UNIT4

2MARKS QUESTIONS
1.Define Machine Learning.
Machine learning is a subfield of computer science that evolved
from the study of pattern recognition and computational learning
theory in Artificial Intelligence (AI).

2. Define Learning.
A computer program which learns from experience is called a machine
learning program or simply a learning program. Such a program is
sometimes also referred to as a learner.

3. Give any two examples for learning problems.

• Handwriting recognition learning problem

• A robot driving learning problem

4. List the different components of learning.

• Data storage
• Abstraction
• Generalization
• Evaluation
.
5. Give any four applications of Machine learning.

• Recommendation System
• Spam detection
• Prospect customer identification
• In medicine, learning programs are used for medical diagnosis

6. List the different forms of machine learning.

• Supervised Learning
• Unsupervised Learning
• Semi-supervised machine learning
• Reinforcement Learning
7. What is supervised learning?
.Supervised learning is the machine learning task of learning a
function that maps an input to an output based on example input-
output pairs.

8. What is unsupervised learning?

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning algorithm used to draw
inferences from datasets consisting of input data without labeled responses

9. What is semi-supervised learning?

This algorithms fall somewhere in between supervised and unsupervised
learning, since they use both labeled and unlabeled data for training –
typically a small amount of labeled data and a large amount of unlabeled
data

10.What is reinforcement learning?

The basic objective of reinforcement learning algorithms is to map situations
to actions that yield the maximum final reward. While mapping the action,
the algorithm should not just consider the immediate reward but also next
and all subsequent rewards

11.List the types of decision trees.

1. Classification trees (Yes/No types)

2. Regression trees (Continuous data types)

12.Define Entropy and Information Gain.

Entropy Entropy,also called as Shannon Entropy is denoted by
H(S) for a finite set S, is the measure of the amount ofuncertainty
or randomness in data.
Information Gain Information gain is also called as Kullback-
Leibler divergence denoted byIG(S,A) for a set S is the effective
change in entropy after deciding on a particular attribute A.
Itmeasures the relative change in entropy with respect to the
independent variables

13.What is Regression analysis? Give example.

Regression analysis is a statistical method to model the relationship
between a dependent (target) and independent (predictor) variables with one
or more independent variables
Some examples of regression can be as:

• Prediction of rain using temperature and other factors

• Determining Market trends
• Prediction of road accidents due to rash driving.

14.List any four terminologies related to regression analysis.

• Dependent Variable
• Independent Variable
• Outliers.
• Multicollinearity
• Underfitting and Overfitting

15.List the different types of Regression.

• Linear Regression
• Logistic Regression
• Polynomial Regression
• Support Vector Regression
• Decision Tree Regression
• Random Forest Regression
• Ridge Regression
• Lasso Regression
16.What do you mean by Simple linear regression and multiple linear
regression?

• If there is only one input variable (x), then such linear

regression is called simple linear regression. And if there is
more than one input variable, then such linear regression is
called multiple linear regression.

17.What do you mean by linear regression?

• Linear regression is a statistical regression method which is

used for predictive analysis.
• It is one of the very simple and easy algorithms which works on
regression and shows the relationship between the continuous
variables.

18.What do you mean by logistic regression?

• Logistic regression is another supervised learning algorithm

which is used to solve the classification problems. In
classification problems, we have dependent variables in a
binary or discrete format such as 0 or 1.

19.List the types of logistic regression.

• Binary(0/1, pass/fail)
• Multi(cats, dogs, lions)
• Ordinal(low, medium, high)

20.What is Artificial Neural Network?

An artificial neural network (ANN) is like a computing system that simulates
how the human brain analyzes information and processes it. It is the branch
of artificial intelligence (AI) and solves problems that may be difficult or
impossible to solve such issues for humans

21.Write any four advantages of Artificial Neural Network. (SEE 6M)

22.Write any four disadvantages of Artificial Neural Network (SEE 6M)
23.List the types of Artificial Neural Network. (SEE 6M)

24.What do you mean by Autoencoders?

As the name suggests, an autoencoder aims to learn encoding as a
representation of training sample data automatically without human
intervention. The autoencoder is widely used for dimensionality reduction
and data de-nosing.

25.List the different types of layers in Convolution Neural Network.

CNN consists of four main types of layers: input layer, convolution
layer, pooling layer, fully connected layer.

26.List the components of LSTM.

• Input gate layer

• Forget gate layer
• Output gate layer
• Memory cell state vector

27.List the types of SVM.

• Linear SVM
• Non-linear SVM

28.What is Hyperplane?
There can be multiple lines/decision boundaries to segregate the classes in
n-dimensional space, but we need to find out the best decision boundary
that helps to classify the data points. This best boundary is known as the
hyperplane of SVM.

29.What do you mean by Support Vector?

The data points or vectors that are the closest to the hyperplane and which
affect the position of the hyperplane are termed as Support Vector. Since
these vectors support the hyperplane, hence called a Support vector.
30.List the types of Unsupervised learning algorithm.

• Clustering.
• Association

31.List any four Unsupervised learning algorithms.

• K-means clustering
• KNN (k-nearest neighbors)
• Hierarchal clustering
• Anomaly detection
• Neural Networks
• Apriori algorithm

32.Write any two advantages of Unsupervised learning.

• Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as

compared to supervised learning because, in unsupervised
learning, we don't have labeled input data.
• Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get
unlabeled data in comparison to labeled data.

33.Write any two disadvantages of Unsupervised learning.

• Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than

supervised learning as it does not have corresponding
output.
• The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be
less accurate as input data is not labeled, and algorithms do
not know the exact output in advance.

34.Differentiate Supervised learning and Unsupervised learning.

SEE 6M QS
35.Expand NLP, NER, NLU, NLG.
 • Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
• Natural Language Generation (NLG)
• Named Entity Recognition (NER),
• NLP - Natural Language Processing,

36.Give any four applications of Artificial Intelligence.

NLP, Text Classification, Information Retrieval, Speech recognition, Image
Processing And Computer Vision, RoboticS

37.List the components of NLP.

• Natural Language Understanding (NLU)

• Natural Language Generation (NLG

38.List the different phases of NLP.

• Lexical Analysis and Morphological

• Syntactic Analysis (Parsing)
• Semantic Analysis
• Discourse Integration
• Pragmatic Analysis

39.Give any four applications of NLP.

