.e. 𝐿
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗. (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗) = 𝑝⃗. (𝑟⃗ × 𝑟⃗) = 0
𝑟⃗. 𝐿
⃗⃗ is a constant vector and 𝑟⃗. 𝐿
Since 𝐿 ⃗⃗ = 0, the position vector 𝑟⃗ is confined plane i.e. the
motion occurs in a plane.
 The areal velocity i.e. the velocity traversed by the radius vector of a particle moving under
central force is constant.
The area traversed by the radius vector over some interval of time ∆𝑡 is
1
∆𝐴⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × ∆𝑟⃗
2
The areal velocity

∆𝐴⃗ 1 ∆𝑟⃗ 1 𝑑𝑟⃗ 1

𝑣⃗𝐴 = lim = 𝑟⃗ × lim = 𝑟⃗ × = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 2 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
1 ⃗⃗
𝐿
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗) = = constant
2𝑚 2𝑚
Equation of motion:

As the motion of a particle under central force takes place in a plane, we describe the motion with
plane polar coordinate system (𝑟, 𝜃). The velocity and acceleration of the particle in plane polar
coordinate system are given by

𝑟⃗̇ = 𝑟̇ 𝑟̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇𝜃̂ … . (1)

𝑟⃗̈ = (𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃 2̇ )𝑟̂ + (𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇)𝜃̂ … . (2)

The equation of motion can be written as

𝑚𝑟⃗̈ = 𝑚(𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃 2̇ )𝑟̂ + 𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇)𝜃̂ = 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂

Thus we have

𝑚(𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃 2̇ ) = 𝑓(𝑟) … . (3)

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and
𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇) = 0 … . (4)
From equation 4 we have
𝑑 2
(𝑟 𝜃̇) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = constant = ℎ (say)
𝑑𝑡
Note that the angular momentum of the particle moving under central force is 𝐿 ⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ =
𝑚(𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = 𝑚𝑟⃗ × (𝑟̇ 𝑟̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇𝜃̂ ) = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇𝑧̂ = 𝑚ℎ𝑧̂ , where 𝑧̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane of motion. Thus ℎ = 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ represents the angular momentum per unit mass. There is another
physical interpretation of ℎ. As we have seen, the areal velocity under central force is 𝑣𝐴 =
𝐿/2𝑚 = ℎ/2. Thus ℎ = 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ is equal to twice the areal velocity.
Let us introduce the reciprocal coordinate 𝑢 defined as 𝑟 = 1/𝑢.
1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 ℎ 𝑑𝑢
𝑟̇ = − 2
=− 2 =− 2 𝜃̇ = − 2 ∙ 2 = −ℎ
𝑢 𝑑𝑡 𝑢 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝑢 𝑑𝜃 𝑢 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝑢 𝑑2 𝑢
∴ 𝑟̈ = −ℎ ( ) = −ℎ ( ) = −ℎ 2 ℎ𝑢2 = −ℎ2 𝑢2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2
From equation 3 we have
𝑑2 𝑢 ℎ2 1
𝑚 (−ℎ2 𝑢2 2
− 𝑟 4
) = 𝑓( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑢
𝑑2 𝑢 1
⇒ 𝑚 (−ℎ2 𝑢2 2
− ℎ2 𝑢 3 ) = 𝑓 ( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑢
𝑑2 𝑢 1
⇒ −𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2 ( 2 + 𝑢) = 𝑓 ( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑢
1 1
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑓 (𝑢 ) 𝑚𝑓 (𝑢)
⇒ +𝑢 =− = − 2 2 … . (5)
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2 𝐿𝑢
Equation 5 is the equation of motion of a particle moving under central force. It directly relates
𝑢, 𝜃 with the force law 𝑓(1/𝑢) . We can use equation 3 two derive the force law given the
trajectory, alternatively we can derive the trajectory given the force law.
Problem 1: A particle is moving in a central force field describes a path given by the equation
𝑟 = 𝑒 −𝜃 . Find the force law.
Solution: Given 𝑟 = 𝑒 −𝜃 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 𝜃
𝑑2𝑢
∴ =𝑒 , 2
= 𝑒𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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Equation 5 we have
1
𝑓 (𝑢)
− = 2𝑒 𝜃 = 2𝑢
𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2
1
⇒ 𝑓 ( ) = −2𝑚ℎ2 𝑢3
𝑢
2𝑚ℎ2
⇒ 𝑓(𝑟) = −
𝑟3
Problem 2: Under the influence of a central force the trajectory of a particle of mass 𝑚 is
described as 𝑟 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. Determine the force law and corresponding potential.
Solution: Given, 𝑟 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 1
= 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑢 = sec 𝜃
𝑢 2𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1
∴ = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 2𝑎
𝑑2𝑢 1 1
2
= sec 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃) + tan 𝜃 (sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃)
𝑑𝜃 2𝑎 2𝑎
1
= sec 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 + tan2 𝜃)
2𝑎
From equation 5
1
1 1 𝑓 (𝑢)
sec 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 + tan2 𝜃) + sec 𝜃 = −
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2
1
1 𝑓 (𝑢)
⇒ sec 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 + tan2 𝜃 + 1) = −
2𝑎 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2
1
1 𝑓 (𝑢 )
⇒ [2 sec 3 𝜃] = −
2𝑎 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2
1
1 𝑓 (𝑢)
3 3
[2.8 𝑎 𝑢 ] = −
⇒
2𝑎 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢2
1
⇒ 𝑓 ( ) = −8𝑎2 𝑚ℎ2 𝑢5
𝑢
1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑟) = −8𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑟5
The potential energy corresponding to this central force is

