International Relations Past Papers Solved Short

Questions

Past Paper 2017

Q: 1 Answer the following short questions?

Q: 1 Explain the concept of Nationalism in International Relations?

A: 1 Nationalism: In the context of International Relations, nationalism

refers to the ideology and movement that emphasizes the primacy of the
nation and its interests. It implies a strong sense of loyalty, pride, and
identification with one's nation, often leading to the prioritization of national
interests over international cooperation or supranational entities.

Nationalism, when translated into world politics, implies the identification of

the state or nation with the people, or at least the desirability of such
identification. It presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests
of a particular nation. This concept holds that the nation should be congruent
with the state, and it is based on a set of beliefs about the nation, including its
origins, nature, and value.
Q: 2 Highlights the major features of diplomacy after cold war?

A: 2 Diplomacy after cold war is also called new diplomacy.

Followings are the major features of new diplomacy.

1. Greater openness.

2. Multilateral diplomacy.

3. Summit diplomacy.

1. Greater openness: It is the first feature of new diplomacy. This

diplomacy is open in character in contrast to traditional or old

diplomacy.

2. Multilateral diplomacy: Another outstanding feature of the modern

diplomacy is the multilateral diplomacy, because old diplomacy is

bilateral and the new is multilateral.

3. Summit diplomacy: The term ‘summit diplomacy’ was for the first

time coined by Sir Winston Churchill in 1953 when he proposed a

conference of the heads of governments of Western countries and Soviet

Union. It implies direct participation of the foreign ministers, prime

ministers and heads of states in diplomatic negotiations.

Q: 3 Explain the evolution of modern state system?

A: 3 Modern State System: It is also known as modern nation state system.

Power and authority are centralized in modern states.

Evolution: The concept of the modern nation state emerged from the hearth

of Europe, between 16th and 19th centuries. The Peace of Westphalia was

peace negotiated in 1648 to end the 30 years’ war, Europe's worst interfaith

conflict between Catholics and Protestants. It represented the emergence of

the modern state. France after the French Revolution (1787–99) is often cited

as the first nation-state, some scholars consider the establishment of the

English Commonwealth in 1649 as the earliest instance of nation-state

creation.
Q: 4 What is sovereignty and why it is important for modern states?

A: 4 Sovereignty: It is the basic feature of nation state system. It is a legal

concept that gives the state unique and unlimited authority in all domestic

affairs and in its relations with other states.

Importance for modern states: Sovereignty is very important for modern

states. It is an attribute of states that is both an idea and a reality of state

power. It is one of the means, an important one, by which the government of a

state seeks to ensure the best it possibly can for its people. As such, it also

changes over time. If a modern state has a power of sovereignty, then peace

and justice develop in modern state societies which are very important for its

existence.
 Past Paper 2018

Q: 1 Answer the following short questions?

Q: 1 Discuss the principles of Sovereignty in Modern State System?

A: 1 Followings are the principles of Sovereignty in Modern State System.

1. Internal sovereignty.

2. External sovereignty.

1. Internal sovereignty: With Sovereignty meaning holding supreme,

independent authority over a region or state, Internal Sovereignty

refers to the internal affairs of the state and the location of supreme

power within it.

2. External sovereignty: It means that state is free from any control,

compulsion and interference by a foreign state or power. In other

words, it means that the will of the state is supreme against others will

of foreign state.
Q: 2 Define and elaborate National Interest?

A: 2 Definition: National Interests can as defined as the claims, objectives,

goals, demands and interests which a nation always tries to preserve, protect,

defend and secure in relations with other nations.

The concept of national interest is an ambiguous and vague and carries a

meaning according to context, in which it is used. It is therefore, impossible to

give universally acceptable definition of the term. Despite of its ambiguity, it

remains of great importance for describing, explaining and predicting

international behavior. Hans Morganthau who had dealt with the term, gave a

variety of meanings. He used the terms like common interest, conflicting

interest, primary interest, secondary interest, vital interest, identical interest

and material, which added confusion to the concept.

Q: 3 Explain the concept of Nationalism?

