LOGO

NON-CONVENTIONAL
POWER PLANTS

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 Solar Power Plant Types of Solar Power Plant

Solar power plant is based on the conversion of There are many different kinds of solar power plants
sunlight into electricity, either directly using which are constructed all over the world. They
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated include the
solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power photovoltaic solar energy plant,
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems solar thermal energy plant and
to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
Photovoltaics converts light into electric current concentrating power plant.
using the photoelectric effect.

A solar power plant is used in an active manner

when the energy from the sun is converted directly
into a useable form which can be used for
powering all kinds of appliances that are present in
the house on a normal basis. Passive use of solar
energy takes place when houses and buildings have
been created in such a manner that they get the
maximum exposure to the rays of the sun

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 Photovoltaic solar energy plant

This is the appropriate substitute for the usual

electrical energy which is used in houses for
powering electrical appliances. Photovoltaic cells
will capture the energy which is generated from
the sun and get it converted into electricity. The
process of energy conversion is clean and simple
and it does not involve injecting any kind of
smoke or harmful chemicals into the
atmosphere. A lot of companies have decided to
have grids containing photovoltaic cells installed
on their premises so that they can derive the
maximum amount of energy from them and also
reduce their dependence on the traditional forms
of electrical energy.

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 Solar Thermal energy plant

A solar thermal energy plant will be used for

creating solar generated heaters which can be used
for heating water and also as an indoor heating
system. Thermal cells will be used to capture the
energy which has been generated by the sun and
then convert it into heat energy.
It is also possible to make use of this energy for
cooking purposes and also for drying clothes. Low
temperatures can be used for heating water as well
as swimming pools. Medium heat is used for heating
up the inside of homes as well as office buildings.
High temperatures will help in generating the
electricity which is needed for everyday uses in
homes and offices.

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 Concentrating power plant

The method of functioning of these solar power

plants is similar to that of the photovoltaic solar
energy plants. The extra addition in these
concentrating power plants is that they make use of
mirrors and lenses in order to capture energy from
the rays of the sun. The light from the sun will be
directed towards the photovoltaic cells and they will
be converted into heat energy. Usually very big
companies make use of these concentrating power
plants for utilizing solar energy.

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 Types of Solar Thermal Energy Power Plant

There are three main types of solar thermal

power systems:

Parabolic trough

Solar dish

Solar power tower

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 Parabolic Trough

A parabolic trough collector has a long parabolic-

shaped reflector that focuses the sun's rays on a
receiver pipe located at the focus of the
parabola. The collector tilts with the sun as the
sun moves from east to west during the day to
ensure that the sun is continuously focused on
the receiver.
Because of its parabolic shape, a trough can focus
the sun from 30 times to 100 times its normal
intensity (concentration ratio) on the receiver
pipe located along the focal line of the trough,
achieving operating temperatures higher than
750°F.

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 Parabolic Trough

The solar field has many parallel rows of solar

parabolic trough collectors aligned on a north-
south horizontal axis. A working (heat transfer)
fluid is heated as it circulates through the
receiver pipes and returns to a series of heat
exchangers at a central location. Here, the fluid
circulates through pipes so it can transfer its heat
to water to generate high-pressure, superheated
steam. The steam is then fed to a conventional
steam turbine and generator to produce
electricity. When the hot fluid passes through the
heat exchangers, it cools down, and is then
recirculated through the solar field to heat up
again.
The power plant is usually designed to operate at
full power using solar energy alone, given
sufficient solar energy. However, all parabolic
trough power plants can use fossil fuel
combustion to supplement the solar output
during periods of low solar energy.

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 Solar Dishes

Solar dish/engine systems use concentrating

solar collectors that track the sun, so they always
point straight at the sun and concentrate the
solar energy at the focal point of the dish. A solar
dish's concentration ratio is much higher than a
solar trough's concentration ratio, and it has a
working fluid temperature higher than 1,380°F.
The power-generating equipment used with a
solar dish can be mounted at the focal point of
the dish, making it well suited for remote
operations or, as with the solar trough, the
energy may be collected from a number of
installations and converted into electricity at a
central point.