• Question Answering
• Spam Detection
• Sentiment Analysis
• Spelling correction
• Speech Recognition

40.List the NLP preprocessing techniques.

• Tokenization
• Bag-of-words models
• Stop word removal
• Stemming and lemmatization
• Part-of-speech tagging and syntactic parsing

41.Mention the different Use cases included in Text Classification.

• Sentiment Analysis
• Document Classification
 • Spam Detection
• Intent Classification
• News Categorization

42.What do you mean by information retrieval?

Information retrieval is defined as a completely automated procedure that
answers to a user query by reviewing a group of documents and producing a
sorted document list that ought to be relevant to the user's query criteria.

43.List the types of Information Retrieval Model.

1. Classic IR Model
2. Non-Classic IR Model
3. Alternative IR Model

44.What do you mean by Speech Recognition?

Speech recognition, also called automatic speech recognition (ASR),
computer speech recognition, or speech-to-text, is a form of artificial
intelligence and refers to the ability of a computer or machine to interpret
spoken words and translate them into text

45.Give any four applications of Image processing.

• Medical Imaging
• Surveillance and Security
• Industrial Inspection
• Scientific Image Analysis
• Photo Editing

46.What do you mean by Computer Vision?

Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence that enables computers to
derive meaningful information from digital images, videos, and other visual
inputs
47.Differentiate Image processing and Computer Vision.(SEE 6M QUES)
48.List the types of Automation in Robotics.

• Fixed Automation
• Programmable Automation
 • Flexible Automation

49.List the different types of Robots.

• Androids
• Telechir
• Telepresence robot .
• Industrial robot
• Swarm robot
• Smart robot

Long Answer Questions (3,4,5,6 Marks)

1. List and explain the different components of Machine learning.

1. Data storage
Facilities for storing and retrieving huge amounts of data are
an important component of the learning process. Humans
and computers alike utilize data storage as a foundation for
advanced reasoning.

• In a human being, the data is stored in the brain and

data is retrieved using electrochemical signals.
• Computers use hard disk drives, flash memory,
random access memory and similar devices to store data
and use cables and other technology to retrieve data.

2. Abstraction
The second component of the learning process is known as
abstraction. Abstraction is the process of extracting
 knowledge about stored data. This involves creating general
concepts about the data as a whole. The creation of
knowledge involves application of known models and
creation of new models.

The process of fitting a model to a dataset is known as

training. When the model has been trained, the data is
transformed into an abstract form that summarizes the
original information.

2. Generalization
The third component of the learning process is known as
generalisation. The term generalization describes the
process of turning the knowledge about stored data into a
form that can be utilized for future action. These actions are
to be carried out on tasks that are similar, but not identical,
to those what have been seen before. In generalization, the
goal is to discover those properties of the data that will be
most relevant to future tasks.

3. Evaluation
Evaluation is the last component of the learning process. It
is the process of giving feedback to the user to measure the
utility of the learned knowledge. This feedback is then
utilized to effect improvements in the whole learning
process.

2. List and explain the applications of machine learning.

• In retail business, machine learning is used to study

consumer behaviour.
• In finance, banks analyze their past data to build models to
use in credit applications, fraud detection, and the stock
market.
 • In manufacturing, learning models are used for optimization,
control, and troubleshooting.
• In medicine, learning programs are used for medical
diagnosis.
• In telecommunications, call patterns are analyzed for
network optimization and maximizing the quality of service.
• In science, large amounts of data in physics, astronomy, and
biology can only be analyzed fast enough by computers. The
World Wide Web is huge; it is constantly growing and
searching for relevant information cannot be done manually.
• In artificial intelligence, it is used to teach a system to learn
and adapt to changes so that the system designer need not
foresee and provide solutions for all possible situations.
• It is used to find solutions to many problems in vision,
speech recognition, and robotics.
• Machine learning methods are applied in the design of
computer-controlled vehicles to steer correctly when driving
on a variety of roads.
• Machine learning methods have been used to develop
programmes for playing games such as chess, backgammon
and Go.

3. List and explain the different forms of machine learning.

(ans 4,5,6)

4. Write a note on Supervised learning.

A training set of examples with the correct responses (targets) is
provided and, based on this training set, the algorithm generalizes
to respond correctly to all possible inputs. This is also called
learning from exemplars. Supervised learning is the machine
learning task of learning a function that maps an input to an
output based on example input-output pairs.
In supervised learning, each example in the training set is a pair
consisting of an input object (typically a vector) and an output
value. A supervised learning algorithm analyzes the training data
and produces a function, which can be used for mapping new
examples. In the optimal case, the function will correctly
determine the class labels for unseen instances. Both classification
and regressionproblems are supervised learning problems. A wide
range of supervised learning algorithms are available, each with
its strengths and weaknesses. There is no single learning
algorithm that works best on all supervised learning problems.

Remarks
A “supervised learning” is so called because the process of an
algorithm learning from the training dataset can be thought of as a
teacher supervising the learning process. We know the correct
answers (that is, the correct outputs), the algorithm iteratively
makes predictions on the training data and is corrected by the
teacher.

Learning stops when the algorithm achieves an acceptable level of

performance.

Example
Consider the following data regarding patients entering a clinic.
The data consists of the gender and age of the patients and each
patient is labeled as “healthy” or “sick”.

Broadly, there are two types commonly used as supervised

learning algorithms.

1) Regression: The output to be predicted is a continuous

number in relevance with a given input dataset. Example
use cases are predictions of retail sales, prediction of
number of staff required for each shift, number of car
parking spaces required for a retail store, credit score, for a
customer, etc.
2) Classification: The output to be predicted is the actual or
the probability of an event/class and the number of classes
to be predicted can be two or more. The algorithm should
learn the patterns in the relevant input of each class from
historical data and be able to predict the unseen class or
event in the future considering their input. An example use
case is spam email filtering where the output expected is to
classify an email into either a
“spam” or “not spam.”

Building supervised learning machine learning models has three

stages:

1. Training: The algorithm will be provided with historical

input data with the mapped output. The algorithm will
learn the patterns within the input data for each output
 and represent that as a statistical equation, which is also
commonly known as a model.
2. Testing or validation: In this phase the performance of the
trained model is evaluated, usually by applying it on a
dataset (that was not used as part of the training) to predict
the class or event.
3. Prediction: Here we apply the trained model to a data set
that was not part of either the training or testing. The
prediction will be used to drive business decisions.