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 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 1 𝑟 𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 = 8𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2 ∫ 2 2
= −8𝑚𝑎 ℎ | =
𝑟5 4𝑟 4 ∞ 𝑟4
𝑟=∞

Problem 3: Determine the trajectory of a particle moving under the central force defined by
𝑘
𝑓(𝑟) = − , 𝑘 > 0 constant
𝑟2
Solution: Given, the force law 𝑓(𝑟) = −𝑘/𝑟 2. In terms of the reciprocal coordinate, 𝑓(1/𝑢) =
−𝑘𝑢2 . From equation 5,
𝑑2𝑢 𝑘
2
+𝑢 = = constant
𝑑𝜃 𝑚ℎ2
𝑘 𝑑𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 2 𝑢′ 𝑑 2 𝑢
Let 𝑢′ = 𝑢 − ⇒ = ⇒ =
𝑚ℎ2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2
𝑑 2 𝑢′
∴ 2
+ 𝑢′ = 0
𝑑𝜃
⇒ 𝑢′ = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜑) , 𝐴 and 𝜑 are arbitrary constants
1 𝑘
∴𝑢= = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜑) +
𝑟 𝑚ℎ2
Problem 4: Show that the principle of conservation of energy for a particle of mass 𝑚 in a central
force field can be written as
𝑑𝑢 2 2(𝐸 − 𝑉)
( ) + 𝑢2 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑚ℎ2
where 𝑉 is the potential energy and 𝐸 is the total mechanical energy.
Solution: Multiplying equation 3 by 𝑟̇ and equation 4 by 𝑟𝜃̇, and then adding them we get

𝑚(𝑟̈ 𝑟̇ – 𝑟𝑟̇ 𝜃 2̇ + 2𝑟̇ 𝑟𝜃 2̇ + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇𝜃̈) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̇ 𝑟̂

⇒ 𝑚(𝑟̈ 𝑟̇ + 𝑟𝑟̇ 𝜃 2̇ + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇𝜃̈) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̇ 𝑟̂

1 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑚 (𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑟)𝑑𝑟
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 1
⇒ [ 𝑚(𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) + 𝑉] = 0 [∵ 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑟)𝑑𝑟]
𝑑𝑡 2
1
⇒ 𝑚(𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) + 𝑉 = 𝐸 = constant … . (6)
2
𝑇+𝑉 =𝐸
From equation 6,

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 2
𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 = (𝐸 − 𝑉) … (7)
𝑚
In term of the reciprocal coordinate (𝑟 = 1/𝑢), 𝑟̇ = 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝜃 and 𝜃̇ = ℎ/𝑟 2 = ℎ𝑢2 . Thus from
equation 7,
𝑑𝑢 2 1 2
ℎ2 ( ) + 2 (ℎ𝑢2 )2 = (𝐸 − 𝑉)
𝑑𝜃 𝑢 𝑚
𝑑𝑢 2 2(𝐸 − 𝑉)
⇒ ( ) + 𝑢2 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑚ℎ2

Motion under inverse square law force:

Let us now consider the motion of a particle under a central force which follows an inverse square
law with the separation from the origin i.e. a force represented by the following equation

𝑘
𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑟̂ … . (8)
𝑟2
where k is a constant, may be positive or negative. Note that the gravitational force between two
particles or between the sun and a planet or between the earth and a satellite follows this force law
with 𝑘 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚. Similarly the Coulomb force between the nucleus and the electron follows same
force law with 𝑘 = −𝑍𝑒 2 /4𝜋𝜖0 . The force between a nucleus and an alpha particle in Rutherford’s
scattering is also inverse-square-law in nature but with 𝑘 = −2𝑍𝑒 2 /4𝜋𝜖0. Here we will develop
an equation of motion and solve it for any value of 𝑘 and will show that the trajectory of the particle
may be circle or ellipse or parabola depending on the magnitude and sign of the constant 𝑘
associated.

The potential energy corresponding to the force described in eq. 8 is

𝑟 𝑟
𝑘 𝑘
𝑉(𝑟⃗) = − ∫ 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗). 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − ∫ 2
𝑑𝑟 =
𝑟 𝑟
∞ ∞

As seen earlier, the velocity in plane polar coordinate is 𝑣⃗ = 𝑟̇ 𝑟̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇𝜃̂. Hence the kinetic energy

1 1 1 1
𝑇= 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑣⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = 𝑚𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 𝑚ℎ2
= 𝑚𝑟̇ 2 + (∵ 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = ℎ)
2 2 𝑟2
Therefore, the total mechanical energy of a particle moving under an inverse-square-law central
force is

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 1 2
1 𝑚ℎ2 𝑘
𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑟̇ + +
2 2 𝑟2 𝑟
The first in the expression of total energy depends on 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡 while the last two terms depend on 𝑟
and not on time derivative of any coordinate. The effective potential energy is defined as the sum
of these two terms i.e.

1 𝑚ℎ2 𝑘
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = +
2 𝑟2 𝑟
The actual potential energy is 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑘/𝑟 and 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚ℎ2 /2𝑟 2 is called the centrifugal potential.

Variation of the actual potential 𝑉𝑎 , the centrifugal potential 𝑉𝑐 and hence the effective potential
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 with the distance from the origin are shown in the above figure for a negative value of the
constant 𝑘. As seen from the figure, the effective potential energy has a minima at some value of
𝑟. It signifies the classical bound state of the particle under the force field. For example, motion of
a satellite under the gravitational attraction of the earth (𝑘 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚), motion of an electron under
the Coulomb attraction of the nucleus (𝑘 = −𝑍𝑒 2 /4𝜋𝜖0) represent bound state. The satellite or
the electron is subjected to move in a closed path around the earth or the nucleus.

However, it should be noted that no such potential minima is expected for 𝑘 > 0 and this refers to
classical unbound state. For example, force on alpha particle by a nucleus Rutherford’s scattering
is repulsive in nature (𝑘 = 2𝑍𝑒 2 /4𝜋𝜖0) and the alpha particle follows a parabolic path.

Kepler’s Laws

First Law: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.

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Second Law: A line segment joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time i.e. the areal velocity is constant.

Third Law: The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.

Proof of First Law: The gravitational force between a planet (mass 𝑚) and the sun (mass 𝑀)
separated by some distance 𝑟 is

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑘
𝐹⃗ = − 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂ , where 𝑘 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑘
∴ 𝑓(𝑟) = −
𝑟2
In terms of the reciprocal coordinate (𝑟 = 1/𝑢), 𝑓(1/𝑢) = −𝑘𝑢2 . Hence the equation of motion
is (eq. 5)

1
𝑑2𝑢 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑘
2
+𝑢 =− 2 2
= … . (9)
𝑑𝜃 𝑚ℎ 𝑢 𝑚ℎ2
Replacing 𝑢 by 𝑢′ = 𝑢 − 𝑘/𝑚ℎ2 , eq. 9 can be rewritten as

𝑑 2 𝑢′
+ 𝑢′ = 0
𝑑𝜃 2
⇒ 𝑢′ = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) , 𝐴 and 𝜃0 constants

𝑘
∴𝑢= + 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) … . (10)
𝑚ℎ2
1 𝑘
⇒ = + 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) … . (11)
𝑟 𝑚ℎ2
The standard equation of a conic is

1 1 + 𝜖 cos 𝜃
= … . (12)
𝑟 𝑙
where 𝜖 and 𝑙 respectively represent the eccentricity and semi-latus rectum of the conic. Note that,
0 < 𝜖 < 1 for an ellipse, 𝜖 > 1 for a hyperbola, 𝜖 = 1 for a parabola and 𝜖 = 0 for a circle.