The engine in a solar dish/engine system

converts heat to mechanical power by
compressing the working fluid when it is cold,
heating the compressed working fluid, and then
expanding the fluid through a turbine or with a
piston to produce work. The engine is coupled to
an electric generator to convert the mechanical
power to electric power.

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 Solar Power Tower

A solar power tower, or central receiver,

generates electricity from sunlight by focusing
concentrated solar energy on a tower-mounted
heat exchanger (receiver). This system uses
hundreds to thousands of flat, sun-tracking
mirrors called heliostats to reflect and
concentrate the sun's energy onto a central
receiver tower. The energy can be concentrated
as much as 1,500 times that of the energy coming
in from the sun.
Energy losses from thermal-energy transport are
minimized because solar energy is being directly
transferred by reflection from the heliostats to a
single receiver, rather than being moved through
a transfer medium to one central location, as with
parabolic troughs.
Power towers must be large to be economical.

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 Concentrated Solar Power Alternative
Technological Approaches

CSP technology utilizes three alternative

technological approaches:
trough systems,
power tower systems, and
dish/engine systems.

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 Trough Systems

Trough systems use large, U-shaped (parabolic)

reflectors (focusing mirrors) that have oil-filled
pipes running along their center, or focal point.
The mirrored reflectors are tilted toward the sun,
and focus sunlight on the pipes to heat the oil
inside to as much as 750°F. The hot oil is then used
to boil water, which makes steam to run
conventional steam turbines and generators.

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 Power Tower Systems

Power tower systems also called central receivers,

use many large, flat heliostats (mirrors) to track
the sun and focus its rays onto a receiver. The
receiver sits on top of a tall tower in which
concentrated sunlight heats a fluid, such as
molten salt, as hot as 1,050°F. The hot fluid can be
used immediately to make steam for electricity
generation or stored for later use. Molten salt
retains heat efficiently, so it can be stored for days
before being converted into electricity. That
means electricity can be produced during periods
of peak need on cloudy days or even several hours
after sunset.

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 Dish Engine Systems
Dish/engine systems use mirrored dishes (about
10 times larger than a backyard satellite dish) to
focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver.
The receiver is mounted at the focal point of the
dish. To capture the maximum amount of solar
energy, the dish assembly tracks the sun across
the sky. The receiver is integrated into a high-
efficiency "external" combustion engine. The
engine has thin tubes containing hydrogen or
helium gas that run along the outside of the
engine's four piston cylinders and open into the
cylinders. As concentrated sunlight falls on the
receiver, it heats the gas in the tubes to very high
temperatures, which causes hot gas to expand
inside the cylinders. The expanding gas drives the
pistons. The pistons turn a crankshaft, which
drives an electric generator. The receiver, engine,
and generator comprise a single, integrated
assembly mounted at the focus of the mirrored
dish.

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 The nature and availability of solar radiation

Solar radiation arrives on the surface of the earth

at a maximum power density of approximately 1
kilowatt per metre squared (kW/m2). The actual
usable radiation component varies depending on
geographical location, cloud cover, hours of
sunlight each day, etc.
In reality, the solar flux density (same as power
density) varies between 250 and 2500 kilowatt
hours per metre squared per year (kWh/m2 per
year). As might be expected the total solar
radiation is highest at the equator, especially in
sunny, desert areas.
Solar radiation arrives at the earth’s outer
atmosphere in the form of a direct beam. This
light is then partially scattered by cloud, smog,
dust or other atmospheric phenomenon.
We therefore receive solar radiation either as
direct radiation or scattered or diffuse radiation,
the ratio depending on the atmospheric
conditions.
Both direct and diffuse components of radiation
are useful, the only distinction between the two
being that diffuse radiation cannot be
concentrated for use.

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 Wind Power Plant

A wind power plant is a wind-energy installation

that converts the kinetic energy of the wind into
electrical energy. A wind-power plant consists of a
wind engine, a generator of electrical current,
automatic devices for controlling the operation of
the wind engine and generator, and buildings for
their installation and maintenance. In most cases,
wind-power plants are used as a source of
electrical energy of relatively low power in places
characterized by good wind conditions (a mean
annual wind velocity of over 5 m/sec) and removed
from the networks of centralized electric-power
distribution. The use of wind-power plants is most
promising in agriculture.

