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 NOV 2 1 200?

THE COMPLETE
WILDERNESS
TRAINING
MANUAL
 THE COMPUTE
WILDERNESS
TRAINING
MANUAL

Hugh McManners

London, New York, Munich, Melbourne, Delhi

L
 CONTENTS
London, New York, Munich, Melbourne, Delhi
Introduction 6
Project Editor
Lynn Parr
Senior Art Editor
Lee Griffiths Chapter 1 are you a Survivor ?
Designer
Colette Ho Physical Condition 12
Managing Editor Nutritional Needs 14
Krystyna Mayer
Adapting to the Environment 16
Managing Art Editor
Derek Coombes Fitness 18
DTP Designer
Doug Miller
Production Controller
Rosalind Priestley
Chapter 2 Basic equipment
First American edition 1994, revised and updated 2007 The Right Clothing 22
Published in the United States by
DK Publishing
Footwear 24
375 Hudson Street Personal Camp Kit 26
New York, NY 10014
Basic Survival Kit 28
07 08 09 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Sleeping Bags and Beds 30
Copyright © 1994, 2007 Dorling Kindersley Limited
Text copyright © 1994, 2007 Hugh McManners Tools 32
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Ropes and Knots 34
Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
Using Ropes 36
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Boy Scouts of America ® and Be Prepared ® are registered

Chapter 3 Living in the wild
trademarks of the Boy Scouts of America. Printed under license from
Boy Scouts of America to DK Publishing. Choosing a Campsite 40
A Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the Choosing a Tent 42
Library of Congress.
Erecting a Tent 44
ISBN 978-0-75662-804-8
Dismantling a Tent 46
DK books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases for
sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For
Building a Shelter 48
details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 375 Hudson Street, Snow Shelters 50
New York, NY 10014 or [email protected]
Tropical Shelters 52
Original colour reproduced by GRB, Verona
Revised colour reproduced by Colourscan, Singapore
Long-term Shelters 54
Printed and bound by Star Standard, Singapore Running a Safe Camp 56
Discover more at
www.dk.com

IMPORTANT NOTICE
Some of the techniques described in this book should
be used only in dire emergencies, when the survival
of individuals depends upon them. Consequently,
the author, publishers, and Boy Scouts of America
cannot be held responsible for any injuries, damage,
loss, or prosecutions resulting from the use or
misuse of the information in this book. Do not
practice these techniques on private land without the
owner’s permission, and obey all laws relating to the
protection of land, property, plants, and animals.

3 1223 07571 1698

 Chapter 6 On the move

Deciding to Move 122

Finding Direction 124
Using Maps 126
Finding Your Location 128
Navigation Basics 130
Assessing the Weather 132
Preparing to Move 134
Walking 136
Walking in Snow and Ice 138
Traveling Over Snow 140
Crossing Deserts 142
Campfires 58
Traveling Through Jungles 144
Building a Fire 60
Safe Climbing 146
Lighting a Fire 62
Emergency Climbing Techniques 148
Striking Camp 64
Crossing Water 150
Dangerous Water 152
Building a Raft 154
Chapter 4 finding Water
Using Rafts and Boats 156
The Importance of Water 68 Using Vehicles 158
Collecting Water 70 Other Transportation 160
Natural Water Sources 72
Water Treatment 74
Carrying and Storing Water 76 APPENDIX A
Abandoning Ship 162
Surviving at Sea 164
Chapter 5 finding and Preparing Food Dangerous Creatures 166
Natural Hazards 168
Food for Traveling 80
Extreme Weather 170
Edible Plants 82
Signaling 172
Poisonous Plants 84
Roots, Tubers, and Bulbs 86 Appendix B
Nuts and Fruit 88 First Aid 174
Fungi and Lichen 90
Plants as Food 92
Invertebrates 94 Glossary 184
Invertebrates as Food 96 Checklist for Survival 187
Freshwater Fish 98 Index 188
Saltwater Fish 100 Acknowledgments 192
Angling Equipment 102
Angling Techniques 104
Fishing Nets and Traps 106
Using Fishing Nets and Traps 108
Preparing Fish for Cooking 110
Cooking Utensils 112
Stoves and Ovens 114
Cooking Methods 116
Preserving Food 118
 INTRODUCTION
6

INTRODUCTION
O NE OF THE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS is thought to have remarked, “Any fool can
be uncomfortable” - probably after a washed-out camping holiday. Whether
attempting to dry out your bedding on a rainsoaked campsite, or trying to stay alive after
some unexpected disaster, it helps immeasurably to know the basic principles of outdoor
life. These include how tents and shelters are erected, choosing or making sleeping bags
and beds, building a fire, and preventing or treating blisters and other health complaints.
Understanding more specialized principles of survival, such as safe navigation across
different types of terrain, or water purification, is as interesting and useful to recreational
users as it is vital and life saving to those unfortunate enough to become “survivors.”

Expecting the unexpected

In the Commandos, the day-to-day motto is, “Always expect the unexpected.” Years of
training in wet and potentially dangerous places paid off - we maintained equipment for
operations worldwide and often found ourselves working in hostile environments. Special
forces people are realistic about what they have to do, so having thought it all through in
training, we had no problems when we had to do it for real. Nevertheless, we were
certainly coping with “the unexpected.”
By contrast, for civilians facing nothing more hazardous than the possibility of car
breakdowns or bad weather, preparing for various disaster situations may appear
ridiculous. However, even the mildest family walk, particularly in hill country, can suddenly
turn dangerous if the participants are unaware of the basic principles of weather prediction,
first aid, navigation, clothing, and footwear. It is only through understanding more about
life in the wild, that many common disasters can be avoided - or at least identified before
they become severely life threatening.
Preparing for the unexpected is a constant process of tiying to understand how things
work, then drawing parallels between what is part of our own experience and what we
understand, and strange, different things of which we have no experience. Even though we
may choose to visit wilderness areas and undeveloped countries, we usually remain
spectators, kept apart from the reality of eveiyday life in those places by the
nature of our urban lives, which are filled with modern technology. Yet
we must shed our comfortable wrappings if we want to understand
how life really works - if we were to be set down on a remote
tropical island after a plane crash, for example, we would be
unlikely to have bottled water, prepacked, precooked
meals, or even sunglasses, and urban accoutrements such
as credit cards would be useless.
It is to our benefit, therefore, to make a serious effort to
step outside our cushioned, shielded lives. If we can
understand where we fit into the wild world, honestly
assessing our physical and mental strengths and limitations,
we can make the next step, becoming players in the real
world, regardless of where that might be.
 INTRODUCTION
7

Life-saving Knowledge

It is impossible to predict what disasters may occur, so you

cannot learn specific survival skills to cover every option.
Understanding basic principles is far more important than
learning techniques by rote, particularly since most techniques
require some modification every time they are used. Nothing
is easy, no matter how well trained you might be, but if you
learn the basics, you will be able to adapt to different
situations. Modern technology often masks the basic principles by
which all physical work is done. We create machines for every job,
freeing ourselves from tasks that would otherwise take up most of our
time. We forget the physics by which everything from weather to the tools we improvise
actually functions.
We may have learned and understood a great deal in our lives so far, but much of this
knowledge is locked away in our minds, and we are not always able to apply it to real-life
situations. Urban life generally tends to make us inflexible in the practical application of our
knowledge — simply because we almost never find ourselves in the kind of survival
situations where there is no option but to improvise.

The Principles of Survival

All manner of principles are important in the wild. Every half-forgotten school physics,
chemistry, or biology lesson could save hours of experimentation. As children, we
constantly make tools and other artifacts, learning how to apply basic principles - a process
that stops as we grow up and begin buying ready-made items from shops. In the wild, we
must return to our childhood in many ways, and relearn how to improvise and invent. We
must work as adults, however, considering engineering principles such as stressing, strength,
and tensioning, which have to be combined with a very clear idea of the purpose of what
we are making. This process is governed by necessity - if we do not get it right, we get wet,
stay hungry, or remain cold.
Combining step-by-step instructions with photographs and artworks, this book contains
information on a wealth of practical skills, demonstrating an easy transition from urban
living back to the wilds in which our primitive ancestors had to survive. The knowledge this
book contains may one day save your life, if you suddenly find yourself having
to survive — even temporarily — as our ancestors did, for example after
an accident, disaster, or vehicle breakdown, or in extreme weather,
when services have been cut off.
On the other hand, you might want to set off
backpacking into the wilderness for a vacation away from
the pressures and complications of urban life. Whatever
your situation, this book will be invaluable to you, providing
much of the data you need, with information dealing with
a wide range of specialized subjects.
 INTRODUCTION
8

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CONDITION

In Chapter One, the physical and mental condition of urban dwellers is

discussed, with comparisons to other animals and to primitive peoples living in
inhospitable terrain, where they have had to adapt to survive. In survival situations,
harsh natural laws are suddenly imposed upon us, and reality breaks through the
rose-colored glasses of modern life. Suddenly, physical fitness becomes important.
By being as physically fit as possible, we not only increase our chances of survival
after a disaster, but we also know exactly what our bodies are capable of doing. We
can improve our physical fitness by doing simple but effective exercises and by
following the dietary rules for all-around good health.

