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Study Guide in Sci 126: Meteorology Module No. 3

Study Guide for Module No. 3

Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

MODULE OVERVIEW

When we analyze the elements of weather and climate, changes in air pressure is
the least noticeable. Air pressure is one of the basic weather elements and plays a
significant impact in weather forecasting. In this module, we shall explore the relationship of
air pressure to temperature, moisture, and wind.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. define air pressure;
2. discuss pressure changes with altitude;
3. describe horizontal variations in air pressure;
4. compare factors affecting wind; and
5. explain how to determine wind measurement.

LEARNING CONTENTS

UNDERSTANDING AIR PRESSURE

Air pressure is simply the pressure exerted by the weight of air above. Average air pressure
at sea level is about 1 kilogram per square centimeter, or 14.7 pounds per square inch. Air pressure
is exerted in all directions. The air pressure pushing down on the desk exactly balances the air
pressure pushing up on a desk. It is important to consider that although we do not notice the
pressure exerted by the ocean of air around us, except when ascending or descending in an
elevator or airplane, it is nonetheless substantial. In another example, the pressurized suits used by
astronauts on space walks are designed to duplicate the atmospheric pressure experienced at
Earth’s surface. Without these protective suits, astronauts would perish in a few minutes.
The concept of air pressure can be compared to the behavior of gases. When two gas
molecules collide, they bounce off each other like elastic balls. The atmosphere is confined from
below by Earth's surface and effectively from above because the force of gravity prevents its
escape. Hence, we can define air pressure as the force exerted against a surface by the
continuous collisions of gas molecules.
MEASURING AIR PRESSURE
The newton is the unit of force used by meteorologists to measure atmospheric pressure. A
millibar (mb) equals 100 newtons per square meter. The standard seasonal level pressure is

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1013.25 millibars. There are two instruments used to measure atmospheric pressure. In the
mercury barometer, the height of a mercury column provides a measure of air pressure (standard
atmospheric pressure at sea level which is equivalent to 29.92 inches or 760 millimeters. Another
instrument is the aneroid barometer which uses a partially evacuated metal chamber that changes
shape as air pressure changes. An advantage of the aneroid barometer is that it can be easily
connected to a recording mechanism called barograph, which provides a continuous record of
pressure changes with the passage of time. The aneroid barometer can also be used to indicate
altitude for aircraft, mountain climbers, and mapmakers.
PRESSURE CHANGES WITH ALTITUDE
The pressure at any given altitude in the atmosphere is equal to the weight of the air directly
above that point. At sea level a column of air weighs 14.7 pounds per square inch and therefore
exerts that amount of pressure. As we ascend through the atmosphere, we find that the air
becomes less dense because of the lesser amount (weight) of air above. So there is a
corresponding decrease in pressure with an increase in altitude.
The rate at which pressure decreases with altitude is not constant. The rate of decrease is
much greater near Earth’s surface, where pressure is high, than aloft, where air pressure is low.
The normal decrease in pressure experienced with increased altitude is provided by the standard
atmosphere. The standard atmosphere shows the idealized vertical distribution of atmospheric
pressure.
HORIZONTAL VARIATIONS IN AIR PRESSURE
A comparison of pressure records from around the globe reveals that pressure differences
from place to place are relatively small. Extreme pressure readings are rarely greater than 30
millibars (1 inch of mercury) above average sea level pressure or 60 millibars (2 inches) below
average sea-level pressure. The barometric pressure measured in severe storms like hurricanes is
even lower.
Influence of Temperature and Water Vapor on Air Pressure
Take note that temperature is a measure of the average molecular motion (kinetic energy) of
a substance. For example, cold Canadian air is composed of comparatively slow-moving gas
molecules that are packed closely together. As the density of a column of air increases, so does the
pressure it exerts on the surface. Thus, a mass of cold air moving into the Midwest from Canada is
quite dense and will be labeled a High, for high barometric pressure, on a weather map.
In contrast, the air over the Gulf of Mexico in January is relatively warm. Because the gas
molecules in warm air have abundant kinetic energy, they are more widely spaced (less dense).
Warm air masses that produce low barometric pressure are labeled Low on a weather map.
Moreover, the amount of water vapor contained in a volume of air can also influence the
density of a substance. Water vapor reduces the density of air. Humid air is lighter (less dense) than