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Wind Energy and Wind Power How Wind Power Is Generated

The terms "wind energy" or "wind power"

describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind
into mechanical power.
This mechanical power can be used for specific
tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or
a generator can convert this mechanical power
into electricity to power homes, businesses,
schools, and the like.
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by
the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun,
the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation
of the earth.
Wind Turbines
Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's
terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn
This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" in the moving air and power an electric generator
by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate that supplies an electric current. Simply stated, a
electricity. wind turbine is the opposite of a fan.
Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a
fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity.
The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft,
which connects to a generator and makes
electricity.

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 Wind Turbine Types
Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups;
the horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional
farm windmills used for pumping water, and the
vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style
Darrieus model, named after its French
inventor. Most large modern wind turbines are
horizontal-axis turbines.

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 Turbine Components

Horizontal turbine components include:

blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the

wind to rotational shaft energy;

a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a

generator;

a tower that supports the rotor and drive train;

and

other equipment, including controls, electrical

cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.

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 Wind Turbine Size and Power Ratings

Turbine Configurations Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes,

and therefore power ratings. The largest machine
has blades that span more than the length of a
football field, stands 20 building stories high, and
produces enough electricity to power 1,400 homes.
Wind turbines are often grouped together into a
single wind power plant, also known as a wind farm, A small home-sized wind machine has rotors
and generate bulk electrical power. between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stands
Electricity from these turbines is fed into a utility upwards of 30 feet and can supply the power
grid and distributed to customers, just as with needs of an all-electric home or small business.
conventional power plants.
Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750
kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts,
are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or
water pumping.

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 A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919
that no wind turbine can convert more than16/27
(59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy turning a rotor. To this day, this is
MATHEMATICAL MODEL known as the Betz Limit or Betz' Law.
The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any
design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59%
of the energy carried by the wind can be extracted by
a wind turbine). This is called the “power coefficient”
The following table shows the definition of various and is defined as:
variables used in this model: C pmax = 0.59
E = kinetic energy (J) Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum
m = mass (kg) limit. The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and
is a function of wind speed that the turbine is
v = wind speed (m/s) operating in. Once we incorporate various
P = power (W) engineering requirements of a wind turbine -
 = density (kg/m3) strength and durability in particular – the real world
A = swept area, m2 limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of 0.35-
0.45 common even in the best designed wind
Cp = power coefficient turbines.
r = radius (m) By the time we take into account the other factors in
The kinetic energy of a mass in motions is: a complete wind turbine system - e.g. the gearbox,
1 bearings, generator and so on - only 10-30% of the
E = mv 2 power of the wind is ever actually converted into
2
usable electricity. Hence, the power coefficient needs
The power in the wind is to be factored in equation and the extractable power
1 from the wind is given by:
P = Av 3 1
2 Pavail = Av 3C p
2
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 MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The swept area of the turbine can be calculated

from the length of the turbine blades using the
equation for the area of a circle:
A = r 2
where the radius is equal to the blade length as
shown in the figure below:

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Ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) OTEC Cycle Types
Power Plant
Cold seawater is an integral part of each of the
three types of OTEC systems: closed-cycle, open-
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the cycle, and hybrid. To operate, the cold seawater
temperature difference between cooler deep and must be brought to the surface. The primary
warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat approaches are active pumping and desalination.
engine and produce useful work, usually in the form Desalinating seawater near the sea floor lowers its
of electricity. density, which causes it to rise to the surface.
OTEC is a base load electricity generation system.
However, since the temperature differential is small,
the thermal efficiency is low, making its economic The alternative to costly pipes to bring condensing
feasibility a challenge. cold water to the surface is to pump vaporized low
boiling point fluid into the depths to be
condensed, thus reducing pumping volumes and
reducing technical and environmental problems
and lowering costs.