5. Write a note on Unsupervised learning.

There are situations where the desired output class/event is
unknown for historical data. The objective in such cases would be
to study the patterns in the input dataset to get better
understanding and identify similar patterns that can be grouped
into specific classes or events. As these types of algorithms do not
require any intervention from the subject matter experts
beforehand, they are called unsupervised learning.

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning algorithm

used to draw inferences from datasets consisting of input data
without labeled responses. In unsupervised learning algorithms, a
classification or categorization is not included in the observations.
There are no output values and so there is no estimation of
functions. Since the examples given to the learner are unlabeled,
the accuracy of the structure that is output by the algorithm
cannot be evaluated. The most common unsupervised learning
method is cluster analysis, which is used for exploratory data
analysis to find hidden patterns or grouping in data.

Example
Consider the following data regarding patients entering a clinic.
The data consists of the gender and age of the patients.

Based on this data, can we infer anything regarding the patients

entering the clinic?

some examples of unsupervised learning.

• Clustering: Assume that the classes are not known

beforehand for a given dataset. The goal here is to divide the
input dataset into logical groups of related items. Some
examples are grouping similar news articles, grouping
similar customers based on their profile, etc.

• Dimension Reduction: Here the goal is to simplify a large

input dataset by mapping them to a lower dimensional
space. For example, carrying analysis on a large dimension
dataset is very computational intensive, so to simplify you
may want to find the key variables that hold a significant
percentage (say 95%) of information and only use them for
analysis.
• Anomaly Detection: Anomaly detection is also commonly
known as outlier detection is the identification of items,
events or observations which do not conform to an expected
pattern or behavior in comparison with other items in a
given dataset. It has applicability in a variety of domains,
 such as machine or system health monitoring, event
detection, fraud/intrusion detection etc.

6. Write a note on the following:

a. Semi-supervised learning
b. Reinforcement learning
Semi-supervised machine learning
This algorithms fall somewhere in between supervised and
unsupervised learning, since they use both labeled and unlabeled
data for training – typically a small amount of labeled data and a
large amount of unlabeled data. The systems that use this method
are able to considerably improve learning accuracy. Usually, semi-
supervised learning is chosen when the acquired labeled data
requires skilled and relevant resources in order to train it / learn
from it. Otherwise, acquiring unlabeled data generally doesn‘t
require additional resources.

Reinforcement Learning
The basic objective of reinforcement learning algorithms is to map
situations to actions that yield the maximum final reward. While
mapping the action, the algorithm should not just consider the
immediate reward but also next and all subsequent rewards. For
example, a program to play a game or drive a car will have to
constantly interact with a dynamic environment in which it is
expected to perform a certain goal.

This is somewhere between supervised and unsupervised learning.

The algorithm gets told when the answer is wrong, but does not
get told how to correct it. It has to explore and try out different
possibilities until it works out how to get the answer right.
Reinforcement learning is sometime called learning with a critic
because of this monitor that scores the answer, but does not
suggest improvements.

Reinforcement learning is the problem of getting an agent to act in

the world so as to maximize its rewards. A learner (the program) is
not told what actions to take as in most forms of machine learning,
but instead must discover which actions yield the most reward by
trying them. In the most interesting and challenging cases, actions
may affect not only the immediate reward but also the next
situations and, through that, all subsequent rewards.

Examples of reinforcement learning techniques are the following:

• Markov decision process

• Q-learning
• Temporal Difference methods
• Monte-Carlo methods

7. Briefly explain Decision trees in machine learning.

Decision tree learning is a method for approximating discrete-
valued target functions, in which the learned function is
represented by a decision tree. Learned trees can also be re-
represented as sets of if-then rules to improve human readability.
These learning methods are among the most popular of inductive
inference algorithms and have been successfully applied to a broad
range of tasks from learning to diagnose medical cases to learning
to assess credit risk of loan applicants.

Decision Tree Representation Decision trees classify instances

by sorting them down the tree from the root to some leaf node,
which provides the classification of the instance. Each node in the
tree specifies a test of some attribute of the instance, and each
branch descending from that node corresponds to one of the
possible values for this attribute. An instance is classified by
starting at the root node of the tree, testing the attribute specified
by this node, then moving down the tree branch corresponding to
the value of the attribute in the given example. This process is
then repeated for the subtree rooted at the new node

Here the target attribute PlayTennis, which can have values yes or
no for different Saturday mornings, is to be predicted based on
other attributes of the morning in question
FIGURE above shows A decision tree for the concept Play Tennis.
An example is classified by sorting it through the tree to the
appropriate leaf node, then returning the classification associated
with this leaf (in this case, Yes or No). This tree classifies Saturday
mornings according to whether or not they are suitable for playing
tennis.

8. Write the steps in ID3 algorithm to construct the decision trees.

ID3
ID3 Algorithm will perform following tasks recursively
1. Create root node for the tree
2. If all examples are positive, return leaf node „positive‟
3. Else if all examples are negative, return leaf node „negative‟
4. Calculate the entropy of current state H(S)
5. For each attribute, calculate the entropy with respect to the
attribute „x‟ denoted by H(S, x)
6. Select the attribute which has maximum value of IG(S, x)
7. Remove the attribute that offers highest IG from the set of
attributes
8. Repeat until we run out of all attributes, or the decision tree has
all leaf nodes.

9. List and explain the terminologies related to regression analysis

Terminologies Related to the Regression Analysis:

• Dependent Variable: The main factor in Regression analysis

which we want to predict or understand is called the
dependent variable. It is also called target variable.

• Independent Variable: The factors which affect the

dependent variables or which are used to predict the values
of the dependent variables are called independent variable,
also called as a predictor.

• Outliers: Outlier is an observation which contains either

very low value or very high value in comparison to other
observed values. An outlier may hamper the result, so it
should be avoided.
• Multicollinearity: If the independent variables are highly
correlated with each other than other variables, then such
condition is called Multicollinearity. It should not be present
in the dataset, because it creates problem while ranking the
most affecting variable.
• Underfitting and Overfitting: If our algorithm works well
with the training dataset but not well with test dataset, then
such problem is called Overfitting. And if our algorithm
does not perform well even with training dataset, then such
problem is called underfitting.