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dry air. So, even very humid air is only about 2 percent less dense than dry air at the same
temperature. We can attest that a cool, dry air mass will produce higher surface pressures than a
warm, humid air mass. Hence, large air masses are responsible for some the pressure variations
observed at Earth’s surface.
Air Flow and Pressure
The movement of air can also cause variations in air pressure. For example, in situations
where there is a net flow of air into a region, a phenomenon called convergence, the air piles up.
Stated another way, as air converges horizontally, it must increase in height to allow for the
decreased area it now occupies. This results in a “taller” and therefore heavier air column that
exerts more pressure at the surface. By contrast, in regions where there is a net flow of air, a
situation referred to as divergence, the surface pressure drops.
In summary, cold, dry air masses are dense and associated with high pressure. In contrast,
warm, humid air masses are less dense and tend to exhibit low pressure. Further, the pressure at
the surface will increase when there is a net convergence in a region and decrease when there is a
net divergence.

FACTORS AFFECTING WIND

Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. Air flows from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure. Wind is nature’s attempt to balance inequalities in air pressure.
Because unequal heating of Earth’s surface continually generates these differences, solar radiation
is the ultimate energy source for most wind.
If Earth did not rotate and if there were no friction, air would flow directly from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure. Because both factors exist, however, wind is controlled by a
combination of forces including: (1) the pressure-gradient force; (2) the Coriolis force; and (3)
friction.

Pressure-Gradient Force
To enable anything to accelerate (change in velocity) requires an unbalanced force in one
direction. The force that generates winds results from horizontal pressure differences. When air is
subjected to greater pressure on one side than on another, the imbalance produces a force that is
directed from the region of higher pressure toward the area of lower pressure. Thus, pressure
differences cause the wind to blow, and the greater these differences, the greater the wind speed.
Variations in air pressure over Earth’s surface are determined from barometric readings at
hundreds of weather stations. These pressure data are shown on surface weather maps by means
of isobars. Isobars are lines connecting places of equal air pressure. The spacing of isobars
indicates the amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance and is expressed as the

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pressure gradient. Pressure differences observed on daily weather map result from complex
factors. However, the underlying cause of these differences is simply unequal heating of Earth’s
land-sea surface.

Figure 3.1. Isobars are lines connecting places of equal sea-level pressure. They are used to show
the distribution of pressure on daily weather maps. Concentric rings of isobars indicate cells of high
and low pressure. The isobars are more closely spaced and the wind speed is faster around the low
pressure center than around the high.

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Figure 3.2. Pressure-gradient force. Closely spaced isobars indicate a strong pressure gradient
and high wind speeds, whereas widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient and low
wind speeds.

The magnitude of the pressure-gradient force is a function of the pressure difference

between two points and air density. It can be expressed as
1 ∆p
FPG = x , where
d ∆n
FPG = pressure-gradient force per unit mass
d = density of air
p = pressure difference between two points
n = distance between two points
Let us consider an example where the pressure 5 kilometers above Little Rock, Arkansas, is
540 millibars, and at 5 kilometers above St. Louis, Missouri, it is 530 millibars. The distance
between the two cities is 450 kilometers, and the air density at 5 kilometers is 0.75 kilogram per
cubic meter. In order to use the pressure-gradient equation, we must use compatible units. We must
first convert pressure from millibars to pascals, another measure of pressure that has units of
(kilograms x meters-1 x second2).
In our example, the pressure difference above the two cities is 10 millibars, or 1000 pascals
(1000 kg/m x s2). Thus, we have
1 1000
FPG = x = 0.0029 m/s2
0.75 450,000
Newton’s second law states that force equals mass times acceleration (F = m x a)
In our example, we have considered pressure-gradient for per unit mass; therefore, our
result is an acceleration (F/m = a). Because of the small units shown, pressure-gradient
acceleration is often expressed as centimeters per second squared. In this example, we have 0.296
cm/s2.