The Right equipment

Chapter Two discusses the equipment you might need in the wilderness, ranging from
the right clothing, sleeping bags, and tools, to a personalized survival kit that you make up
yourself. In addition to comparisons between manufactured articles, this book shows you
how to make items yourself if you do not have the proper equipment. When the right
materials are not available, construction methods must be amended, designs altered, and
compromises made - just about anything can be made from a few branches and pieces of
string. Although improvised equipment is not particularly neat and must be used with care,
this does not matter in the slightest, as long as it does the job. Throughout this chapter -
and, indeed, throughout the book - conservation of natural resources is stressed. There is no
need to damage the environment. Indeed, by fitting in with the natural environment, we
stand a much better chance of surviving, both as individuals and as a species.

The Basics of Camp Living

If you do find yourself in a survival situation, the first thing you must do is find shelter,
either by erecting a tent or by building a shelter from natural materials. Chapter Three
considers the types of shelter needed for different terrain, such as tropical forests
and polar regions. Fire is the next most important consideration in a survival
situation - a fire can cook your food, keep you warm, purify your
drinking water, and maintain your morale. Building and lighting different
fires are also discussed. Chapter Four discusses the importance of
water to the human body, and shows how to find it. Water
in the wilderness is unlikely to be pure, and may
transmit diseases that could threaten your life.
Water purification methods are therefore
emphasized in this chapter. After water, you will need
to find food. Chapter Five considers the types of food you can
buy to take on a backpacking trip, as well as how to recognize and
gather various kinds of wild food, from plants and invertebrates to fish.
You will learn how to prepare wild food for eating, as well as ways of
preserving food for times when it is otherwise unavailable.
 INTRODUCTION
9

Traveling in the Wild

You may not have any experience of traveling in true wilderness areas, but as long as you
know the basic principles of living in each place, your chances of suiviving there will be
greatly increased. Chapter Six explains the rigors of traveling in areas as diverse as the jungle
and the desert, polar regions, and rocky mountains. Techniques such as packing your gear
-*• efficiently, crossing rivers, and walking correctly to minimize injury are discussed, together
with basic navigational skills that you can use around the world, and basic rock-climbing
techniques for emergencies. Travel may involve the use of motorized vehicles, rafts, canoes,
and other watercraft, and dog sleds as well as walking, and methods of making, loading, and
using such transportation are also included.

don’t panic!
Survival depends on making the right decisions. Only by understanding what might happen
in a survival situation is it possible to see far enough ahead to predict potential disaster, and
to then take the correct action to prevent it. In survival situations, we are thrown suddenly
into something we cannot avoid, where very few of the skills we use daily are relevant. Our
first problem is accepting what has happened. Panic and depression are the great enemies of
thought, preventing people from using their built-in will to survive. A logical and honest
assessment of the situation, resources, and options will determine those first critical steps.
Appendix A discusses major disasters and dangerous situations, along with their causes,
and how you can predict and prepare for them, as well as surviving in their aftermath. Then
follow examples of perilous situations in which you might find yourself, such as being adrift
on the open sea in a liferaft, or being confronted by a dangerous animal, natural disasters
such as eaithquakes and volcanic eruptions, and extreme weather such as hurricanes.
Signalling to potential rescuers is also explored in some detail.
Appendix B discusses basic first-aid techniques, with special emphasis on coping in a
survival situation, when you cannot just telephone for an ambulance. It also gives
information on worldwide infectious diseases, and how to avoid them.

IT’S UP TO YOU
Above all, survival demands mental toughness and veiy clear thinking. The
logical evaluation of everything you know and a hard-headed assessment
of your own abilities and those of the members of your party may lead to
unpalatable conclusions and difficult decisions. Unlike in normal life,
however, in a survival situation you determine your own future, and
your decisions can mean life or death.
Although this book shows you how things might be done, in a true
survival situation, you must do them all yourself. If things do not work
out as described on these pages, you will have to sort them out
yourself. However, by following the specific details in this book and
adapting the basic principles, you will greatly increase your chances of
survival, even in the most adverse conditions.
 Chapter One

Are you a
Survivor?
By nature, we are all survivors, driven by the desire
to live rather than die, fired up by fear whenever our
lives are threatened. However, in purely physical
terms, we are poorly equipped to stand up either to
the environment or to our natural enemies. Way back
down our evolutionary line, this weakness became an
enormous advantage, forcing the ape-creatures from
which we developed to use their brains to overcome
adversaries stronger than themselves. The more these
early humans used brain rather than brawn, the more
advantage they achieved over their natural enemies,
and the more their brain power and dexterity"
developed. We are descended from the ones that
continued to think, experiment, and persevere, and
who adapted to change, thus surviving while others
perished. As nature’s best survivors, all we require in
order to translate our day-to-day survival techniques
into unfamiliar environments is some additional
knowledge and a few practical skills.

Natural Survivor
Although urban dwellers are generally out of touch with the
natural world, and find it more threatening than their
ancestors did, they can easily adapt to surviving in the wild if
they have to. The biggest threat to survival is fear, but this can
be overcome with a little knowledge and imagination.
 ARE YOU A SURVIVOR?
12

physical Condition
H umans are physically inferior to many other
animals. Their advantage, however, is lack of
situations. In an urban environment, humans do not
use their bodies as much as they would in the wild.
specialization. They have the intelligence and Primitive people are thus much more the masters of
dexterity to create new skills and to adapt to new their own destiny than their urban counterparts.

The human Body

Smell Brain
Humans have a good sense of smell, although it is not The large, complex brain more than makes up for the
as powerful as that of animals such as dogs. In the inadequacy of other human senses. Because of this,
wild, smell is useful for identifying food, the presence people can think logically, as well as having a sense of
of other creatures, and dangers such as forest fires. history, a conception of the future, and the ability to
philosophize about their place in the universe.
Hearing
Wild an imals are used to listen ing for danger. Sight
Urban dwellers, however, live in a noisy Humans have a field of vision of about 210
environment that can reduce the sensitivity of degrees, around 120 degrees of which overlaps td
their ears, and their desire to listen carefully. create stereoscopic sight. This enables people to
see in three dimensions and to judge distances.
They can also see in full color in daylight.
Taste
Taste buds on the tongue allow humans to
Teeth
perceive sour, sweet, salty, and bitter flavors.
Humans have teeth both for cutting
The brain interprets information from the
taste buds and from the food's smell to give meat and for grinding and chewing
plants. The teeth are thus adapted for
a particular taste.
an omnivorous diet.

Breathing Rate
The breathing rate of hu mans depends on how
Heart
much oxygen the brain thinks the body needs. By pumping oxygen-rich blood around the
The rate increases during exertion or fright, and
body, the heart keeps all the other organs
at high altitudes, where the air contains a loiver
working. Without regular exercise, however,
amount of oxygen. the heart becomes unfit, stopping the rest of
the body from functioning properly.
Spine
Humans are still designed to walk on
four legs, and back trouble is often the
price for standing upright on two.
Skin
As well as protecting internal
organs, skin controls body
temperature through sweating.
Opposing Thumbs Having lost most of its protective
Humans have thumbs and fingers that can hair over the centuries, human
work independently and grip objects. This skin now has to be shielded from
dexterity allows for the production and use sun, rain, and cold.
of complex tools, an ability that greatly
contributes to their adaptability.

Joints
Certain joints, such as the knees, are weak
and prone to injury. In urban life, humans The Human Animal
do not get enough exercise. This Humans are hardly a physical match for other
exacerbates these design weaknesses. predators. In the wild they can become'prey,
unable to defend themselves with claws, teeth,
or beak, or to protect themselves with a
Feet
carapace or hide. They lack the eyesight and
With all the weight of the body sense of smell of other hunters, and the speed
resting on the feet, injuries and to outrun game. They cannot maintain body
other foot problems are common, temperature in some environments without
especially in rough terrain. ^_ special clothes. Humans are, however, natural
survivors, forced through physical weakness to
develop their dexterity and intelligence- the
ultimate survival skills.
 PHYSICAL CONDITION
13

How Some Animals Have Adapted

Dormouse
Small and nervous, with a correspondingly fast
metabolism, the dormouse hibernates during winter when
there is little or no food. During hibernation, its heart
and breathing rates slow, and its body runs off the fat
deposits it has built up before its long sleep.