A: 3 Nationalism: In the context of International Relations, nationalism

refers to the ideology and movement that emphasizes the primacy of the
nation and its interests. It implies a strong sense of loyalty, pride, and
identification with one's nation, often leading to the prioritization of national
interests over international cooperation or supranational entities.

Nationalism, when translated into world politics, implies the identification of

the state or nation with the people, or at least the desirability of such
identification. It presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests
of a particular nation. This concept holds that the nation should be congruent
with the state, and it is based on a set of beliefs about the nation, including its
origins, nature, and value.
Q: 4 What are the major principles of Liberalism?

A: 4 Liberalism: Liberalism is a theory and school of thought in

international relations which talks about the liberty of people. It is a political

and economic philosophy emphasizing individual autonomy, equal

opportunity, and protection of individual rights to life, liberty, and property.

Followings are the major principles of Liberalism.

1. Liberalism has promoted economic growth and individual rights. It has

also caused many social and environmental problems.

2. Many individuals have turned to activism to focus the media on

problems that industries have caused. Such as air pollution and

consumerism.
 Past Paper 2019

Q: 1 Answer the following short questions?

Q: 1 Explain the origin of Liberalism?

A: 1 Liberalism: Liberalism is a theory and school of thought in

international relations which talks about the liberty of people. It is a political

and economic philosophy emphasizing individual autonomy, equal

opportunity, and protection of individual rights to life, liberty, and property.

Philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a

distinct tradition, based on the social contract, arguing that each man has a

natural right to life, liberty and property and governments must not violate

these rights. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French

Revolution.
Q: 2 Define and explain Power and its relevance in modern world?

A: 2 Power: It is a capability of doing or accomplishing something. In

international relations, power is an attribute of particular actors in their

interactions, as well as a social process that constitutes the social identities and

capacities of actors. International relations scholars use the term polarity to

describe the distribution of power in the international system. Power may be

in different types. Political power, economical power, military power, cultural

power and religious power etc…

Q: 3 Discuss the national interest of a state?

A: 3 National Interest: National Interest is a rationality of governing

referring to a sovereign state's goals and ambitions. It is a key concept in

International Relations. It is a universally accepted right of each state to

secure its national interests. A state always tries to justify its actions on the

basis of its national interest. The behavior of a state is always conditioned and

governed by its national interests.

Q: 4 Explain the importance of International Relations as discipline?

A: 4 Importance of IR: International relations is the science, which explains

the political activities across states. Therefore, the scholars pay great attention

to international political activities and attempt to draw certain theories as the

nature of that activity.

1. The study of man’s behavior is a central part of this study; which

applies the activities in international political arena as to economic and

social matters.

2. The scholars of international relations develop some propositions and

assumption on foreign policy, which are based on the hypothesis of

international relations.

3. The international relations plays an educative role, as the foreign

policy-making has been left in the hands of ministers and civil servants,

influenced by small number of interested groups.

Q: 5 Evaluate different types of diplomats?

A: 5 Diplomats: They are such persons who represent their countries at

international state level.

Followings are the types of diplomats:

1. Ambassadors.

2. Envoys.

1. Ambassadors: An ambassador is the President's highest-ranking

representative to a specific nation or international organization abroad.

2. Envoys: An envoy was a diplomat of the second class who had

plenipotentiary powers. The rank of envoy gradually became obsolete as

countries upgraded their relations to the ambassadorial rank.

 Past Paper 2020

Q: 1 Answer the following short questions?

Q: 1 Highlight the importance of International Relations as a discipline?

A: 1 Importance of IR: International relations is the science, which explains

the political activities across states. Therefore, the scholars pay great attention

to international political activities and attempt to draw certain theories as the

nature of that activity.

1. The study of man’s behavior is a central part of this study; which

applies the activities in international political arena as to economic and

social matters.

2. The scholars of international relations develop some propositions and

assumption on foreign policy, which are based on the hypothesis of

international relations.
3. The international relations plays an educative role, as the foreign

policy-making has been left in the hands of ministers and civil servants,

influenced by small number of interested groups.

Q: 2 Elaborate the role of sovereignty in modern state system?

A: 2 Sovereignty: Sovereignty is a political concept that refers to dominant

power or supreme authority. In a monarchy, supreme power resides in the

"sovereign", or king. In modern democracies, sovereign power rests with the

people and is exercised through representative bodies such as Congress or

Parliament.