Comparing equations 11 and 12,

ℎ2 𝑚 𝐴𝑚ℎ2
𝑙= ; 𝜖 = 𝐴𝑙 =
𝑘 𝑘

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Let us now determine the magnitude of the eccentricity 𝜖 of the trajectory under the inverse square
central force field. The kinetic energy of the particle (or planet) is

1 1 𝑑𝑢 2
𝑇 = 𝑚(𝑟 2̇ + 𝑟 2 𝜃 2̇ ) = 𝑚ℎ2 [( ) + 𝑢2 ]
2 2 𝑑𝜃

where we have replaced 𝑟 by 1/𝑢 and 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ by ℎ. From eq. 10,

𝑑𝑢
= −𝐴 sin(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )
𝑑𝜃
and thus the kinetic energy

1 2 2 2 (𝜃
𝑘2 2𝑘
𝑇 = 𝑚ℎ [𝐴 sin − 𝜃0 ) + 2 4 + 𝐴2 cos 2 (𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) + 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )]
2 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚ℎ2

1 2 2
𝐾2 2𝐾
= 𝑚ℎ [𝐴 + 2 4 + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )] … . (13)
2 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚ℎ2

Potential energy:
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘2
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = + ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − = −𝑘𝑢 = − − 𝑘𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) … . (14)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑚ℎ2
∞ ∞

From equations 13 and 14, we have the total energy as

1 1 𝑘2
𝐸 =𝑇+𝑉 = 𝑚ℎ2 𝐴2 −
2 2 𝑚ℎ2
1 2 2
𝑘2
= 𝑚ℎ (𝐴 − 2 4 )
2 𝑚 ℎ

2
𝑘2 2𝐸
⇒𝐴 = 2 4+
𝑚 ℎ 𝑚ℎ2
1/2
𝑘 2𝐸ℎ2
or, 𝐴= (1 + )
𝑚ℎ2 𝑚𝑘 2
1/2
𝐴𝑚ℎ2 2𝐸ℎ2
∴𝜖= = (1 + ) … . (15)
𝑘 𝑚𝑘 2

From equation 15, we see that 𝜖 > 1 i.e. the trajectory is hyperbola for 𝐸 > 0 while 0 < 𝜖 < 1 i.e.
the trajectory is an ellipse for 𝐸 < 0. A critical case 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑘 2 /2ℎ2 yields 𝜖 = 0 which

© Dr. P. Mandal
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M: 8902442561
corresponds to a circular trajectory. The motion of the planets under the gravitational attraction of
the sun is case of bound state i.e. total energy 𝐸 < 0 and 𝜖 < 1 which explains elliptical orbit of
the planets and thus proves Kepler’s first law.

In case of Rutherford scattering 𝐸 > 0 and hence 𝜖 > 1. Equation 11 in that case would represent
a hyperbolic path.

Proof of Second Law: For the force law defined in equation 8, the equation of motion can be written
as

𝑚𝑟⃗̈ = 𝑚(𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃 2̇ )𝑟̂ + 𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇)𝜃̂ = 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂

which yields
𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇) = 0
𝑑 2
⇒ (𝑟 𝜃̇) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = constant = ℎ (say)
𝑑𝑡
Thus the areal velocity 𝑟 2 𝜃̇/2 = ℎ/2 = constant which proves Kepler’s second law.
Proof of Third Law: The period of revolution is

area of the ellipse 𝜋𝑎𝑏 2𝜋𝑎𝑏

𝑇= = =
areal velocity ℎ ℎ
(2 )
3 1
2𝜋𝑎2 𝑙 2
= (∵ 𝑙 = 𝑏 2 /𝑎)
ℎ
1
3 𝑚2 ℎ
= 2𝜋𝑎2 1 (∵ 𝑙 = ℎ2 𝑚/𝑘)
𝑘2
3
= 𝑐𝑎 2 , 𝑐 = 2𝜋ℎ√𝑚/𝑘 = constant
∴ 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑎3

This proves Kepler’s third law.

© Dr. P. Mandal
10
M: 8902442561