Whale
Although the whale is a mammal
needing to breathe air, it is well
adapted to its ocean environment,
and can hold its breath for up to 20
minutes when diving very deep for
food. However, through being so
well adapted, it is also very limited,
and is therefore unable to escape
from that environment.
Fentiec
The fennec's huge ears can
swivel to accurately locate the
smallest of sounds, enabling the CLOSE TO HUMANS
animal to hunt by night and
Shrew Apart from apes, humans are physiologically veiy close
day. Their large surface area
Because of its small size and to pigs. In common with humans, the pig is able to eat
allows dissipation of excess
quickness, the shrew has a high
body heat in the fennec's both meat and vegetation, and its organs and general
metabolic rate. However, it must eat
desert environment. physiology compare well with the human body,
almost continuously to stay alive.
although it has more body fat and a thicker skin than a
human. In the past, cannibals on Pacific Ocean islands
Effect of Environment spoke of eating “long pig" - a reference, perhaps, to
the similarity between pork and human flesh.
The wilderness is not a garden of Eden. Even simple complaints
that the urban dweller takes for granted, such as tooth decay, Domestic Pig
The pig has a
lack of hygiene, and ordinary infection, are potential killers.
very similar
Urban life is not that much better, often creating as many health
physiology
problems as it solves. These can range from headaches caused by to a human Is.
excessive noise to cancer resulting from radiation poisoning.

■ A low oxygen content in the air at high altitudes can make breathing
difficult, and aggravate respiratory disorders such as emphysema.
■ Tobacco smoke and other air pollution can lead to lung cancer and
respiratory disorders such as asthma.
■ Polluted water and water contaminated with disease-carrying organisms
can be responsible for internal problems.
a In extreme cases, chemicals in food, as well as pesticides on crops, can
sometimes cause allergies, cancer, damage to ovaries, liver, and testes, Mental attitude
and hyperactivity.
■ Ultraviolet rays from the sun cause skin cancer and skin aging.
Whatever the severity of a human’s physical and
■ Dust and pollen in the air are often responsible for allergies such
situation and the mental attributes. In a
as hay fever, as well as respiratory disorders such as asthma, fibrosis,
and pneumonia. individual's physical wilderness survival
■ Extreme levels of noise cause deafness and tinnitus, as well as capability to cope, mental situation, humans have to
headaches and stress through irritability. attitude is the real key to relearn many manual
■ Skin contact with industrial solvents, or inhalation of their vapor, may survival. Human beings skills. Common sense is
cause allergic reactions or damage to liver and kidneys. are great survivors, using one of the most basic and
■ Radiation, for example from machines or nuclear power plant leakage,
their brains to keep one valuable of human
often causes sperm-cell damage, resulting in children being at risk from
step ahead of their animal characteristics, but much
leukemia and birth defects.
■ Stress, usually a result of fast-paced urban living, can cause a variety of competitors. Urban living more important than even
physical and mental problems, such as colitis and peptic uicer. uses only a small part of a this is the will to survive.
 ARE YOU A SURVIVOR?
14

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
HE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS of animals are omnivores, which means they can live either on
determined by the food they eat. For example, meat or without it, and have teeth both for shearing
herbivores have multiple stomachs to digest tough meat and for grinding vegetable matter. If existing
grasses, along with grinding teeth for grazing, while on a vegetarian diet, they must ensure that it
carnivores have teeth for tearing meat and bodies provides the full range of vitamins and minerals that
adapted for stealth or speed. Humans, however, are eating another animal would give them instantly.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE

Minerals
HAZELNUTS Minerals are necessary for a variety ofpurposes,
from controlling metabolism to building bones
and helping to heal wounds. Mineral
Brazil nuts
deficiency can lead to muscle cramps and
convulsions. If you are not eating meat, a
varied diet of green vegetables, nuts, and fruit
is vital for the full range of minerals,
particularly iron. Fungi also contain minerals,
as do seaweeds. Fungus

Fats Fiber
Fats are a valuable source Fiber, or roughage, provides bulk to help
of energy and are ease waste matter through the intestines.
necessary for building It can be obtained
Cafe gooseberries
and repairing the body 's from fruit, green j
cells. They also make the vegetables,
Peanuts and bread. /''■
body feel satisfied after
eating. It should be Dates

Pecans remembered that, to be

digested, fats require large
amounts of water, and should
therefore only be eaten when water is
walnuts plentiful. Nuts are rich in fats, as well
as in protein.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates play a vital PERSIMMON
role in nutrition by
supplying the body with
energy. They occur as
|k: Vitamins
either starches or sugars,
Vitamins control the growth
and are broken down
■I and repair of the Indy's
and stored in the liver
tissues and stimulate the
until needed to
i 1 production oj energy. Fresh
provide energy in the
1 fruits are the Ixvt source of
form of glucose. Excess
vitamins, but like most
glucose not needed for
|natural foods are seasonal.
energy is converted into
^ During long-term sumival
fat. Honey is an excellent
situations in temperate regions
source of sugar.
with clearly defined seasons, fruit
HONEYCOMB
must be collected and stored for the
winter (see page 118).

Protein
Protein is vital for building tissue and
maintaining growth. Certain proteins must
be obtained from food to provide essential
amino acids that cannot be synthesized by
the body. Meat and fish provide all the
necessary amino acids, and many vitamins
and minerals. Some protein can also be obtained
from vegetable matter.
 NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
15

Daily Calorie Requirements

The energy obtained from food is alive - even if staying in bed all day, needed each day depends on factors
measured in calories. A human needs one would burn off about 2,000 such as age. Survivors should balance
a certain number of calories to stay calories. The number of calories their calorie input and energy output.

Lumberjack
Heavy physical labor,
such as logging, requires
a higher daily caloric
intake than a sedentary
lifestyle, since more
energy> is needed to keep
the body moving and
the muscles in use. In
logging camps, these
calories are obtained
from large, rich meals.

TropicaI Scientist
People living in the tropics require Energy Expended
fewer calories than those living in
cold climates. High temperatures Different activities require varying amounts of
cause heavy sweating, resulting in calories, depending on climate, physical
the loss of minerals and salts, so condition, and the amount of exertion needed
diet must be well balanced and for a particular task. The following figures are a
include plenty of water.
general guide for the “average" man and
woman. You should bear in mind that your own
Mountaineer
calorie requirements and the amount of energy
Constant freezing
you expend on various tasks will change with
temperatures and the
need to be alert at all the weather, as well as with the type of terrain
times make in which you are working.
mountaineering a Activity Cals per hour
very calorie-costly
Resting 70
activity. Well over
5,000 calories per Sitting 90
day are needed in Lighting a fire 135
order for the body to
Walking 180
maintain its core
temperature. Extra Cycling 240
calories may be Chopping wood 360
needed for activities
such as hauling a Sprinting 360
sled or snowshoeing. Running 400
Swimming 500

DAILY CALORIE NEEDS Calorie Needs

The metabolism of men is
Cals 18-35 Years 36-55 Years Over 55 Years
less efficient than that of
women, and they have less
3.500
natural insulation, so they
burn more calories. Young
3,000 people burn more calories
mmaasm than older ones, partly
because they are more
2.500 active, but also because
^■
maturity tends to sloiv
2,000 down the metabolism.

1.500

1,000
WOMEN
Active Very Active Inactive Active Very Active Inactive Active
Inactive
 ARE YOU A SURVIVOR?
16

Adapting to the environment

B ecause of their ingenuity, people are able to
live in every type of environment on Earth and,
much of their ability to adapt to the land. Each
person is an individual, dissociated from the cycle of
over time, they adapt biologically and socially to the nature, the seasons, and the natural world beyond
climate and terrain of their particular area. The so- the city or suburban streets. To survive in the wild,
called “primitive” peoples survive by living very urban dwellers must relearn the skills practiced by
closely within the environmental constraints of their their ancestors and by primitive
region. Many of them have developed intricate peoples today.
social behavior, as well as adapting biologically. By
contrast, in developing survival techniques for the °d febSl-r's
concrete jungle, “civilized” urban dwellers have lost

Inuit
Forty years ago, Inuits still
wore animal skins and
built igloos as shelters
during bunting trips.
Their livers ivere large,
enabling their bodies to
convert the protein from
their largely carnivorous
diet into the carbohydrate
that they lacked. Today,
arctic settlements have modem technology, yet Inuits
remain physically adapted to life in the extreme Ail igloo helps people to
environment of the arctic. live in snowy polar regions
(see page 50)

Urban Dwellers
Urban dwellers live in a very unnatural environment, totally
dependent upon technology and free from the need to
forage for food, allowing them to socialize for purely
recreational reasons. They usually travel by vehicle,
walking only short distances unless deliberately exercising.
Central heating and air conditioning make
the environment of one city very similar
to that of another. Urban living requires
its own set of reflexes and expertise,
which are unrelated to those of the
A mud oven can be
natural world. This leaves urban
used to bake food in
dwellers ill-prepared for the temperate and tropical
practicalities of surviving without the regions (see page 115)
facilities of modern life. In the wild,
a great deal of practical common
sense is required, as well as the
Waorani Hunter
ability to apply basic scientific
Jungle dwellers
principles to everyday problems. combine hunting
Urban dwellers are not used to solving and agriculture in
practical problems, largely- because an environment
their pace of life does not allow them in which game
enough time, but also because there is abounds and
no need. In the wild, however, time and almost everything
necessity are both in plentiful supply. grows. The style
of cultivation
employed by these
Backpacker people <burning jungle clearings in order to
Urban dwellers need special equipment plant crops) frees them from constant food
to be able to survive in the wilderness. gathering, and so allows them plenty of time
to socialize.
 ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT
17

Sherpa
Sheipas are very irvll adapted to living in KEY
mountains. W ith short, strong lei's and a Polar Regions scurm.Axn
large lung capacity, they are well suited to
tiring at high altitudes, and can carry
Tl'XDRA Raixtoresi
heavy loads without the loss of breath and
stamina experienced by lowland people.
CONIITROl S FORKS'! Grassland
Mountain people generate extra red blood
cells to counter the low oxygen levels
of high altitudes. DECIIM'OIS FOREST Desert

Hatam
.1 ioitnlain rainforest
suffers the heat and
heavy rain of its
tropical location, as
well as the wind and
cold of high altitudes,
particularly at
night. The
people who lire
here bare
therefore had to adapt to extremes of temperature
and climate. Without special clothing and
eauibment. urban dwellers would perish here.