Role of Sovereignty in modern state system: Westphalia established the

key principle of modern statehood. Sovereignty is a distinguishing

characteristic of the state. Sovereignty is the right to have absolute and

unlimited power, either legal or political, within the territory of a state.

Independence took on the form of Western-style states.

Q: 3 Analyze the Shortcomings of the theory of Clash of Civilizations?

A: 3 Clash of Civilizations: The Clash of Civilizations is a thesis that

people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict

in the post–Cold War world. The American political scientist Samuel P.

Huntington argued in his book that future wars would be fought not between

countries, but between cultures.

Shortcomings of Clash of Civilization: The clash of civilizations will

occur in future time of world, because every nation of world has different

culture and religion. So, the future wars would be fought not between

countries, but between cultures and national customs or values of states. The

scholars say that this clash may be very dangerous for the peace and

development of world.
Q: 4 Discuss the key types of diplomats?

A: 4 Diplomats: They are such persons who represent their countries at

international state level.

Followings are the types of diplomats:

1. Ambassadors.

2. Envoys.

1. Ambassadors: An ambassador is the President's highest-ranking

representative to a specific nation or international organization

abroad.

2. Envoys: An envoy was a diplomat of the second class who had

plenipotentiary powers. The rank of envoy gradually became

obsolete as countries upgraded their relations to the ambassadorial

rank.
 Past Paper 2021

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Discuss the failures of Liberalism?

A: 1 The Idealist theory regards the power politics as the passing phase of
history and presents the picture of a future international society based on the
notion of reformed international system free from power politics, immorality
and violence. Idealism is also called Liberalism. It is a school of Liberalism.

Failures of Liberalism:

 First, the difficulty with this theory is that such a system could emerge
only by following moral principle in mutual relations in place of power;
which is not possible in practice.

 Second, to bring such a world order there is need to crush the

totalitarian forces through the use of democratic methods; which is not
so easy job.
  Third, the theory run short of factual position. The nations do not
behave as they are expected.

As a result, the Idealism in international relations cannot exist, and its

adherence is likely to lead to frustration.
Q: 2 Define Nationalism and its importance in modern times?

A: 2 Meaning of Nationalism: Nationalism word derives from “nation”.

Nation is Latin root: “Nasci” meaning “to be born” into a group with common
culture, common religion, common language, common history, and a common
homeland and common ancestors.

Definition of Nationalism: Nationalism is a political belief that some

groups of people represent a natural community that should live under one
political system, be independent of other, and often has the right to demand
on equal standing in the world order with others.

According to “Carlton J.H. Hayes” “Nationalism consists of modern

emotional fusion and exaggeration of two very old phenomena nationality and
patriotism.

Importance of Nationalism in Modern Times:

The importance of Nationalism can be analyzed from the following points:

1. Nationalism instills a sense of duty and loyalty towards the nation.

2. Nationalism motivates the individuals to defend their homeland.
3. Nationalism can strengthen military readiness.
4. Nationalism ensures the protection of citizens and territorial integrity.
5. Nationalism fosters a sense of collective responsibility.
Q: 3 Analyze the 5 key elements of power?

A: 3 Meaning of Power: Power mean the ability to do or act or it is

government’s influence or authority over others or it is capacity to control
others and get them to do what one wants to do and they do not do what one
does not want to do.

Definition of Power:

“Hans Morgenthau” defines power as a relationship between two political

actors, in which actor A has the ability to control the mind and actions of
actor B.

Elements of Power: The elements of power may be classified into two

components:

1. Tangible Elements.
2. Intangible Elements.

1. Tangible Elements: Followings are the tangible elements:

 Population.
 Territory.
 Natural Resources.
 Agricultural Capacity.
 Military Strength.
 2. Intangible Elements: Followings are the intangible elements:
 Leadership.
 Ideology.
 Social cohesiveness.
 National character.
 Diplomacy.

Followings are the 5 main and key elements of power:

 Population: Population is a tangible element for power. It is

assumed that populous nation states are powerful, but it is not
true. In developed nation-state a large number of population is a
source of strength while in developed or undeveloped state a large
number of population is sign of its weakness.