10.Briefly explain Linear Regression.

• Linear regression is a statistical regression method which is

used for predictive analysis.
 • It is one of the very simple and easy algorithms which works
on regression and shows the relationship between the
continuous variables.
• It is used for solving the regression problem in machine
learning.
• Linear regression shows the linear relationship between the
independent variable (X-axis) and the dependent variable (Y-
axis), hence called linear regression.
• If there is only one input variable (x), then such linear
regression is called simple linear regression. And if there is
more than one input variable, then such linear regression is
called multiple linear regression.
• The relationship between variables in the linear regression
model can be explained using the below image. Here we are
predicting the salary of an employee on the basis of the year
of experience.

Below is the mathematical equation for Linear regression:

Y= aX+b

Here,
Y = dependent variables (target
variables), X= Independent
variables (predictor variables), a
and b are the linear coefficients

Some popular applications of linear regression are:

• Analyzing trends and sales estimates

• Salary forecasting
• Real estate prediction
• Arriving at ETAs in traffic.
In non-linear regression, the data can‘t be modelled to fit a straight
line i.e. modelled to fit a curve as shown in below figure.

For example the equation can have the form: XTheta

Here are some examples of real-world regression problems.

• Predict tomorrow‘s stock market price given current market

conditions and other possible side information.

• Predict the age of a viewer watching a given video on YouTube. .

11.Briefly explain Logistic Regression.

• Logistic regression is another supervised learning algorithm

which is used to solve the classification problems. In
classification problems, we have dependent variables in a
binary or discrete format such as 0 or 1.
 • Logistic regression algorithm works with the categorical
variable such as 0 or 1, Yes or No, True or False, Spam or
not spam, etc.

• It is a predictive analysis algorithm which works on the

concept of probability.
• Logistic regression is a type of regression, but it is different
from the linear regression algorithm in the term how they
are used.

• Logistic regression uses sigmoid function or logistic

function which is a complex cost function. This sigmoid
function is used to model the data in logistic regression. The
function can be represented as:

f(x)= Output between the 0 and 1 value.

x= input to the
function e= base
of natural
logarithm.

When we provide the input values (data) to the function, it gives

the S-curve as follows:
It uses the concept of threshold levels, values above the threshold
level are rounded up to 1, and values below the threshold level are
rounded up to 0.

There are three types of logistic regression:

• Binary(0/1, pass/fail)
• Multi(cats, dogs, lions)
• Ordinal(low, medium, high)

12.Write a note on Artificial Neural Network.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) provide a general, practical
method for learning real-valued, discrete-valued, and vector-valued
functions from examples.For certain types of problems, such as
learning to interpret complex real-world sensor data, artificial
neural networks are among the most effective learning methods
currently known.

An artificial neural network (ANN) is like a computing system that

simulates how the human brain analyzes information and
processes it. It is the branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and solves
problems that may be difficult or impossible to solve such issues
for humans. In addition, ANNs have the potential for self-learning
that provide better results if more data becomes available.

Artificial neurons consist of the following things:

Interconnecting model of neurons. The neuron is the elementary
component connected with other neurons to form the network.

Learning algorithm to train the network. Various learning

algorithms are available in the literature to train the model. Each
layer consists of neurons, and these neurons are connected to
other layers. Weight is also assigned to each layer, and these
weights are changed at each iteration for training purpose.
An artificial neural network (ANN) consists of an interconnected
group of artificial neurons that process information through input,
hidden and output layers and use a connectionist approach to
computation. Neural networks use nonlinear statistical data
modeling tools to solve complex problems by finding the complex
relationships between inputs and outputs. After getting this
relation, we can predict the outcome or classify our problems.

Figure 2 describes three neurons that perform "AND" logical operations. In

this case, the output neuron will fire if both input neurons are fired. The
output neurons use a threshold value (T), T=3/2 in this case. If none or only
one input neuron is fired, then the total input to the output becomes less
than 1.5 and firing for output is not possible. Take another scenario where
both input neurons are firing, and the total input becomes 1+1=2, which is
greater than the threshold value of 1.5, then output neurons will fire.
Similarly, we can perform the "OR” logical operation with the help of the
same architecture but set the new threshold to 0.5. In this case, the output
neurons will be fired if at least one input is fired.

1
T=3/2

Figure 2:Three Neurons Diagram

Artificial Neural Network has a huge number of interconnected
processing elements, also known as Nodes. These nodes are
connected with other nodes using a connection link. The
connection link contains weights, these weights contain the
information about the input signal. Each iteration and input in
turn leads to updation of these weights. After inputting all the data
instances from the training data set, the final weights of the Neural
Network along with its architecture is known as the Trained Neural
Network. This process is called Training of Neural Networks.These
trained neural networks solve specific problems as defined in the
problem statement.

Types of tasks that can be solved using an artificial neural network

include Classification problems, Pattern Matching, Data
Clustering, etc.

13.Explain the architecture of an Artificial Neural Network.

The architecture of an artificial neural network:
Input Layer: As the name suggests, it accepts inputs in several
different formats provided by the programmer.

Hidden Layer: The hidden layer presents in-between input and

output layers. It performs all the calculations to findhidden
features and patterns.

Output Layer: The input goes through a series of transformations

using the hidden layer, which finally results in outputthat is
conveyed using this layer. The artificial neural network takes input
and computes the weighted sum of the inputs and includes a bias.
This computation is represented in the form of a transfer function.

It determines weighted total is passed as an input to an activation

function to produce the output. Activation functions choose
whether a node should fire or not. Only those who are fired make
it to the output layer. There are distinctive activation functions
available that can be applied upon the sort of task we are
performing.

14.Briefly explain the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Neural

Network.
Advantages of Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

• Parallel processing capability: Artificial neural networks

have a numerical value that can perform more than one task
simultaneously.

• Storing data on the entire network: Data that is used in

traditional programming is stored on the whole network, not
on a database. Thedisappearance of a couple of pieces of
data in one place doesn't prevent the network from working.
• Capability to work with incomplete knowledge: After ANN
training, the information may produce output even with
 inadequate data. The loss ofperformance here relies upon
the significance of missing data.
• Having a memory distribution: For ANN is to be able to
adapt, it is important to determine the examples and to
encourage the networkaccording to the desired output by
demonstrating these examples to the network. The
succession of the network isdirectly proportional to the
chosen instances, and if the event can't appear to the
network in all its aspects, it canproduce false output.