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 CLOSED OR ANDERSON OTEC CYCLE

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low boiling

point, such as ammonia (having a boiling point
around -33 °C at atmospheric pressure), to power
a turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface
seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger to
vaporize the fluid. The expanding vapor turns the
turbo-generator. Cold water, pumped through a
second heat exchanger, condenses the vapor into
a liquid, which is then recycled through the
system.

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 OPEN OR CLAUDE OTEC CYCLE

Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water

directly to make electricity. The warm seawater is
first pumped into a low-pressure container,
which causes it to boil. In some schemes, the
expanding steam drives a low-pressure turbine
attached to an electrical generator. The steam,
which has left its salt and other contaminants in
the low-pressure container, is pure fresh water. It
is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold
temperatures from deep-ocean water. This
method produces desalinized fresh water,
suitable for drinking water, irrigation or
aquaculture.

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 WORKING FLUID

A popular choice of working fluid is ammonia,

which has superior transport properties, easy
availability, and low cost. Ammonia, however, is
HYBRID toxic and flammable. Fluorinated carbons such as
CFCs and HCFCs are not toxic or flammable, but
they contribute to ozone layer depletion.
Hydrocarbons too are good candidates, but they
A hybrid cycle combines the features of the closed- are highly flammable; in addition, this would
and open-cycle systems. In a hybrid, warm seawater create competition for use of them directly as
enters a vacuum chamber and is flash-evaporated, fuels.
similar to the open-cycle evaporation process. The The power plant size is dependent upon the
steam vaporizes the ammonia working fluid of a vapor pressure of the working fluid. With
closed-cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia increasing vapor pressure, the size of the turbine
vaporizer. and heat exchangers decreases while the wall
The vaporized fluid then drives a turbine to produce thickness of the pipe and heat exchangers
electricity. The steam condenses within the heat increase to endure high pressure especially on
exchanger and provides desalinated water. the evaporator side.

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 BIOGAS POWER PLANT

A biogas plant is a decentralized energy system,

which can lead to self-sufficiency in heat and
power needs, and at the same time reduces
environmental pollution.
The components of a modern biogas (or
anaerobic digestion) plant include: manure
collection, anaerobic digester, effluent
treatment, gas storage, and gas use/electricity
generating equipment.
The fresh animal manure is stored in a collection
tank before its processing to the homogenization
tank which is equipped with a mixer to facilitate
homogenization of the waste stream.
The uniformly mixed waste is passed through a
macerator to obtain uniform particle size of 5-10
mm and pumped into suitable-capacity anaerobic
digesters where stabilization of organic waste
takes place.

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 TIDAL POWER PLANT

Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of

hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly
electricity.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has
potential for future electricity generation. Tides
are more predictable than wind energy and solar
power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal
power has traditionally suffered from relatively
high cost and limited availability of sites with
sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities,
thus constricting its total availability.

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 WAVE POWER PLANT

Wave energy is produced when electricity generators are placed on the surface of the ocean. The energy
provided is most often used in desalination plants, power plants and water pumps. Energy output is
determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density. To date there are only a handful of
experimental wave generator plants in operation around the world. The articles on this page explore the
world of wave energy and its possible applications.

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 FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY

A fuel cell is like a battery in that it generates

electricity from an electrochemical reaction. Both
batteries and fuel cells convert chemical potential
energy into electrical energy and also, as a by-
product of this process, into heat energy. However,
a battery holds a closed store of energy within it
and once this is depleted the battery must be
discarded, or recharged by using an external supply
of electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction
in the reverse direction.

A fuel cell, on the other hand, uses an external

supply of chemical energy and can run indefinitely,
as long as it is supplied with a source of hydrogen
and a source of oxygen (usually air). The source of
hydrogen is generally referred to as the fuel and
this gives the fuel cell its name, although there is
no combustion involved. Oxidation of the hydrogen
instead takes place electrochemically in a very
efficient way. During oxidation, hydrogen atoms
react with oxygen atoms to form water; in the
process electrons are released and flow through an
external circuit as an electric current.