 Natural Resources: Natural resources may be defined as gift of

nature of established utility, which include most of minerals flora,
fauna, fertility of soil, waterfall, oil, gas, iron, coal, uranium and
manganese etc. These are essential for industrial production. The
importance of natural resources are revealed by the industrial
and economic capability of a nation-state.
 Agricultural Capacity: This is also a tangible element of
power. Countries that can feed themselves, especially over the
course a long war, will be relatively more powerful than countries
that are not self-sufficient. The superior agricultural production
contributes to the power of a nation-state.

 Leadership: Leadership is an important element of power.

There are two aspects of leadership. One is the extent to which it
overlaps other elements of power and the second is the range of
activities in which able leadership is essential to the realization of
maximum power.

 Ideology: An ideology is “a cluster of ideas about life, society or

government which originate in most cases as consciously
advocated or dogmatically asserted social, political or religious
slogans or battle cries and which through continuous usage and
preachment gradually become the characteristic beliefs or
dogmas of a particular group, party or nationality”.
Q: 4 Define Behavioralism. Highlight its key features?

A: 4 Definition of Behavioralism: Behavioralism is an approach of

international relations that stresses on analyzing only observable behavior of
political actors.

Behavioralism is a belief which insists that social theory can be and should be
constructed only on the basis of observable behaviors because only such
behavior provides measurable quantifiable data for research.

Key Features of Behavioralism: David Easton has pointed out certain key
features of Behavioralism which are regarded as its intellectual foundations;
These are:

 Regularities: This approach believes that are certain

uniformities in political behavior which can be expressed in
generalizations or theories in order to explain and predict
political phenomena. In a particular situation, the political
behavior of individuals may be more or less similar. Study of such
regularities makes political science more scientific with some
predictive value.
 Verification: The Behaviorists do not want to accept everything
as granted. Therefore, they emphasize testing and verifying
everything.

 Techniques: The Behaviorists put emphasis on the use of those

research tools and methods which generate valid, reliable and
comparative data.

 Qualification: After collecting data, the researcher should

measure and quantifies those data.

 Values: The Behaviorists have put heavy emphasis on separation

of facts from values. They believe that to do objective research
one has to be value free.

 Systematization: According to Behaviorists, research in

political science must be systematic. Theory and research should
go together.
 Past Paper 2022

Q: Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Define the concept of National Interest?

A: 1 National interest is the most crucial concept in international politics.

Nations always act and react for satisfying their goals of national interests.

The foreign policy of each nation formulated on the basis of national interest
and it always at work for security its goals.

Meaning of National Interest: The word “interest” derives from a Latin

word which means “it concerns, it makes a difference to, it is important with
reference to same person or thing”. It is a condition of wanting to know or
learn about.

In international relations, national interest is an effort to describe the

underlying rationale for the behavior of states and statesmen in a threatening
international environment, which preserves and protects one’s values against
others.
Definitions of National Interest:

 The Brooking’s Institute has defined national interest as, “the general
and continuing ends for which a nation acts”.

 According to Abdul Said and Charles O. Lerche, national interest is “a

general long term and continuous purpose, which the state, the nation
and the government all see themselves as serving.

 Prof. Hans J. Morgenthau argues that, “it is not only a political

necessity but also a moral duty for nations but one guiding star, one
standard for thought, one rule for action: the national interest”.

Kinds of National Interest: According to Thomas W. Robinson, the

national interest can be classified into six categories:

1. Primary Interest.
2. Secondary Interest.
3. Permanent Interest.
4. Variable Interest.
5. General Interest.
6. Specific Interest.
Q: 2 Elaborate the Role of Sovereignty in Modern State System?

A: 2 The word sovereignty means freedom, independence and autonomy. It

can be defined as:

Sovereignty is the notion that governments are free to do what they want
within their own territory.

Sovereignty is one of the three basic features of state system. The sovereignty
is a legal concept that gives the state unique and unlimited authority in all
domestic affairs and in its relations with other states. It is a central formula;
under which we try to nationalize the complicated facts of our modern
political life.

Sovereignty entails hierarchy within the state, as well as external autonomy

for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or
institution that has the ultimate authority over other people in order to
establish a law or change existing laws.