• Having fault tolerance: Extortion of one or more cells of

ANN does not prohibit it from generating output, and this
feature makesthe network faulttolerance.

Disadvantages of Artificial Neural Network:

• Assurance of proper network structure: There is no

particular guideline for determining the structure of artificial
neural networks. The appropriate network structure is
accomplished through experience, trial, and error.

• Unrecognized behavior of the network: It is the most

significant issue of ANN. When ANN produces a testing
solution, it does not provide insightconcerning why and how.
It decreases trust in the network.
• Hardware dependence: Artificial neural networks need
processors with parallel processing power, as per their
structure. Therefore,the realization of the equipment is
dependent.
• Difficulty of showing the issue to the network: ANNs can
work with numerical data. Problems must be converted into
numerical values before beingintroduced to ANN. The
presentation mechanism to be resolved here will directly
impact the performance of thenetwork. It relies on the user's
abilities.
 • The duration of the network is unknown: The network is
reduced to a specific value of the error, and this value does
not give us optimum results. “Science artificial neural
networks that have steeped into the world in the mid-20th
century are exponentially developing. In the present time, we
have investigated the pros of artificial neural networks and
the issues encountered in the course of their utilization. It
should not be overlooked that the cons of ANN networks,
which area flourishing science branch, are eliminated
individually, and their pros are increasing day by day. It
means thatartificial neural networks will turn into an
irreplaceable part of our lives progressively important.”

15.List and explain the types of Artificial Neural Network.

There are various types of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
depending upon the human brain neuron and network functions,
an artificial neural network similarly performs tasks. The majority
of the artificial neural networks will have some similarities with a
more complex biological partner and are very effective at their
expected tasks. For example, segmentation or classification.

• Feedback ANN: In this type of ANN, the output returns into

the network to accomplish the best-evolved results
internally.As per the University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Centre for Atmospheric Research. The feedback networks
feedinformation back into itself and are well suited to solve
optimization issues. The Internal system error
correctionsutilize feedback ANNs.

• Feed-Forward ANN: A feed-forward network is a basic

neural network comprising of an input layer, an output
layer, and at leastone layer of a neuron. Through
assessment of its output by reviewing its input, the intensity
of the network can benoticed based on group behavior of the
 associated neurons, and the output is decided. The primary
advantage of this network is that it figures out how to
evaluate and recognize input patterns.

• Prerequisite
No specific expertise is needed as a prerequisite before starting
this tutorial.

• Audience
Our Artificial Neural Network Tutorial is developed for
beginners as well as professionals, to help them understand
the basic concept of ANNs.

16.Write a note on Autoencoders.

Autoencoders:As the name suggests, an autoencoder aims to
learn encoding as a representation of training sample data
automatically without human intervention. The autoencoder is
widely used for dimensionality reduction and data de-nosing.

Building an autoencoder will typically have three elements.

• Encoding function to map input to a hidden

representation through a nonlinear function, z =
sigmoid (Wx + b).
 • A decoding function such as x’ = sigmoid(W’y + b’),
which will map back into reconstruction x’ with same
shape as x.

• A loss function, which is a distance function to

measure the information loss between the
compressed representation of data and the
decompressed representation. Reconstruction error
can be measured using traditional squared error ||x-
z||2 .

17.Write a note on the following:

a. CNN
b. RNN
c. LSTM
Convolution Neural Network (CNN)
CNN’s are similar to ordinary neural networks, except that it explicitly
assumes that the inputs are images, which allows us to encode certain
properties into the architecture. These then make the forward function
efficient to implement and reduces the parameters in the network. The
neurons are arranged in three dimensions: width, height, and depth
Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)
The MLP (feedforward network) is not known to do well on
sequential events models such as the probabilistic language model
of predicting the next word based on the previous word at every
given point. RNN architecture addresses this issue. It is similar to
MLP except that they have a feedback loop, which means they feed
previous time steps into the current step. This type of architecture
generates sequences to simulate situation and create synthetic
data, making them the ideal modeling choice to work on sequence
data such as speech text mining, image captioning, time series
prediction, robot control, language modeling, etc.

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)

LSTM is an implementation of improved RNN architecture to
address the issues of general RNN, and it enables long-range
dependencies. It is designed to have better memory through linear
memory cells surrounded by a set of gate units used to control the
flow of information, when information should enter the memory,
when to forget, and when to output. It uses no activation function
within its recurrent components, thus the gradient term does not
vanish with back propagation.

LSTM components are:

• Input gate layer: This decides which values to store in the

cell state
• Forget gate layer: As the name suggested this decides what
information to throw away from the cell state

• Output gate layer: Create a vector of values that can be

added to the cell state.

• Memory cell state vector

18.Write a note on Support Vector Machine.

Support Vector Machine or SVM is one of the most popular
Supervised Learning algorithms, which is used for Classification as
well as Regression problems. However, primarily, it is used for
Classification problems in Machine Learning.

The goal of the SVM algorithm is to create the best line or decision
boundary that can segregate n-dimensional space into classes so
that we can easily put the new data point in the correct category in
the future. This best decision boundary is called a hyperplane.

SVM chooses the extreme points/vectors that help in creating the

hyperplane. These extreme cases are called as support vectors,
and hence algorithm is termed as Support Vector Machine.
Consider the below diagram in which there are two different
categories that are classified using a decision boundary or
hyperplane:
Example: SVM can be understood with the example that we have
used in the KNN classifier. Suppose we see a strange cat that also
has some features of dogs, so if we want a model that can
accurately identify whether it is a cat or dog, so such a model can
be created by using the SVM algorithm. We will first train our
model with lots of images of cats and dogs so that it can learn
about different features of cats and dogs, and then we test it with
this strange creature. So as support vector creates a decision
boundary between these two data (cat and dog) and choose
extreme cases (support vectors), it will see the extreme case of cat
and dog. On the basis of the support vectors, it will classify it as a
cat. Consider the below diagram:

SVM algorithm can be used for Face detection, image classification, text
categorization, etc.
19.Differentiate Supervised learning and Unsupervised learning.