Fish celli he preserved

by drying wherever it
t incomfortable if they
is mil damp and
stay in one place for cloudytsee page 118)
too long, desert
nomads have 0

adapted to their
Australian Aborigine
harsh environment
Despite the austere landscape
by subsisting on the
and harsh elements with which
meat, blood, and
they hare to cope, these people
milk, of their animals,
are able to survive with no
and by moving
material possessions, living very
continuously between waterholes in small family close to nature, with just their
groups. Political boundaries can cause terrible abundant legends, customs, and
difficulties for such wandering herdspeople. the wealth of their local
restricting them to areas too small to feed and knowledge to keep them going.
water their animals.
 ARE YOU A SURVIVOR?
18

FITNESS
U NLESS WE walk,run, and stretch regularly, our
muscles become smaller and our heart-lung
important ones to maintain fitness for long-term
wilderness travel and endurance. They involve a lot
system less efficient, and we put on fat where we of repeated movements using light weights to create
do not need it. Aerobic exercises are the most general fitness, speed, and agility.

How fit Are You?

The Step Test

You can measure - and improve -
your overall fitness by stepping on
and off a box or step. The step MENTAL FITNESS
should be about 20 cm (8 in)
Physical fitness helps to create
high to avoid excessive
discomfort and breathlessness. mental fitness. In the wild, you
Place the entire foot flat on must survive without the props
the step each time, with the of urban life, and generate your
other foot flat on the ground. own sense of satisfaction and
After about 24 step-ups per self-worth from day-to-day
minute for three minutes, living. Training helps to
rest for 30 seconds and take
increase your self-confidence,
your pulse at the wrist.
and to improve your awareness
Count the beats for 15
seconds, then multiply by of your abilities and limitations.
four to get a heart rate Mental fitness also comes from
per minute. Read within - from understanding
off your fitness who (and what) you are, and
rating on the from coming to terms with
chart below. where you stand in relation to
the enormity of the rest of the
1 Place your whole
universe. In a survival situation,
foot carefully on the box.
you must believe in your own
ability to cope. If you do not,
you may not survive.
WARNING
When getting fit, start slowly 2 Keeping your knee
and gently, gradually building and leg straight, thrust
your body upwards.
up your routine over several
months. Seek expert instruction
and, if suffering any ailments, 3 Maintain your balance,
obtain medical advice first. then step back clown. Step
up using the other leg.

Fitness Rating
The fitter you are, the stronger your head than those of young adult males, as the chart below right shows the time taken for a pulse to
will be. A fit head pumps slower, hut more below left shows. When taken before getting up return to normal after exercise, such as the
efficiently, than an unfit one. The heads of in the morning, the pulse can be an accurate step test above. Tire fitter you are, the quicker
children, women, and old people beat faster measure of fitness - the "base rate". The chad your heart will recover.

AGE (years) 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+ AGE (years) 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+
RATING BEATS PER MINUTE AT REST RATING BEATS PER MINUTE AFTER EXERCISE
Men Men
Excellent under 60 under 64 under 66 under 68 Excellent under 76 under 80 under 82 under 84
Good 60-69 64-71 66-73 68-75 Good 76-85 80-87 82-89 84-91
Average 70-75 72-87 74-89 76-91 Average 86-101 88-103 90-105 92-107
Poor over 85 over 87 over 89 over 91 Poor over 101 over 103 over 105 over 107
Women Women
Excellent under 70 under 72 under 74 under 76 Excellent under 86 under 88 under 90 under 92
Good 70-77 72-79 74-81 76-83 Good 86-93 88-95 90-97 92-99
Average 78-94 80-96 82-98 84-100 Average 94-110 96-112 98-114 100-116
Poor over 94 over 96 over 98 over 100 Poor over 1 10 over 1 1 2 over 1 1 4 over 1 1 6
 FITNESS
19
■MB

Stretching
The Benefits of Exercise
Before exercising you should always working down. Never “bounce”
The right kind of exercise makes your
stretch gently and mobilize every part against any resistance. It is just as
body more efficient, and you feel better
of your body, starting at the top and important to stretch after exercise
and more alert than without exercise.
Over time, changes such as weight loss
occur, as well as improved posture,
Arms and Shoulders physique, strength, agility, and stamina.
As a regular exercise regime develops,
appetite and sleep patterns improve. A
training schedule must
have at least three
sessions a week of
45 minutes exercise,
each of which
puts the heart
rate over
120 beats
per minute.

Long-term Benefits
Regular exercise helps all
organs in your body to
1 Swing both arms 2 Swing the arms 3 Next, rotate one 4 Swing each
function efficiently.
gently backwards forwards together, arm forwards. Repeat arm alternately
and upwards. touching your ears. with the other arm. backwards.

Chest and Shoulders Waist

1 Lift elbows high 2 Pull your elbows 3 On the third pull, I Stand with your 2 Twist at the waist 3 The third time,
and hold forearms as far back as straighten your arms elbows high and to one side as far as throw out leading
horizontally. possible, twice. out to your sides. forearms raised. possible, twice. arm. Repeat.

STOMACH

I Lie with knees bent and 2 Lift shoulder, pointing 1 Lie face-down, keeping body 2 Straighten elbows and thrust
hands touching ears. elbow at opposite knee. straight and palms flat on floor. upwards, keeping body rigid.

Easing lower Back Pain

Stretching the Back
Lower back pain can result
from carrying a heavy
rucksack or other exertion.
These exercises re-establish
the natural curve of the
spine, easing back pain. 1 Lie face-down, totally relaxing. 2 Rest on elbows and curve back. 3 Straighten arms and stretch.
 Chapter Two

Basic
Equipment
With THE CORRECT equipment for your particular
activity and environment, you dramatically reduce the
likelihood of accidents, and therefore of having to
cope with a serious survival situation. Outdoor
equipment suppliers are able to provide well-
designed gear suitable for eveiy extreme of climate
and terrain. You can spend a lot of money buying
glamorous items, but it is far more important to
concentrate on obtaining the equipment you really
need for survival. If you do not have first-hand
experience, you should try to find out what other,
more experienced, people have used in similar
situations, rather than rely on glossy sales talk. Some
items of equipment, for example a knife and a
compass, are essential, and you should buy the best
you can find. Other items, such as an inflatable pillow
or a camp bed, are purely for comfort, and you can
do without them. Having selected your equipment,
you must be prepared to modify it to your precise
requirements. Think about critical parts that could
wear out or break, and about how you can secure
tools and clothing - particularly gloves and
hats - so that they do not get lost.

Survival Gear
Backpacking has become a popular pastime around the world,
and spawned numerous fashions in clothing and equipment.
However, as long as you have the basic items, you can venture into
the most awe-inspiring areas with safety and self-confidence.

'4%
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
22

The right Clothing

W E RARELY WEAR clothing appropriate to the
natural conditions in which we live. Urban life
we buy clothes specially prepared for the outdoors,
they often owe more to current fashion than to
accustoms us to wearing clothes for comfort and practicality. You can spend a lot of money on
fashion, rather than for the maintenance of body “designer” gear - or you can just buy the most
temperature, by cocooning us from the environment essential items, and they will still do the job, even
with artificial heating and air conditioning. Even if though they may not be in all the latest colors.

The Layering principle

Several thin layers of clothing that trap you get too hot, you can control your to allow warm air to escape and cool
air between them will keep yon much body temperature by removing layers air to enter). This principle applies in
warmer than a single, thick garment. If or venting (opening zippers or buttons both hot and cold weather.