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 FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY

Fuel cells can vary from tiny devices producing only

a few watts of electricity, right up to large power
plants producing megawatts. All fuel cells are
based around a central design using two electrodes
separated by a solid or liquid electrolyte that
carries electrically charged particles between them.
A catalyst is often used to speed up the reactions at
the electrodes. Fuel cell types are generally
classified according to the nature of the electrolyte
they use. Each type requires particular materials
and fuels and is suitable for different applications.

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 THERMIONIC SYSTEMS

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a potential
energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful electric power output. Caesium vapor is used to
optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization or electron impact
ionization in a plasma) to neutralize the electron space charge.

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 THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS

A Thermoelectric generator, or TEG (also

called a Seebeck generator) is a solid state
device that converts heat (temperature
differences) directly into electrical energy
through a phenomenon called the Seebeck
effect (a form of thermoelectric effect).
Thermoelectric generators function like heat
engines, but are less bulky and have no
moving parts. However, TEGs are typically
more expensive and less efficient.
Thermoelectric generators could be used in
power plants in order to convert waste heat
into additional electrical power and in
automobiles as automotive thermoelectric
generators (ATGs) to increase fuel efficiency.

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 THERMONUCLEAR ENERGY

Energy released by a nuclear fusion reaction

that occurs because of the high thermal
energy of the interacting particles. The rate
of reaction increases rapidly with
temperature.

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 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR

A magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD

generator) is a magnetohydrodynamic device
that transforms thermal energy and kinetic
energy into electricity. MHD generators are
different from traditional electric generators
in that they operate at high temperatures
without moving parts. MHD was developed
because the hot exhaust gas of an MHD
generator can heat the boilers of a steam
power plant, increasing overall efficiency.
MHD was developed as a topping cycle to
increase the efficiency of electric generation,
especially when burning coal or natural gas.
MHD dynamos are the complement of MHD
propulsors, which have been applied to
pump liquid metals and in several
experimental ship engines.

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 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR

An MHD generator, like a conventional

generator, relies on moving a conductor
through a magnetic field to generate electric
current. The MHD generator uses hot
conductive plasma as the moving conductor.
The mechanical dynamo, in contrast, uses the
motion of mechanical devices to accomplish
this. MHD generators are technically practical
for fossil fuels, but have been overtaken by
other, less expensive technologies, such as
combined cycles in which a gas turbine's or
molten carbonate fuel cell's exhaust heats
steam to power a steam turbine.

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 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR

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 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem No. 1
After a series of experiments, it was found that the sun generates an average of 1 kW/m2 when tapped
as a source of energy wherein a flat plate collector with an area of 1 m2 is used. Flow rate of water
inside the collector is 36 liter per hour. Calculate the temperature rise of the working fluid, in C.

Given:
Q/A = 1 kW/m2
A = 1 m2
Flow rate = 36 liter per hour
Required:
t

Solution:

Q = mcpt

Q = (Q/A)(A) = ( 1 kW/m2)(1 m2) = 1 kW

m = (36 liter/hr)(1 kg/liter)(1 hr/3600 s) = 0.01 kg/s

Then

Q = 1 kw = (0.01 kg/s)(4.187 kJ/kg-K)(t)

t = 23.88 C

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 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem No. 2
A windmill with a 5-meter radius motor is to be installed in the Ilocos region where
atmospheric conditions prevail at 1 bar, 22 C. It was observed that wind is blowing steadily at
an average velocity of 15 m/s. Assuming that the conversion efficiency is somewhere
between 25 to 30%, determine the maximum available power from the windmill.
Given
Radius = r = 5 m
Atmospheric condition = 1 bar, 22 C
Velocity = V = 15 m/s
Conversion efficiency = 25 to 30%
Required:
Maximum available power
Solution:
1 p
Pmax =  AV 3 c = =
100
= 1.18113 kg m3
2 RT 0.287(22 + 273)

For maximum power use 30% efficiency

Pmax =
1
2
( )
  r 2 V 3 c Pmax =
1
2
(1.18113)( )(5)2 (15)3 (0.30) = 46,963Watts

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 LOGO

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