20.List and explain the applications of artificial Intelligence.

(NLP, Text Classification, Information Retrieval, Speech recognition, Image
Processing And Computer Vision, RoboticS)
21.Write a note on NLP.
NLP stands for Natural Language Processing, which is a part of
Computer Science, Human language, and Artificial
Intelligence. It is the technology that is used by machines to
understand, analyse, manipulate, and interpret human's
languages. It helps developers to organize knowledge for
performing tasks such as translation, automatic
summarization, Named Entity Recognition (NER), speech
recognition, relationship extraction, and topic segmentation.

Components of NLP

There are the following two components of NLP –

1. Natural Language Understanding (NLU):Natural Language

Understanding (NLU) helps the machine to understand and
analyse human language by extracting the metadata from
content such as concepts, entities, keywords, emotion,
relations, and semantic roles.

NLU mainly used in Business applications to understand

the customer's problem in both spoken and written
language.

NLU involves the following tasks - o It is used

to map the given input into useful
representation.
o It is used to analyze different aspects of the language.

2. Natural Language Generation (NLG):Natural Language

Generation (NLG) acts as a translator that converts the
 computerized data into natural language representation. It
mainly involves Text planning, Sentence planning, and Text
Realization.

22.Explain the phases of NLP.

There are the following five phases of NLP:

1. Lexical Analysis and Morphological: The first phase of NLP

is the Lexical Analysis. This phase scans the source code as a
stream of characters and converts it into meaningful lexemes. It
divides the whole text into paragraphs, sentences, and words.

2. Syntactic Analysis (Parsing): Syntactic Analysis is used to

check grammar, word arrangements, and shows the relationship
among the words.
Example: Agra goes to the Poonam
In the real world, Agra goes to the Poonam, does not make any
sense, so this sentence is rejected by the Syntactic analyzer.

3. Semantic Analysis: Semantic analysis is concerned with the

meaning representation. It mainly focuses on the literal meaning of
words, phrases, and sentences.

4. Discourse Integration: Discourse Integration depends upon

the sentences that proceeds it and also invokes the meaning of the
sentences that follow it.

5. Pragmatic Analysis: Pragmatic is the fifth and last phase of

NLP. It helps you to discover the intended effect by applying a set
of rules that characterize cooperative dialogues.
For Example: "Open the door" is interpreted as a request instead
of an order.
23.Explain the applications of NLP.

• Question Answering: Question Answering focuses on building systems

that automatically answer the questions asked by humans in a natural
language.
• Spam Detection: Spam detection is used to detect unwanted e-mails
getting to a user's inbox.
• Sentiment Analysis: Sentiment Analysis is also known as opinion
mining. It is used on the web to analyse the attitude, behaviour, and
emotional state of the sender. This application is implemented through a
combination of NLP (Natural Language Processing) and statistics by
assigning the values to the text (positive, negative, or natural), identify the
mood of the context (happy, sad, angry, etc.)
• Machine Translation: Machine translation is used to translate text or
speech from one natural language to another natural language.Example:
Google Translator
• Spelling correction: Microsoft Corporation provides word processor
software like MS-word, PowerPoint for the spelling correction.
• Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is used for converting spoken
words into text. It is used in applications, such as mobile, home automation,
video recovery, dictating to Microsoft Word, voice biometrics, voice user
interface, and so on.
• Chatbot: Implementing the Chatbot is one of the important
applications of NLP. It is used by many companies to provide the customer's
chat services.
• Information extraction: Information extraction is one of the most
important applications of NLP. It is used for extracting structured
information from unstructured or semi-structured machine-readable
documents.
• Natural Language Understanding (NLU): It converts a large set of text
into more formal representations such as first-order logic structures that are
easier for the computer programs to manipulate notations of the natural
language processing.

24.Briefly explain the steps involved in Text Classification process.

Step1: Data collection
Collect a set of text documents with their corresponding categories
for the text labeling process. Gathering data is the most important
step in solving any supervised machine learning problem. Your text
classifier can only be as good as the dataset it is built from.
Here are some important things to remember when collecting data:
 • The more training examples (referred to as samples in the
rest of this guide) you have, the better. This will help your
model generalize better.
• Make sure the number of samples for every class or topic is
not overly imbalanced. That is, you should have comparable
number of samples in each class.
• Make sure that your samples adequately cover the space of
possible inputs, not only the common cases.

Step 2: Data preprocessing

Clean and prepare the text data by removing unnecessary symbols,
converting to lowercase, and handling special characters such as
punctuation.Understanding the characteristics of your data
beforehand will enable you to build a better model. This could
simply mean obtaining a higher accuracy. It’s good practice to run
some checks on it: pick a few samples and manually check if they
are consistent with your expectations.

Step3:Tokenization
Break the text apart into tokens, which are small units like words.
Tokens help find matches and connections by creating individually
searchable parts. This step is especially useful for vector search
and semantic search, which give results based on user intent.

Step 4: Feature extraction

Convert the text into numerical representations that machine
learning models can understand. Some common methods include
counting the occurrences of words (also known as Bag-of-Words) or
using word embeddings to capture word meanings. When we
convert all of the texts in a dataset into tokens, we may end up
with tens of thousands of tokens. Not all of these tokens/features
contribute to label prediction. So we can drop certain tokens, for
instance those that occur extremely rarely across the dataset. We
can also measure feature importance (how much each token
contributes to label predictions), and only include the most
informative tokens.

Step5:Build, Train and evaluate model:

Now that the data is clean and preprocessed, you can use it to
train a machine learning model. The model will learn patterns and
associations between the text’s features and their categories. This
helps it understand the text labeling conventions using the pre-
labeled examples.Training involves making a prediction based on
the current state of the model, calculating how incorrect the
prediction is, and updating the weights or parameters of the
network to minimize this error and make the model predict better.
We repeat this process until our model has converged and can no
longer learn. There are three key parameters to be chosen for this
process

• Metric: How to measure the performance of our model using

a metric. We used accuracy as the metric in our
experiments.
• Loss function: A function that is used to calculate a loss
value that the training process then attempts to minimize by
tuning the network weights. For classification problems,
cross-entropy loss works well.
• Optimizer: A function that decides how the network weights
will be updated based on the output of the loss function. We
used the popular Adam optimizer in our experiments

Step 6: Text labeling

Create a new, separate dataset to start text labeling and
classifying new text. In the text labeling process, the model
separates the text into the predetermined categories from the
data collection step.