The Core Layer The Second Layer Underwear

The first layer, which lies next The second layer should be Long, thermal underwear is
to the skin, should consist of a loose-fitting, but with the usually necessary only in
wool or synthetic undershirt potential for keeping the temperatures below freezing.
or a long-sleeved, thermal top. blood vessels of the neck and In the arctic, a “groin patch ”
which should be close-fitting wrists protected and warm. It of impermeable material
but not tight. It should be can consist of a zip-up top prevents windchill in that
made of a material that will absorb with a polo neck, or a shirt with a collar, area, particularly when skiing. Wet pants dry
perspiration and "wick" it away from the skin sleeves that can be rolled up, and cuffs that out faster if long underwear is not worn,
(move it to the outside of the material). Tlois can be buttoned. In hot weather, this layer although you can combat this problem by
layer must be kept as clean as possible, to may be the outside one, with perhaps just a wearing waterproof oveipants. In mild
prevent dirt from clogging its pores. windproof shell (see opposite). weather, this layer can consist of cotton shorts.

The Third Layer The Outer Layer Pants

45^
The third layer should be a Tl.ie outer layer should be a Pants must allow freedom of
woolen pullover or light, jacket that is either wind movement and should be
fleecy jacket. If you are on resistant or wateiproof or made of a fabric that will dry
the move, even in the arctic, both, depending on the quickly if it gets wet. In very
this layer is best removed to climate in which you are wet conditions, using
prevent you from becoming traveling. In the arctic, a suspenders prevents a belt
overheated. You can vent your insulated padded, windproofparka is required for from chafing the waist. Waterproof oveipants
parka (see opposite) if you are still hot. When protection against cutting winds. You must be can be worn to protect your legs from driving
you stop to rest, you should replace the middle able to vent the jacket, to avoid becoming rain (see opposite), hut they may cause you
layer before you stall to feel cold. Tlo is layer overheated. In temperate areas, rain is the to become overheated. In very cold conditions,
can act as the outside one in temperate main problem, although you can wear a quilted over-trousers should be zipped over
regions when the weather is mild. waterproof shell over the jacket. pan ts and boots as added protection.

Choosing Fabrics
FEATURES OF CLOTHING FABRICS
Outdoor clothing can
Fabric Advantages Disadvantages be made from a
variety of fabrics, from
Wool This natural fiber has insulating properties even when it Wool is heavy when wet and takes time to dry. wool or cotton to -
is wet, remaining comfortable until it is soaked. It Worn next to the skin, it can make the skin itch. synthetic material
smolders, rather than burns, when exposed to flames. It can shrink when it is washed. some of which allows
perspiration out, but
Cotton Cotton is hardwearing and able to "breathe," Heavy when wet, cotton can shrink if it is dried prevents rainwater
absorbing moisture. It is good for underwear and other in high temperatures. It can also tear and burn from entering.
clothing worn next to the skin in warm climates. easily. It is not windproof. Manmade materials
are not always as
Fleece or pile Used for the third layer to wick moisture away from the This manmade fabric is not windproof. It does hardwearing as
body while keeping it warm. Lightweight and not compress easily and can collect balls of fluff natural ones, however,
hardwearing. Does not absorb moisture. on the outside after long use. and may retain body
odor unless rinsed
Synthetic, breathable These let sweat evaporate while keeping rain out. They Seams in these fabrics can let in water. In very with vinegar. Natural
fabrics are usually windproof, and are therefore used for the wet conditions their pores can become clogged, fabrics, such as cotton
outer garments. while condensation may form inside in cold and wool, may shrink
conditions. The evaporation of sweat that is if dried at h igh
wicked to the outside can result in heat loss. temperatures after
washing.
 THE RIGHT CLOTHING
23
--=@=-=

Extreme weather Clothing

If you follow the layering system (see opposite) when
choosing outdoor clothing, you should be able to equip Hat
yourself with the right garments for any type of weather. A wide-brimmed hat
protects the head and neck
In a survival situation, you may not have garments Core Layer
from the sun. Eyelet vents
manufactured for specific climates, but you can use the A light-colored, cotton around the brim help to
layering system in conjunction with shelters and fires as T-shirt worn under the keep you r head cool.
shirt absorbs sweat away
protection against the elements. In extreme climates and from your skin, keeping
harsh terrain, clothing must give protection from Vou coot.
conditions that can injure or cause death - for example,
those encountered in deserts (see page 142). Wind, cold,
Second Layer Outer Layer
heat, sunshine, and rain are the main threats. Some A lightweight shirt A lightweight, windproof
clothing specific to particular climates - fpr example, acts as the main jacket worn over the top
jungle boots - may not be suitable for less extreme areas, ,ayer S,eeves will act as the final
i r i i • iii , should be rolled layer, protecting from
but most types or clothing can be adapted to your needs. down in extreme the wind, and from the
heat, for example cold, at night.
in the desert
Head Protection (see page 142).
A balaclava covers the Core Layer
head, the sides of the A thermal undershirt and long
face, and the neck, to underwear make up the first layer.
prevent heat from being They should be able to absorb and Keeping Cool
lost. An insulated hood wick away perspiration.
can be worn on Clothing for hot-
top for added warmth. weather should be
Middle Mitten lightweight and
Wool mittens between loose-fitting. Light
Middle Layer the inner gloves a nd colors reflect heat
A fleece jacket outer m ittens allow you and help keep you
should absorb to grasp objects but still
sweat from the
cool. The layering
keep your hands warm.
core layer, still principle applies
trap a layer of here, just as much
warm air against Second Layer as in cold weather.
your body. A polo-necked shirt
should overlap the
balaclava at the
Inner Gloves Pants
neck a nd the gloves
Inner gloves at the cuff. Pants should be loose-fitting
prevent the skin and lightweight, and made of
from sticking to light material such as cotton.
frozen objects,
allowing use of the Outer Layer
hands for short A padded, hooded
periods without the parka is essential.
need for heavy mittens. It should have Boots
overlapping front Boots should be lightweight,
fastenings and a but must have tough soles for
Pants-
water-resistant shell walking (see page 24).
Mountain bibs overlap
in breathable fabric.
the waist where clothing
can be disturbed
during movement,
while allowing venting KEEPING Dry
at the shoulders and
chest. They can be worn
Getting wet creates a serious survival problem.
alone, or over pants or Waterproofs must be put on when rain
long iindenvear. starts, but be removed immediately the rail'
Outer stops. Rain gear made from impermeable
Boots Mittens material is no good for walkers because
Heavy snow boots have The layering sweat cannot escape - choose
a plastic shell and system also breatheable materials, instead. Only
thermal liners, which applies to gloves,
act as inner boots. Two with heavy mittens
wear waterproof trousers when it is
pairs of socks should be worn on top of both wet and cold. Gaiters will keep
wont underneath.- thinner ones. water out of your boots, even when
crossing streams.

Keeping Warm
Wet-weather Gear
i extreme cold, all areas of skin must be covered, and it is vital to adhere to
)e layering system. Be prepared to vent or remove clothing if you become Waterproof clothing should cover the
verheated when traveling or working. Trapped sweat reduces the insulating body from head to foot.
ropeilies of clothes and can result in hypothermia (see page 163).
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
24

FOOTWEAR
H uman body weight is designed to be spread
over four feet rather than two, so the feet are
always be broken in before being used. Break in
leather boots by wetting them, then wearing them
under constant pressure. With the added weight of until they are dry. When hiking, keep your feet
heavy backpacks, crossing rough, wet ground clean, washing them daily and dusting them with
makes protection for the feet the single most talcum powder. Always wear clean, dry socks, and
important equipment consideration. Footwear must tape up all hot spots before they turn into blisters.

LIGHTWEIGHT FOOTWEAR

Shock-absorbing
Desert Boots
sole for walking
on roads With tough soles and lightweight leather uppers,
desert boots allow the feet to breathe while
keeping hot sand out. High sides protect the
ankles from thorny scrub, and give some
support. In wet conditions, the porous nature of
suede allows moisture to get in, so
the boots take time to dry out. dzJS&S

Porous suede
protects feet
while letting
them breathe

Fabric upper dries

quickly when wet

Many mountaineers wear lightweight trekking boots in

camp or during the walk to a big mountain, saving their
heavy, molded plastic climbing boots for the snow and ice.
Lightweight boots can also be worn for light walking over Tough soles
short distances, as long as the terrain is not very rough. support feet on
Although they offer less protection and support than rocky ground
leather boots, fabric boots do dry out quickly when wet,
and give the feet a rest from hot, heavy footwear.