As conclusion, sovereignty is the ability of a nation-state, through its

government, to be master in its internal affairs and in foreign affairs to have
the option of entering or leaving alliances of going to war or remaining
neutral so as to best defend its interest.
Q: 3 Define and explain Power and its Relevance in Modern State System?

A: 3 Meaning of Power: Power means the ability to do or act or it is

government’s influence or authority over others or it is capacity to control
other and get them and get them to do what one wants to do and they do not
do what one does not want to do.

Definitions of Power: “Hans Morgenthau” defines power as a relationship

between two political actors, in which actor A has the ability to control the
mind and actions of actor B.

According to “George Schwarzenberger”, “The power is the capacity to

improve one’s will on other by reliance on effective sanction in the case of
non-compliance”.

According to “Organski”, “Power is the ability to influence the behavior of

others in accordance with one’s own ends. Unless a nation can do this, she
may be large, she may be wealthy, she may even be great but she is not
powerful.
Relevance of Power in Modern Times: In a modern world, power is an
indispensable element of a nation, even the nation cannot live according to its
own will without having power. Force, influence and authority are the crucial
ingredients of power. Power can be of military, of economy, over opinion and
it can be a diplomatic power.

The population of a country, its natural resource, agricultural capacity,

military strength, national character and social cohesiveness are considered as
the basic elements of powers.

So, in modern world, survival of a nation without power is impossible. A

nation must have enough power to protect its people, natural sources and
boundaries.
Q: 4 Discuss circumstances after 9/11 regarding Diplomacy?

A: 4 According to “Hans J. Morgenthau”, “Diplomacy is the promotion of

national interest by peaceful means”.

The September 11 attacks were a series of airline hijackings and suicide

attacks committed in 2001 by 19 terrorists associated with the extremist group
on U.S soil; nearly 3000 people were killed.

Diplomacy after 9/11: If the end of the cold war spawned an optimistic
mood about what might be achieved by diplomacy the sudden and devastating
attack on the World Trade Center in New York on 11th September, 2001
produced the very opposite mood of deep pessimism.

 First, this time the international community is facing challenge posed by

a non-state actor.
 A second, key reason for a sense of pessimism about diplomacy was the
decision of the George W. Bush administration to frame the response to
9/11 in terms of a “a war against terrorism” which suggested that
military force and other coercive measures would be the instruments of
choice.
 This created a rift in Trans-Atlantic relations.
 From a European perspective, there were three interrelated
concerns that relate to diplomacy.
  First Unilateralism:
 It was apparent that U.S government was determined to invade
Iraq, ostensibly in the cause of counterterrorism, where or not its
allies were in support & whether or not a legitimizing resolution
could be obtained at the United Nations.
 Second, there was concern about the new U.S military doctrine of
pre-emption which implied at least a rejection of both
containment & deterrence, the twin pillars of US diplomacy in the
cold war. The fear in Europe was that the invasion of Iraq would
be followed by the use of military force against other ‘rogue’
states.

 The third related concern refers more broadly to the relationship

between what are called “hard” and “soft” instruments of power.

As defined by “Christopher Hill”, ‘hard’ power refers to “that which is

targeted, coercive, often immediate and physical”, whereas ‘soft’ power refers
to “that which is indirect, long term and works more through persuasion than
force”.

Disarray, in Iraq questioned the efficacy of military force and strong

arguments were being made in favor of soft power approach to the global
problem of terror.
Q: 5 Write down Nature and Scope of International Relations?

A: 5 Nature of International Relations: The nature of a subject refers to

the characteristics of that subject.

The nature of international relations is dynamic. International relations is a

thorough analysis of what is happening in world politics.

As an Interdisciplinary Subject: All social science subjects are

interdisciplinary in nature. International relations also is an interdisciplinary
field of study in which other disciplines in social science such as history,
economics, political science, philosophy, geography, culture etc. are
interconnected.

Scope of International Relations: International relations have become

vital for the whole humanity and are characterized by a high degree of
interaction and interdependence. The scope of IR is quite extensive as it
studies the relations between states in their political and economic prospects
primarily.