Step 8: Hyperparameter tuning

Depending on how the model evaluation goes, you may want to
adjust the model's settings to optimize its performance. We had to
choose a number of hyperparameters for defining and training the
model. We relied on intuition, examples and best practice
recommendations. Our first choice of hyperparameter values,
however, may not yield the best results. It only gives us a good
starting point for training. Every problem is different and tuning
these hyperparameters will help refine our model to better
represent the particularities of the problem at hand.
some of the hyperparameters :
o Number of layers in the model: The number of layers in a
neural network is an indicator of its complexity.
 o Number of units per layer: The units in a layer must hold
the information for the transformation that a layer performs.
o Dropout rate: Dropout layers are used in the model

Step 9: Model deployment

Use the trained and tuned model to classify new text data into
their appropriate categories.

Workflow for solving machine learning

problems

25.Briefly explain the Information retrieval Model with its

types.

A retrieval model (IR) chooses and ranks relevant pages based on a

user's query.
Document selection and ranking can be formalized using matching
functions
that return retrieval status values (RSVs) for each document in a
collection since documents and queries are written in the same
way. The majority of IR systems portray document contents using
a collection of descriptors known as words from a vocabulary V.

The query-document matching function in an IR model is defined

in the following ways:

• The estimation of the likelihood of user relevance for each

page and query in relation to a collection of q training
documents.
• In a vector space, the similarity function between queries
and documents is computed.

Types Of Information Retrieval Models

 1.Classic IR Model
It is the most basic and straightforward IR model. This
paradigm is founded on mathematical information that
was easily recognized and comprehended. The three
traditional IR models are Boolean, Vector, and
Probabilistic.

2.Non-Classic IR Model
It is diametrically opposed to the traditional IR model.
Addition than probability, similarity, and Boolean
operations, such IR models are based on other ideas.
Non-classical IR models include situation theory models,
information logic models, and interaction models.

3.Alternative IR Model
It is an improvement to the traditional IR model that
makes use of some unique approaches from other
domains. Alternative IR models include fuzzy models,
cluster models, and latent semantic indexing (LSI)
models

26.Explain the working of Speech Recognition Technology.

Speech recognition is a software technology fueled by cutting-edge

solutions like Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine
Learning (ML). NLP, an AI system that analyses natural human
speech, is sometimes referred to as human language processing.
The vocal data is first transformed into a digital format that can be
processed by computer software. Then, the digitized data is
subjected to additional processing using NLP, ML, and deep
learning techniques. Consumer products like smartphones, smart
homes, and other voiceactivated solutions can employ this
digitized speech.

A piece of software operates four procedures to convert the audio

that a microphone records into text that both computers and
people can understand:

1. Analyze the audio;

2. Separate it into sections;
 3. Create a computer-readable version of it using digitization,
and
4. The most appropriate text representation should be found
using an algorithm.
Due to how context-specific and extremely varied human speech
is, voice recognition algorithms must adjust. Different speech
patterns, speaking styles, languages, dialects, accents, and
phrasings are used to train the software algorithms that process
and organize audio into text. The software also distinguishes
speech sounds from the frequently present background noise.

Speech recognition systems utilize one of two types of models to

satisfy these requirements:

• Good modeling. These illustrate the connection between

speech linguistics and audio signals.
• Language layouts. Here, word sequences and sounds are
matched to identify words with similar sounds.

27.Explain the different speech recognition algorithms.

• Hidden Markov model (HMM). HMM is an algorithm that

handles speech diversity, such as pronunciation, speed, and
accent. It provides a simple and effective framework for
modeling the temporal structure of audio and voice signals
and the sequence of phonemes that make up a word. For
this reason, most of today’s speech recognition systems are
based on an HMM.
• Dynamic time warping (DTW). DTW is used to compare two
separate sequences of speech that are different in speed. For
example, you have two audio recordings of someone saying
“good morning” – one slow, one fast. In this case, the DTW
algorithm can sync the two recordings, even though they
differ in speed and length.
• Artificial neural networks (ANN). ANN is a computational model
used in speech recognition applications that helps computers
understand spoken human language. It uses deep learning techniques
and basically imitates the patterns of how neural networks work in
the human brain, which allows the computer to make decisions in a
human-like manner.
28.Explain the elements of Image processing.
AI image processing works through a combination of advanced
algorithms, neural networks, and data processing to analyze,
interpret, and manipulate digital images. Here's a simplified
overview of how AI image processing works:

Acquisition of image: The initial level begins with image pre-

processing which uses a sensor to capture the image and
transform it into a usable format.

Enhancement of image: Image enhancement is the technique of

bringing out and emphasising specific interesting characteristics
which are hidden in an image.

Restoration of image: Image restoration is the process of

enhancing an image's look. Picture restoration, as opposed to
image augmentation, is carried out utilising specific mathematical
or probabilistic models.

Colour image processing: A variety of digital colour modelling

approaches such as HSI (Hue-Saturation-Intensity), CMY (Cyan-
Magenta-Yellow) and RGB (Red-Green-Blue) etc. are used in colour
picture processing.

Compression and decompression of image:This enables

adjustments to image resolution and size, whether for image
reduction or restoration depending on the situation, without
lowering image quality below a desirable level. Lossy and lossless
compression techniques are the two main types of image file
compression which are being employed in this stage.
Morphological processing:Digital images are processed
depending on their shapes using an image processing technique
known as morphological operations. The operations depend on the
pixel values rather than their numerical values, and well suited for
the processing of binary images. It aids in removing imperfections
for structure of the image.

Segmentation, representation and description: The

segmentation process divides a picture into segments, and each
segment is represented and described in such a way that it can be
processed further by a computer. The image's quality and regional
characteristics are covered by representation. The description's job
is to extract quantitative data that helps distinguish one class of
items from another.

Recognition of image: A label is given to an object through

recognition based on its description. Some of the often-employed
algorithms in the process of recognising images include the Scale-
invariant Feature Transform (SIFT), the Speeded Up Robust
Features (SURF), and the PCA (Principal Component Analysis)

29.Write a note on Computer vision.

Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence that enables
computers to derive meaningful information from digital images,
videos, and other visual inputs . It uses machine learning
algorithms to analyze and interpret images, and it has a wide
range of applications in various fields.

Computer vision works by using deep learning algorithms to

analyze and interpret images. These algorithms are trained on
large datasets of images and use convolutional neural networks
(CNNs) to identify patterns and features in the images .Once the
patterns and features are identified, the computer can use them to
recognize objects, classify images, and perform other image-based
tasks.

Some of the applications of computer vision include:

1. Autonomous Vehicles: Computer vision is used in

autonomous vehicles to detect and recognize objects such as
pedestrians, other vehicles, and traffic signals. This helps
the vehicle navigate safely and avoid accidents
2. Retail: Computer vision is used in retail to track inventory,
monitor customer behavior, and analyze shopping patterns.
 It can also be used to personalize the shopping experience
for customers
3. Healthcare: Computer vision is used in healthcare to
diagnose diseases, monitor patients, and assist with surgical
procedures. It can also be used to analyze medical images
such as X-rays and MRIs
4. Security: Computer vision is used in security to detect and
recognize faces, track individuals, and monitor public
spaces. It can also be used to detect suspicious behavior
and prevent crime .
5. Entertainment: Computer vision is used in entertainment
to create special effects, enhance video games, and develop
virtual reality experiences. It can also be used to analyze
audience reactions and preferences.

30.Differentiate Image processing and Computer Vision.

31.Write a note on Robotics.
Robotics is a field of engineering and science that involves the
design, construction, operation, and use of robots. Robots are
autonomous or semiautonomous machines that can perform tasks
in the physical world.

AI allows robots to interpret and respond to their environment.

Advanced sensors combined with AI algorithms enable robots to
perceive and understand the world around them using vision,
touch, sound, and other sensory inputs. Robots can learn from
experience through machine learning algorithms. This capability
enables them to adapt to changing conditions, improve their
performance over time, and even learn from human
demonstrations.They can analyze data, assess situations, and
make decisions based on predefined rules or learned patterns.

Motivation behind Robotics: To cope up with increasing

demands of a dynamic and competitive market, modern
manufacturing methods should satisfy the following requirements:

• Reduced Production Cost

• Increased Productivity
• Improved Product Quality

Asimov's laws of robotics: The Three Laws of Robotics or

Asimov's Laws are a set of rules devised by the science fiction
author Isaac Asimov

1. First Law - A robot may not injure a human being or,

through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. Second Law - A robot must obey the orders given it by
human beings except where such orders would conflict with
the First Law.
3. Third Law - A robot must protect its own existence as long
as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Laws.

Automation and robotics:- Automation and robotics are two

closely related technologies. In an industrial context, we can dean
automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of
mechanical, electronic, and computer-based systems in the
operation and control of production Examples of this technology
include transfer lines. Mechanized assembly machines, feedback
control systems (applied to industrial processes), numerically
controlled machine tools, and robots. Accordingly, robotics is a
form of industrial automation. Ex:- Robotics,
CAD/CAM, FMS, CIMS

32.Explain the types of Automation in Robotics.

1) Fixed Automation : It is the automation in which the

sequence of processing or assembly operations to be carried
out is fixed by the equipment configuration. In fixed
automation, the sequence of operations (which are simple)
are integrated in a piece of equipment. Therefore, it is
difficult to automate changes in the design of the product. It
is used where high volume of production is required
Production rate of fixed automation is high. In this
automation, no new products are processed for a given
sequence of assembly operations. It is the automation in
which the sequence of processing or assembly operations to
be carried out is fixed by the equipment configuration. In
fixed automation, the sequence of operations (which are
simple) are integrated in a piece of equipment. Therefore, it
is difficult to automate changes in the design of the product.
It is used where high volume of production is required
Production rate of fixed automation is high. In this
automation, no new products are processed for a given
sequence of assembly operations.
2) Programmable Automation : It is the automation in which
the equipment is designed to accommodate various product
configurations in order to change the sequence of operations
or assembly operations by means of control program.
Different types of programs can be loaded into the
equipment to produce products with new configurations (i.e.,
new products). It is employed for batch production of low
and medium volumes. For each new batch of different
configured product, a new control program corresponding to
the new product is loaded into the equipment. This
automation is relatively economic for small batches of the
product.:
3) Flexible Automation: A computer integrated manufacturing
system which is an extension of programmable automation
is referred as flexible automation. It is developed to minimize
the time loss between the changeover of the batch
 production from one product to another while reloading. The
program to produce new products and changing the physical
setup i.e., it produces different products with no loss of time.
This automation is more flexible in interconnecting work
stations with material handling and storage system.

33.Explain the different types of Robots

1. Androids
Androids are robots that resemble humans. They are often mobile,
moving around on wheels or a track drive. According to the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, these humanoid robots
are used in areas such as caregiving and personal assistance,
search and rescue, space exploration and research, entertainment
and education, public relations and healthcare, and
manufacturing.

2. Telechir
A telechir is a complex robot that is remotely controlled by a
human operator for a telepresence system. It gives that individual
the sense of being on location in a remote, dangerous or alien
environment, and enables them to interact with it since the
telechir continuously provides sensory feedback.

3. Telepresence robot
A telepresence robot simulates the experience -- and some
capabilities -- of being physically present at a location. It combines
remote monitoring and control via telemetry sent over radio, wires
or optical fibers, and enables remote business consultations,
healthcare, home monitoring, childcare and more.

4. Industrial robot
The IFR (International Federation of Robotics) defines an industrial
robot as an "automatically controlled, reprogrammable
multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes."
Users can adapt these robots to different applications as well.
Combining these robots with AI has helped businesses move them
beyond simple automation to higher-level and more complex tasks.

5.Swarm robot
 Swarm robots (aka insect robots) work in fleets ranging from a few
to thousands, all under the supervision of a single controller.
These robots are analogous to insect colonies, in that they exhibit
simple behaviors individually, but demonstrate behaviors that are
more sophisticated with an ability to carry out complex tasks in
total.

6. Smart robot
This is the most advanced kind of robot. The smart robot has a
built-in AI system that learns from its environment and
experiences to build knowledge and enhance capabilities to
continuously improve. A smart robot can collaborate with humans
and help solve problems in areas like the following:
• agricultural labor shortages;
• food waste;
• study of marine ecosystems;