Moulded foam sole for Sneakers

support and shock Sneakers provide comfort for sore feet around
absorption
a camp, and are good for wearing in boats
and in vehicles. However, while being Socks
comfortable and light, they do not offer as
much protection to the feet as heavy Thick socks, made either of
walking boots. The constant wool or of fiber-pile cotton,
wea ring of sneakers may are vital. Socks cushion the
■BMjv ' make the feet soft feet and prevent boots from
._ and susceptible rubbing the skin, as well as
to injury. keeping the feet warm and
diy by “wicking” away
moisture (moving sweat
to the outer layer of
fibers, away from the
skin). In very cold
weather, you
should wear two
Outer
pairs of socks.
socks
 FOOTWEAR
25

Heavy-duty footwear

Hiking Boots
Padded ankle Jangle Boots
A compromise between weight,
to provide Constant wetness is the main
durability, and protection produces
comfortable problem in the jungle, but
a good, all-around boot with a support hoots must also provide
strong, cleated sole, water-
ankle support and
resistant uppers, and
protection from sharp sticks
ankle protection.
■and rocks. With rubber soli
these boots keep out water from
damp ground while allowing
the feet to breathe through the
canvas uppers. After wading in
a river, the action of walking
squirts water out of vents
in the instep. The cleats
are wide and deep
j'or good grip on
wet ground.
Cleats for
grip on slippery Rubber soles
ground water ou t, while
canvas uppers
a re cool

Plastic Snow Boots

Rigid sides give Designed to hold the foot rigid while
excellent support using crampons for grip on ice, these
on rocky boots are heavily insulated for use in
ground
the coldest of climates. Like ski boots,
however, they make walking awkward.
They have a thermal inner lining in
the form of a
separate boot, Gaiters
which may
be worn Gaiters are essential, both in
on its own, temperate areas for keeping the
for example feet and the lower trouser leg
inside a tent. dry, and in polar regions for
keeping out deep snow. When
crossing shallow rivers, gaiters
Non-slip cleats will keep most, if not all, the
for walking water out of boots. They are
in snow better than rubber boots
because they do not
trap perspiration and
overheat the feet. MUD GAITERS SNOW GAITERS

looking After your Boots

1 Remove laces and inner soles and wash 2 Allow the boots to dry thoroughly. If 3 When the boots are dry, rub them with
off all mud from the boots. It is very possible, keep the boots away from direct waterproofing compound, using a finger.
important to remove peat, which has an heat from a fire or the sun, since heat can If you are not going to wear the boots at
acid content that can damage leather. cause the leather to crack. once, store them in a cool, diy place.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
26

PERSONAL CAMP KIT

T he perfect collection of camping equipment
is only created through trial and error. Before
your previous experiences as well as the upcoming
trip. Some items will more than earn their keep, and
you embark on a journey, consider omitting from will become battered, well-worn friends. You will
your kit any items that you did not use on your last eventually become so attached to your gear that
trip. Modifications to the kit should be based on losing or breaking any item would be unthinkable.
tttttt’TT':
T55 "iwis
<u» r
Y|| Flashlight
Map is folded head can be
open to show twisted to
area of use turn on
flashlight
- ' l i

Binoculars
These should be as small
Compass
and robust as possible. Even
A compass is a vital piece
Flashlight if they are waterproof, keep
of equipment, so it must
A flashlight should he them in a plastic bag.
be kept in a safe place.
small and waterproof.
A head-mounted
model allows hands¬
free use.

Fine screwdriver
Reamer
Chisel_- _Hook
Map
A map must always be kept Large blade _ Corkscrew
dry and folded neatly to Small blade
show the area of use.
Magnifying
glass
Water Bottle
Phillips
A metal bottle may split if Scissors
screwdriver
the water inside it
freezes. A plastic one Wood saw
could melt if placed too
Nail file Small screwdriver
close to a fire.
Bottle opener
Swiss Army Knife Mess Tin
A knife with a good, solid blade is A good mess tin is useful for-
necessary. Additional tools on the knife are cooking camping meals (see page
also useful but may break, easily if used 112). Wrap the metal handles with
carelessly. tape to avoid burns.

Water Treatment Device Stove Stove Fuel

This is used to treat natural water Choose a basic, but high- Ensure that your fuel bottle
before drinking, in order to prevent quality, stove (see page does not leak, and that
infection with waterborne 114) and keep it clean, your fuel is dean, filtering
diseases (see page 75). protecting it from knocks. it if necessary.
 PERSONAL CAMP KIT
27
—#="--

Spoon Utensil
sleeve

Utensils
Keep all utensils clean to
avoid poisoning. If you
lose or break eating
utensils, you can carve
new ones from wood
(see page 113).

Plates and Dishes

Use plastic or wooden plates and dishes to
prevent painful mouth bums that could get
Lip Balm
infected (see page 112). Never eat from a hot
Lip balm is vital in all
cooking pot.
climates, preventing lips from
becoming chapped. Use
throughout the day whenever
lips feel dry.

Survival Kit
A survival kit contains
Sunblock. vital items not found in
Sunblock, is essential in the wild (see page 28).
snow and bright sunshine,
particularly at high altitudes.

First-aid Kit Waterproof Matches Sewing Kit

This is essential for treating These have waxed Use this for mending
injuries (see page 174). heads to keep them dry. clothes and tents.

Toivel WARM AND DRY

A large towel can be cut into segments for use as
sweatbands or washcloths. A towel can also be Tents and sleeping bags represent your home
used as a scarf (.see page 142). comforts while in the wild, although you can survive
All-around zipper
keeps out dirt and without them. They must always be stored properly,
insects and sleeping bags must never be allowed to get wet.

Wash Kit
Keep items for personal hygiene together in a special bag.
Tent Sleeping bag
Hang the bag on a tree while you wash to prevent individual
items from getting lost (see page 57).
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
28

Basic Survival kit

IN SURVIVAL SITUATIONS, a few key items can make
the ciifference between living and dying. These
neck, then tucked inside your clothes so that they
do not get pulled off if you brush through
important items should be carried on the person at vegetation. Put each item between different layers
all times, preferably in a small tin that of clothing so that the pieces do not clash
can be tucked into a pocket. Whenever together and break. You should
you venture into the wild, you should assemble your own survival kit
secure other tools that are vital for according to your personal needs.
survival separately about your person
Life-saving Equipment
in order to minimize the chances of The most important items of your survival
them being damaged or lost. Some can equipment should be kept in a small tin with
be hung on strong cords around your a tight-fitting lid.

Fishing Line
Choose a strong line for catching fish arid lashing tools.

Safety Pins
Use these for securing your clothing,
or mending your sleeping bag or tent.

Fishing Hooks and Sinkers Reflector

Thin Wire Pack plenty of small fishing You can use the polished lid of your survival tin, or
Wire can be put to many uses and may be reused hooks, floats, and split-shot a specially made heliograph, to attract attention in a
over and over again. It should be thin enough to weights. Small hooks can survival situation. Looking through the hole in the
bend easily, yet not so thin that it will break. be used for catching center of the heliograph, you can direct reflected
both large and sunlight toward an airplane.
small fish.

Button Compass
This is essential. Ideally it
should be luminous.
Tobacco Tin
Your survival kit should be kept in a small
tobacco tin with a well fitting lid. Seal the
tin with tape to keep the contents dry.

Matches
Buy waterproof matches, or
Candle
waterproof ordinary ones by
Keep this for firelighting,
dripping a thin layer of candle
rather than as a lamp. Do not
wax onto their heads and stems.
use tallow candles because
Scrape off the wax before striking
they putrefy in hot weather.
each match.
 BASIC SURVIVAL KIT
29

Adhesive Bandages
You should have adhesive
bandages in various sizes to
prevent abrasions from
becom ing infected, or to pad
blisters on your feet.

Needles, Thread, and Buttons

Keep several needles in your tin, all with large
ey>es, as well as plenty of thick, strong, preferably
waterproof thread. Wrap the thread around the
needles and store them in a plastic bag. Large
buttons are useful for securing the flaps of tents.

Antibiotic Tablets Water Sterilizing Tablets

These should be kept until Keep these for emergencies, when
you really need them. you are unable to boil water that
you believe is unsafe to drink.

enoutiCi •
STITCH GOITER

Scalpel
7 his can be used for different purposes. Keep
the blades in their original oiled package.

Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass can focus sunlight
Pencil
on dry tinder, making it smolder so A pencil is invaluable for making notes on where you have
that you can start a fire. been and what is safe to eat, as well as for drawing maps.

vital equipment Around your neck

You should never be without your most valuable pieces
of equipment, particularly in the wild. You should take
great care not to lose or break them, since, away from
civilization, they cannot be replaced or repaired. Each of
these items should be attached to a separate strong cord
and be hung around your neck, available for when you
need it. Tuck the items inside your clothing when not in
use, to prevent them from breaking.

Salt
This is essential for survival. If you do
not replace the salt lost in sweat and
urine, you may become very ill. Crucial Gear
Plastic Bag
A strong plastic bag is useful for a
Always keep your
variety of purposes, such as carrying most important
water from a stream, or collecting items of equipment
wy ter from vegetation in where you can
emergencies. reach them.