The Past Scope of IR: In past, international relations was concerned with
the study of diplomatic history. It concentrated on the study of contemporary
international affairs, to draw certain conclusions.
At present, the scope of international relations is quite extensive which include
the study of:

 Diplomatic theory.
 International principles.
 National interest.
 International affairs.
 Foreign policy.
 International policies.
 International institutions.
 International law.
 International economy.
Q: 6 Determine the status of Diplomacy in the Past Cold War?

A: 6 According to “Hans J. Morgenthau”, “Diplomacy is the promotion of

national interest by peaceful means”.

Post-Cold War: The post-cold war era is a period of history that follows the
end of the cold war, which represents history after the 1991fall of the Soviet
Union.

Post-Cold War Diplomacy:

 The end of the cold war represented a dramatic change in the

international context within which diplomacy is conducted.

 The end of ideological East-West conflict and the demise of the Soviet
Union raised popular expectation about what might now be achieved
by diplomacy and negotiation.

 The successful ousting of the invading Iraqi forces from Kuwait in

1991 by the U.S-IED military coalition sanctioned by the UN
resolution appeared to provide a model for the future.
 But optimism was soon replaced by the realization that the end of the
cold war may have resolved some problems but other problems had
merely been hidden from view during the cold war period.

 The failure of diplomacy to resolve the breakdown of order in the

former Yugoslavia illustrates the intractable nature of many post-cold
war problems on the international agenda.

 At the beginning of the 21st century, diplomacy at the level of world

politics could be characterized in two ways:

1. First, diplomacy is now genuinely global in scope.

2. Second, contemporary diplomacy can also be characterized as

complex and fragmented in terms of the analytical categories
used here, there are multiple actors involved, complex
multilateral as well as bilateral processes at work, and the
substance of global diplomacy covers a wider agenda issues
than ever before.
 Past Paper 2023

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Explain the concept of Nationalism in International Relations?

A: 1 Nationalism: In the context of International Relations, nationalism

refers to the ideology and movement that emphasizes the primacy of the
nation and its interests. It implies a strong sense of loyalty, pride, and
identification with one's nation, often leading to the prioritization of national
interests over international cooperation or supranational entities.

Nationalism, when translated into world politics, implies the identification of

the state or nation with the people, or at least the desirability of such
identification. It presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests
of a particular nation. This concept holds that the nation should be congruent
with the state, and it is based on a set of beliefs about the nation, including its
origins, nature, and value.
Q: 2 Highlights the major features of diplomacy after cold war?

A: 2 Diplomacy after cold war is also called new diplomacy.

Followings are the major features of new diplomacy.

1. Greater openness.

2. Multilateral diplomacy.

3. Summit diplomacy.

1. Greater openness: It is the first feature of new diplomacy. This

diplomacy is open in character in contrast to traditional or old

diplomacy.

2. Multilateral diplomacy: Another outstanding feature of the modern

diplomacy is the multilateral diplomacy, because old diplomacy is

bilateral and the new is multilateral.

3. Summit diplomacy: The term ‘summit diplomacy’ was for the first

time coined by Sir Winston Churchill in 1953 when he proposed a

conference of the heads of governments of Western countries and Soviet

Union. It implies direct participation of the foreign ministers, prime

ministers and heads of states in diplomatic negotiations.

Q: 3 Define the term Balance of Power?

A: 3 Definitions of Balance of Power: “George Schwarzen Berger”

defined it as “an equilibrium or a certain amount of stability in international
relations, which is produced by an alliance of states or by other devices”.

“Hans J. Morgenthau” has described it as “only a particular manifestation of

a general social principle”.

The term "balance of power" in the context of International Relations refers

to the posture and policy of a nation or group of nations aimed at protecting
themselves against the dominance or interference of another nation or group.
It denotes an equilibrium of power sufficient to discourage or prevent one
nation or party from imposing its will on or interfering with others. The
balance of power theory suggests that states may secure their survival by
preventing any one state from gaining enough power to dominate others.
While the term often refers to the relative military balance between states, it
encompasses broader aspects of international relations, including diplomatic,
economic, and strategic dimensions. The concept of balance of power has
historical roots and has been a significant factor in shaping the dynamics of
world politics, particularly in the context of alliances, conflicts, and the
maintenance of stability within the international system.
Q: 4 Write down any three major challenges Facing the Modern States?