Horizontal Pressure Gradients

An important relationship exists between pressure and temperature. Temperature

variations create pressure differences and hence wind. The greater these temperature differences,
the stronger the horizontal pressure gradient and resultant wind. Daily temperature differences and
the pressure gradients so generated are generally confined to a zone that is only a few kilometers
thick.
Once the pressure-gradient force starts the air in motion, the Coriolis force, friction, and
other forces come into play. Although these forces cannot generate wind (with the exception of

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gravity) they do greatly modify airflow. These forces enhance the development of the Earth’s
pressure systems.

Vertical Pressure Gradients

It has been noted that airflow is from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
Hence, air pressure is highest near Earth’s surface and gets progressively lower as you move
upward through the atmosphere. The important balance that is usually maintained between these
two opposing forces is called hydrostatic equilibrium.
In general, the atmosphere is in or near hydrostatic balance. The upward pressure-gradient
force is balanced by the downward force of gravity. The horizontal pressure gradient is the driving
force of wind. It has both magnitude and direction. Its magnitude is determined from the spacing of
isobars, and the direction of force is always from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure and at right angles to the isobars. By contrast, the vertical pressure gradient is usually in,
or near, balance with gravity.

CORIOLIS FORCE
The weather map in Figure 3.1 shows the typical air movement associated with surface
high- and low-pressure systems. As expected, the air moves out of the regions of higher pressure
and into the regions of lower pressure. However, the wind does not cross the isobars at right
angles, as the pressure-gradient force directs. This deviation is the result of Earth’s rotation and has
been named the Coriolis force after the French scientist Gaspard Gustave Coriolis, who first
expressed its magnitude quantitatively.
All free-moving objects, including wind, are deflected to the right of their path of motion in the
Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Clockwise rotation produces a
similar deflection in the Southern Hemisphere, but to the left of the path of motion.
The magnitude of the deflecting force (Coriolis force) is dependent on latitude; it is strongest
at the poles, and it weakens equatorward, where it eventually becomes nonexistent. Hence, the
amount of Coriolis deflection increases with wind speed. This results because faster winds cover a
greater distance than do slower winds in the same time period.
In summary, on a rotating Earth the Coriolis force acts to change the direction of a moving
body to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This
deflecting force is always directed at right angles to the direction of airflow; affects only wind
direction, not wind speed; is affected by wind speed (the stronger the wind, the greater the
deflecting force); and it is strongest at the poles and weakens equatorward, becoming nonexistent
at the equator.

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Coriolis Force as a Function of Wind Speed and Latitude

It has been shown that speed and latitude conspire to affect the Coriolis force. Consider a
west wind at four different latitudes (0o, 20 o, 40 o, and 60 o). After several hours Earth’ rotation has
changed the orientation of latitude and longitude of all locations except the equator such that the
wind appears to be deflected to the right. The degree of deflection for a given wind speed increases
with latitude because the orientation of latitude and longitude lines changes more at higher latitudes.
The degree of deflection of a given latitude increases with wind speed because greater distances
are covered in the period of time considered.

We can show mathematically the importance of latitude and wind speed on Coriolis force:
FCO = 2v Ω sin Φ
where FCO = Coriolis force per unit mass of air
v = wind speed
Ω = Earth’s rate of rotation or angular velocity (which is 7.29 x 10-5 radians per second)
Φ = latitude
As an example, the Coriolis force per unit mass that must be considered for a 10-meter-per-
second (m/s) wind at 40o is calculated as:
FCO = 2Ω sin Φv
FCO = 2Ω sin 40 x 10 m/s
FCO = 2 (7.29 x 10-5 s-1) x 0.64(10/ms)
FCO = 0.00094 meter per second squared or 0.094 cm s-2
The result (0.094 cm s-2) is expressed as an acceleration because we are considering force
per unit mass and force = mass x acceleration.