Watch
Silva
compass

Potassium Permanganate Whistle

'These crystals are useful for purifying Pocket knife
water. Mixed with water to a deep red
color, they can also be used to treat
fu ngal infections, such as trench foot.
Follow the instructions on the tin.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
30

Sleeping Bags and Beds

R EST is AS essential for survival as eating. A good
uninterrupted night’s sleep can counter all the
warm and dry makes you feel more secure than if
you were sleeping on bare ground in the open air
worries and stress of a difficult situation, and turn Even in the humid heat of the jungle, shelter and
pessimistic gloom into positive optimism. Being insulation from the wet ground are required.

Sleeping Bag features

Although there are many different enough to keep you warm even if you Always keep it inside a waterproof
shapes and styles of sleeping bag, do not have a tent. A sleeping bag cover, such as a bivy sack made from
a bag should always be padded well must never be allowed to get wet. porous fabric (see page 43').

Zipper must be hacked by

a baffle- Ibis will prevent
a cold tine extending the
length of the body

Curved back helps _

to retain body beat
around bead, neck,
and shoulders

Rounded-foot Bag Padding should be

evenly spread
This is a common style of modern
throughout the bag
sleeping bag. The extended hood
prevents body heat from escaping . Long zipper provides easy
from head, chest, and shoulders. access in and out of bag

Tapered foot helps

to keep bag small

Attached
pillow can
be folded
inside

Mummy Bag Rectangle Bag

The neck, of this bag can be closed with a drawstring to keep This bag is best for camping using vehicles, rather
your head and neck insulated in cold weather. This is very than for sleeping outdoors. It is very lightweight,
important, since you can lose half your body heal through and is therefore not suitable for vety cold
your head. With no zipper, it can be difficult to get out. conditions like those of the polar regions.

Sleeping Bag Construction

A down-filled sleeping bag
is lightweight and warm.
However, down can lose its
insulation, compacting into
balls when wet or tightly
packed. Synthetic fillers are
.it.
bulkier, heavier, and not as
Boxwall Shingle Quilt Offset Quilt
comfortable as down. They For cold-weather down These hags have slanted The filling is held in Offset filling channels in
will, however, keep you hags, the filling is kepi layers of overlapping separate oval channels. a double layer prevent
warm if they get wet, and in fabric "boxes " to fibers, which can fill However, heat is lost bunching and heat loss
they dry quickly. m in im ize lui nch ing. with air for insulation. through the stitching. through the stitching.
 SLEEPING BAGS AND BEDS
31

Sleeping accessories
Care and repair
Shake your sleeping hag well before
use to distribute the pile evenly, and
air it well after using it. If your
sleeping bag is torn, you should
repair it immediately with a needle
and thread, to prevent the damage
Liner Sleeping Mat from getting worse. A wide, adhesive
A cotton liner keeps a la yer of insulating air This is essential for insulation from the wet tape is useful for temporarily sealing
between yourself and your steeping bag. It and cold of the bare ground. It should be tears. You can patch a torn sleeping-
can be washed more easily than the bag. placed under your sleeping bag. bag shell with pieces of its stuff sack
(seepage 27), which is often made
Space Blanket of the same type
This is a lightweight of material.
foil blanket for
emergencies. The foil
prevents body heat
Sewing Kit
from escaping, and
A sewing kit is
deflects it back to the
Inflatable Pillow essential for
body. The blanket
Although a pillow is mending tom
can also be used as
not strictly necessary, it sleeping bags,
a canopy to reflect
provides extra comfort tents, and clothes.
away the sun, for
example in a desert. for long journeys.

1 Without a sleeping bag, you must make 2 Hold the log bed tightly together by 3 Cover the logs with a thick layer of grass
a raised bed, to ensure adequate insulation hammering pegs made from sharpened to provide padding over irregularities in the
and avoid insects and animals. Lay several sticks into the ground at the corners, to logs such as rough bark and knots.
logs longer than your height together on prevent the logs from
the ground to form the base of the bed. rolling apart.
5 Continue piling up layers of vegetation as a
mattress until it is deep and comfortable.
You can also make a pillow from a pile of grass.

4 Add more layers of branches, ferns, and

dense foliage mixed with grass and fine
vegetation to create air space and a deep-
pile effect. You should end up with a
bow'er into which you can sink in comfort.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
32

Tools
W HETHER YOU ARE camping with all the latest
gadgets, or surviving with minimal equipment
not misuse them in ways that will either damage
them or, more importantly, injure you. You can
after a disaster, you will need some tools with improvise some tools, but do not risk damaging or
which to build a shelter and cut firewood. Broken losing another precious tool in the process. Always
or lost tools cannot be easily replaced in the work within the limitations of your tools, as well as
wilderness, so you must take great care of them. Do within your own capabilities.

BASIC CUTTING TOOLS

improvised, if you do not have a knife, you are unlikely to carry one because
The basic, essential tool for camping
and survival is a good, strong knife. making other items is very difficult. An of its weight, unless you have a
Although almost any other tool can be ax is invaluable for heavy work, but vehicle or pack animals.

Back, of blade is Take care not to damage

blunt, and can be handle, which can
used for hammering

Pocketknife
A strong pocketknife is second only in
importance to your teeth. It can be used for
projects for which your large knife is too big (see
opposite). Keep it secured to your body with
strong cord around your neck or waist at all
times. Always keep it sharp.

particularly sharp, and is used for chopping for delicate carving

used for general cutting and whittling

Kukri
This heavy-duty knife is traditionally used by the Wire Saw
Gurkhas in Nepal. It is made from the rear spring of A wire saw consists of twisted strands
a truck, of high-grade steel with great tensile strength. of wire, with loops for handles. It can
Similar knives can be bought worldwide. If possible, Rust will weaken easily be packed inside a survival kit
wear gloves when you are using the knife, to avoid serrated blade, so (see page 28). It is a very useful
clean saw well alternative to a heavy ax for cutting
injuries and abrasions. Keep it safety in a leather
after cutting
sheath when you are not using it, in order to avoid branches, but it is delicate and must
living wood
injuring yourself, or damaging the knife. be used with care.

Sharpening a Knife

Lubricate sharpening Take care with the

angle of the blade,
visualizing
the bun¬
as you

1 Moisten the sharpening 2 After sharpening the knife 3 Smooth the other side of 4 Strop the knife (sweep it up
stone with water. Stroke the on one side, feel the other the blade, realigning the burr and down) on a leather belt.
knife on the stone, away from side for the burr of metal to the center. More water This will help smooth off and
the edge of the blade. turned up by the abrasion. may be needed. strengthen the edge.
 TOOLS
33

USING A KNIFE

Whittling Carving
Whittling is the Carving or cutting
carving of small must also be done
delicate objects, such away from the
as a shatp point on a body, keeping all
harpoon for spearing fingers and limbs
fish (see page 104). out of the way. Cut
For this type of with the grain of
cawing, push the the wood, in
blade of the knife shallow bites.
away from you with
the ball of the thumb.
You will probably
Chopping Cut away
find that your small
Chop with the main part of the from yourself
to prevent pocketknife is better
blade, away from your limbs. Cut
accidents for this kind of
across the grain of the wood at 45
earning than your
degrees to prevent the blade from
heavy knife.
glancing off and injuring you.

USING A WIRE SAW

2 Use both hands to

pull the saw back
and forth through
the wood. When
cutting, it is best to
keep the blade as
straight as possible,
although it will still
Keep wire work if it is curved
straight around the wood.
and taut Maintain a steady
movement, but
go lightly.
1 The metal loops can cut your hands,
so attach string or cloth as handles
before using the saw.

improvised Tools

1 You can create a natural 2 The sharp edge can be used as a

blade by dropping a lump of crude cutting tool. You can use the
flint on a rock. It will break reverse end as a hammer. When the
open, leaving a sharp edge. edge becomes blunted with use,
Watch out for flying splinters. simply break open another flint.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
34

ROPES AND KNOTS

C ORD, SUCH AS rope or string, is needed for
almost all improvisation of equipment, unless
knots for the cord, specific to your purpose, is
essential - for your own safety if you are using a
you make wooden pegs or use glue for joining rope for crossing a river, and for the success of
pieces of material together (see page 77). If you do improvised equipment, to ensure that whatever you
not have a manufactured rope or string, you can have made stays together. If you can remember only
make cord from natural materials. Using the correct one knot, learn the Square Knot (see opposite).

CONSTRUCTION OF ROPES

There are two main methods of rope kinds can be made from either natural twisted, one, while a rope made from
construction. Hawser-laid rope consists or manmade fibers. The type of rope natural materials may rot when wet.
of three strands twisted together, while you choose will depend upon your Natural-fiber ropes are more likely to
kernmantle rope has a central core intended use for it. A braided rope is break than ropes made from manmade
surrounded by a woven mantle. Both less likely to kink than a laid, or fibers such as nylon or polyester.