A: 4 The modern states face several significant challenges, including:

1. Global Security and Conflict Resolution: Modern states grapple with

the complexities of global security, including the rise of non-state actors,
transnational terrorism, and regional conflicts. The need to navigate
diplomatic relations, peacekeeping efforts, and the prevention of armed
conflicts poses a substantial challenge to the stability and security of states.

2. Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change: The pressing

issue of environmental sustainability and climate change presents a
formidable challenge for modern states. Balancing economic development
with environmental conservation, addressing carbon emissions, and
promoting sustainable practices are critical concerns that require
international cooperation and policy innovation.

3. Social and Economic Inequality: Addressing social and economic

inequality within and among states remains a significant challenge. Modern
states must grapple with issues such as poverty, access to healthcare,
education, and economic opportunities, as well as the need to foster inclusive
growth and reduce disparities within their societies.
Q: 5 Define the concept of National Interest?

A: 5 National interest is the most crucial concept in international politics.

Nations always act and react for satisfying their goals of national interests.

The foreign policy of each nation formulated on the basis of national interest
and it always at work for security its goals.

Meaning of National Interest: The word “interest” derives from a Latin

word which means “it concerns, it makes a difference to, it is important with
reference to same person or thing”. It is a condition of wanting to know or
learn about.

In international relations, national interest is an effort to describe the

underlying rationale for the behavior of states and statesmen in a threatening
international environment, which preserves and protects one’s values against
others.

Definitions of National Interest:

 The Brooking’s Institute has defined national interest as, “the general
and continuing ends for which a nation acts”.
  According to Abdul Said and Charles O. Lerche, national interest is “a
general long term and continuous purpose, which the state, the nation
and the government all see themselves as serving.

 Prof. Hans J. Morgenthau argues that, “it is not only a political

necessity but also a moral duty for nations but one guiding star, one
standard for thought, one rule for action: the national interest”.

Kinds of National Interest: According to Thomas W. Robinson, the

national interest can be classified into six categories:

1. Primary Interest.
2. Secondary Interest.
3. Permanent Interest.
4. Variable Interest.
5. General Interest.
6. Specific Interest.
Q: 6 Discuss circumstances after 9/11 regarding Diplomacy?

A: 6 According to “Hans J. Morgenthau”, “Diplomacy is the promotion of

national interest by peaceful means”.

The September 11 attacks were a series of airline hijackings and suicide

attacks committed in 2001 by 19 terrorists associated with the extremist group
on U.S soil; nearly 3000 people were killed.

Diplomacy after 9/11: If the end of the cold war spawned an optimistic
mood about what might be achieved by diplomacy the sudden and devastating
attack on the World Trade Center in New York on 11th September, 2001
produced the very opposite mood of deep pessimism.

 First, this time the international community is facing challenge posed by

a non-state actor.
 A second, key reason for a sense of pessimism about diplomacy was the
decision of the George W. Bush administration to frame the response to
9/11 in terms of a “a war against terrorism” which suggested that
military force and other coercive measures would be the instruments of
choice.
 This created a rift in Trans-Atlantic relations.
 From a European perspective, there were three interrelated
concerns that relate to diplomacy.
  First Unilateralism:
 It was apparent that U.S government was determined to invade
Iraq, ostensibly in the cause of counterterrorism, where or not its
allies were in support & whether or not a legitimizing resolution
could be obtained at the United Nations.
 Second, there was concern about the new U.S military doctrine of
pre-emption which implied at least a rejection of both
containment & deterrence, the twin pillars of US diplomacy in the
cold war. The fear in Europe was that the invasion of Iraq would
be followed by the use of military force against other ‘rogue’
states.

 The third related concern refers more broadly to the relationship

between what are called “hard” and “soft” instruments of power.

As defined by “Christopher Hill”, ‘hard’ power refers to “that which is

targeted, coercive, often immediate and physical”, whereas ‘soft’ power refers
to “that which is indirect, long term and works more through persuasion than
force”.

Disarray, in Iraq questioned the efficacy of military force and strong

arguments were being made in favor of soft power approach to the global
problem of terror.