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Figure 3.3. The Coriolis force illustrated using a one-hour flight of a rocket traveling from the North
Pole to a location on the equator. On a non-rotating Earth, the rocket would travel straight to its
target. However, Earth rotates 15o each hour. Thus, although the rocket travels in a straight line, it
follows a curved path that veers to the right of the target.

EXPLORE THIS: Learn about the Coriolis Effect.

Visit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIyBpi7B-dE

Visit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPsLanVS1Q8

Friction

The pressure-gradient force is the primary driving force of the wind. An unbalanced force, it
causes air to accelerate from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure. Thus, wind
speeds should continually increase (accelerate) for as long as this imbalance exists. Some other
force, must oppose the pressure-gradient force to moderate airflow. Hence, friction acts to slow a
moving object. Although friction significantly influences airflow near Earth’s surface, its effect is
negligible above a height of a few kilometers.

WINDS ALOFT AND GEOSTROPHIC FLOW

Aloft, the Coriolis force is responsible for balancing the pressure-gradient force and thereby
directing airflow. Under idealized conditions, when the Coriolis force is exactly equal and opposite to
the pressure-gradient force, the airflow is said to be geostrophic balance, The winds generated by
this balance are called geostrophic winds (geostrophic means “turned by Earth”). Geostrophic winds
flow in a straight path, parallel to the isobars, with velocities proportional to the pressure-gradient
force. A steep pressure gradient creates strong winds, and a weak pressure gradient produces light
winds.

CURVED FLOW AND THE GRADIENT WINDS

The weather maps show that isobars are not generally straight; instead, they make broad,
sweeping curves. Unlike geostrophic winds that flow in a straight path, winds around cells of high or
low pressure follow curved paths. Winds of this nature which blow at a constant speed parallel to
curved isobars are called gradient winds.
The centers of low pressure are commonly called cyclones and the flow around them
cyclonic. Cyclonic flow has the same direction of rotation as Earth: counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Centers of high pressure are
frequently called anticyclones and exhibit anticyclonic flow (opposite that of Earth’s rotation).
Whenever isobars curve to form elongated regions of low and high pressure, these areas are called
troughs and ridges. The flow about a trough is cyclonic; and the flow around a ridge is anticyclonic.

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SURFACE WINDS

Friction as a factor affecting wind is important only within the first few kilometers of Earth’s
surface. Near the surface, friction plays a major role in redistributing air within the atmosphere by
changing the direction of airflow. This is noticeable when considering the motion around surface
cyclones and anticyclones, two of the most common features on surface weather maps.

When we consider the effect of friction, the airflow crosses the isobars at varying angles,
depending on the roughness of the terrain, but always from higher to lower pressure. In a cyclone,
in which pressure decreases inward, friction causes a net flow toward its center. In an anticyclone,
the pressure decreases outward, and friction causes a net flow away from the center. Therefore, the
resultant winds blow into and counterclockwise about a surface cyclone. Of course, in the Southern
Hemisphere the Coriolis force deflects the winds to the left and reverses the direction of flow.
In whatever hemisphere, however, friction causes a net inflow (convergence) around a
cyclone and a net outflow (divergence) around an anticyclone.

Figure 3.4. Cyclonic and anticyclonic winds in the Northern Hemisphere. Arrows show the winds
blowing inward and counterclockwise around a low, and outward and clockwise around a high.

HOW WINDS GENERATE VERTICAL AIR MOTION

Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones

Divergence aloft may even exceed surface convergence, thereby resulting in intensified
surface inflow and accelerated vertical motion. Thus, divergence aloft can intensify storm centers as

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well as maintain them. On the other hand, inadequate divergence aloft permits surface flow to “fill”
and weaken the accompanying cyclone.
You should be able to understand why local television weather broadcasters emphasize the
positions and projected paths of cyclones and anticyclones. The source on these weather events is
always the cyclone which produces “bad” weather in any season. The paths of any weather
phenomena can be erratic, accurate prediction of their migration is likewise difficult, and yet
essential for short-range forecasting.

Figure 3.5. Airflow associated with surface cyclones and anticyclones. A low, or cyclone has
converging surface winds and rising air causing cloudy conditions. A high, or anticyclone, has
diverging surface winds and descending air, which leads to clear skies and fair weather.

WIND MEASUREMENT

Two basic wind measurements, direction and speed, are important to the weather observer.
Winds are always labeled by the direction from which they blow. A north wind blows from the north
toward the south; an east wind blows from the east toward the west. One instrument that is
commonly used is the wind vane. This instrument always points into the wind. Sometimes the wind
direction is shown on a dial that is connected to the wind vane.
Wind speed is often measured with a cup anemometer. The wind speed is read from a dial
much like the speedometer of an automobile. Sometimes an aerovane is used instead of a wind
vane and cup anemometer. This instrument resembles a wind vane with a propeller at one end
where the fin keeps the propeller facing into the wind.

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity No. 1. Factors Affecting Wind

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain why air pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.

2. Briefly describe how Coriolis force modifies the movement of air.

Activity No. 2. Pressure-Gradient and Coriolis Forces

Solve the following problems:

1. Calculate the magnitude of the pressure-gradient force (per unit mass) between two cities
500 kilometers apart if pressure at the respective cities is 1010 mb and 1017 mb?
2. Calculate the magnitude of Coriolis force acting on the air moving at:
a. 36 kilometers per hour (10 meters per second) at 35o latitude.
b. 36 kilometers per hour (10 meters per second) at 65o latitude.
c. 54 kilometers per hour (10 meters per second) at 35o latitude.

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this module:

 Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air above. It is also the force exerted
against a surface by the continuous collision of gas molecules.
 Two instruments used to measure atmospheric pressure are the mercury barometer and the
aneroid barometer.
 The pressure at any given altitude is equal to the weight of the air above that point.
 In calm air, two factors that largely determine the amount of air pressure exerted by an air
mass are temperature and humidity. A cold, dry air mass will produce higher surface
pressures than a warm, humid air mass.

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 Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. If Earth did not rotate and there
were no friction, air would flow directly from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure. However, because both factors exist, wind is controlled by a combination of (1) the
pressure-gradient force, (2) the Coriolis force; and (3) friction. The Coriolis force produces a
deviation in the path of wind due to Earth’s rotation.
 Winds in which the Coriolis force is equal to and opposite the pressure gradient force is
equal to and opposite the pressure gradient force are called geostrophic winds.
Geostrophic winds flow in a straight path, parallel to the isobars.
 Winds that blow at a constant speed parallel to curved isobars are called gradient winds.
 In centers of low pressure, called cyclones, the circulation of air, referred to as cyclonic
flow, is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. Centers of high pressure, called anticyclones, exhibit anticyclonic flow which
is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Two basic wind measurements, direction and speed, are important to the weather observer.
Wind direction is commonly determined using a wind vane. When the wind consistently
blows more often from one direction than from any other, it is called a prevailing wind. Wind
speed is often measured with a cup anemometer.

REFERENCES

Ahrens, D.C. and Henson, R. (2019). Meteorology Today. An introduction to weather, climate and
the environment. 12th ed. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, Inc. USA.
Lutgens, F.K., E.J. Tarbuck and D. Tasa. (2010). The Atmosphere: An introduction to
Meteorology. 11th Edition Prentice Hall, USA.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/meteorology/
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/meteorology.htm

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