Three separate branches Thin nylon filaments

of fiber strands are are twisted into small,
twisted together. hawser-laid cords._

Hawser-laid Rope Kernmantle Rope

Hawser-laid rope is stronger than kernmantle rope, Climbers tend to use kernmantle
particularly if damaged. It consists of three strands offibers rope, which is made of a core of thin,
twisted together. It may be made either of natural materials, hawser-laid cords braided together (the
such as sisal, hemp, or coconut husk, or of manmade fibers kern), covered by a strong outer sheath (the
such as nylon. Hawser-laid ropes are often used for mooring mantle). Kernmantle rope is easy to handle,
and anchoring boats, because of their strength. but can be hard to grip when wet or icy.

IMPROVISED CORD

To make cord from nettle stems, you so that the fibers are separated from form cords, which can be braided
must first soak them until they are the pith, and leave the fibers to diy. together. You can also make cord from
pliable. Then pound them with a stone You can twist the fibers together to willow or linden bark.

1 To braid fibers, first tie the 2 Next, bring the left-hand 3 Bring the new right-hand 4 Repeat the steps until the
ends of three strands to a strand over the new middle strand over the new middle braid is the required length.
branch. Bring the right-hand strand, while keeping tight strand. This step completes the Tie or bind the ends so that
strand over the middle one. hold of all three. first section of the braid. the strands do not unravel.
 ROPES AND KNOTS
35

Reef Knot

1 To begin the reef knot, first 2 Take the left end over and under 3 Pull both ends to tighten the knot. It can
_cross the right strand over and the right strand, keeping firm hold of be made in reverse order (left over right,
under the left one. both ends, as shown above. right over left), and can be easily undone.

Bowline

The "rabbit"goes Puill end of rope Tie knot against

around the 'tree'' and main rope to
and back into tighten knot
the "hole")

2 Take the end of the rope

around the main rope, then
pass it back through the loop.
1 Used for making a loop, a This sequence can be easily 3 Pull the end and the main 4 For extra security, take the
bowline will neither tighten nor remembered by “the rabbit rope to tighten the knot. The end over the right-hand side of
loosen. Make a small, overhand comes out of the hole, goes bowline is useful, but many the loop and through, then into
loop and bring the end up around the tree, and then back climbers prefer the figure-of- the new small loop from the top.
through it from behind. down the hole again”. eight for lifelines (see below). Tighten against the bowline.

Single Figure-of-Eight Knot

1 Here, the figure-of-eight knot is tied to 2 Continue the figure-of-eight knot by 3 Feed the looped end through the
create a loop in the rope. Form a doubled bringing the looped end to the front of the wide loop. Pull firmly to tighten the knot
length of rope, about 3 ft Cl m) long. Bend knot. Pass the looped end over the front of The figure-of-eight knot is often used in
the looped end back over and behind the the knot, then continue by passing it under climbing (seepage 149). It will not work
doubled rope, forming a new, wide loop. the back of the wide loop. loose, yet may be easily undone.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT
36

USING ROPES
A LENGTH OF ROPE may be used for a great many
things, but it must be treated with care. Your
future when used for its intended purpose. Use
your rope uniformly at both ends so as not to wear
climbing rope may be strong enough to tow a it out unevenly. Never apply a load to a rope that
broken-down vehicle, but it will lose its ability to has a kink in it, since this will severely damage the
stretch, and get dirty and damaged in the process. rope. Keep your rope clean by washing it in fresh
It will therefore be less likely to save your life in the water, and coil it neatly when it is not in use.

Caring for ropes

Damp conditions, strong sunlight, and an edge under tension, and are hard wet, dirty ropes in clean, fresh water,
gnawing insects may damage natural- to grip when wet. Dirt particles in the using a mild soap, rather than harsh
fiber ropes. Manmade fibers may melt fibers of a rope will cause damage, so detergent. Hang the ropes up to dry,
in high heat, or snap if snagged over keep your rope clean and dry. Rinse shaded from the hot sun and fire.

Core damage Sheath damage

Even though it has no sheath damage, this rope Cut out the damaged sections, using the remainder
is unsafe and should not be used. for lashings, slings, or other, non-vitalpurposes.

COILING A ROPE

Turn back end of

1 As you begin to coil 2 Use your foot to hold first coil to form
the rope, feel which the rope down while a loop 12-14 in
way it wants to go you coil it. On a dusty (30-35 cm) long
and shake out any or dirty surface, you
twists or kinks. should form the coil
in your hand.

3 Continue coiling until only the

length of one coil remains. To secure
the rope, make a loop by turning
Lay each coil to Make sure the coils back the end of the first coil.
about a 20-in lie neatly, one
(50-cm) diameter beneath the next

Gently puli
loop under
lashing to
secure it

7 Pull the
end of the
rope that
forms the
loop. This
will pull the
the loop
4 Wrap the remaining long end 5 Finish off after lashing 4 in 6 Pass the remaining end under the
around the coil. Go over the (10 cm), leaving 1 in (2.5 cm) of the rope through the
lashing and
loop, but leave its end free. of loop showing. loop and pull it tight.
secure it.
 USING ROPES
37

JOINING ROPES

1 If you need to 2 Thrust the two

join ropes together loops together, one
they must be inside the other.
properly tied to This sheetbend will
prevent them from join ropes of
slipping apart. similar or different
Begin by making a weight or material.
loop in the end of
each rope.

One loop goes Leave long ends to

inside the other prevent knot from
becoming undone

3 Take the loose

end of the outer
loop and run it If 4 Pull the ends -iffl
over itself, then tight, holding the
through the inner inner loop together. If
loop. Do not let go possible, leave long ends
of the first rope. to avoid slippage.

SHEAR LASHING

1 In lashing, cord is 2 After making several 3 Wrap the cord tightly around the
wound tightly around anchoring turns around spars to about 1 in (2.5 cm) in depth,
objects such as spars to the first spar, take the taking care not to overlap the strands
join them together. lashing firmly around of lashing, while keeping each new
To begin lashing, the second one. loop tight against the binding.
firmly tie the
cord to the
first spar.
Binding is tight
and neat

Binding is
strong, secure,
and Jlexible
Cord is tied to
first spar to
begin lashing

4 Bring the cord between 5 Finish off the lashing 6 When the
the two spars and wind it with a half-hitch (pass lashing has been
tightly around the lashing the end of the cord secured, pull the
several times to make under a loop made spars apart to the
it secure. around the spar). desired angle and use
Pull the end tight them to form varidus
to secure it. structures, such as
an A-frame shelter
(see page 52).

Pass end of cord under

itself to secure lash ing
 Chapter Three

Living in
THE WILD
Once YOU have chosen an appropriate site, you will
have to erect a shelter. This may be a manufactured
tent, or a makeshift structure made from branches. In
polar regions you may have to build a snow shelter
such as an igloo, while in the jungle, constructing a
bed above ground will be your priority. After the
shelter is completed, you will need to build a fire for
warmth or cooking. This will mean collecting dry
wood and tinder, and perhaps even making your own
method of creating a spark. Once your camp is
established, you can dig a latrine, put up safety
lanterns, and run a guide rope around the camp so that
you do not get lost if you have to get up in the dark.
When you decide to leave, you must make sure that
you clear away every sign of your presence - unless
you need to leave messages for
possible rescuers.

Unlike city life, activities in the wild are determined by

sunrise and sunset. Getting up before dawn offers
opportunities to catch nature unaware - before she
catches you. Adopt a routine that fits in with your
environment, resting in the midday sun and making
sure that you return to camp well before dark. Without
the limitations imposed by deadlines, take the
opportunity to slow down.

Temporary home
Even though you can sleep under the stars in many areas, it is
much more comfortable to live in a tent or shelter. You can carry a
manufactured tent around with you, or you can build a shelter
front the natural materials
you find around you.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
40

Choosing a Campsite
M any factors affect how you choose a campsite; safety is, of
course, paramount. You may not be able to identify all the potential
hazards or disadvantages of a particular spot, but in order to give
yourself the best chance, you should allow plenty of time before
dusk to look for a campsite. Time spent in reconnaissance is
never wasted. Plan your schedule by thinking backward from
the time of dusk. Your tent or shelter must be up and the
cooking well underway by the time it gets dark, and
you must allow an hour or more before that
for settling in, and at least another hour for
reconnaissance. Therefore, if it gets dark at 6 p.m.,
then by 3 p.m. you must be thinking about your
campsite, and by 4 p.m. you should have
stopped traveling and be actively looking for
a suitable site.

Prevailing Wind
You should try to identify the direction from
which the prevailing wind blows, and erect
your tent so that the entrance faces away
from it. You should dig your latrine
downwind of your camp. Position your
fire so that the smoke from it will not
constantly blow into your tent.

Tips for Camp living

■ In wet weather, dig a channel around
the base of your tent, running away
downhill, to prevent flooding. In high
winds, keep tent guy ropes in place with
large stones.
■ Keep everything packed until you need
it. You will know where things are, be
able to move quickly in an emergency,
and stand less chance of losing
irreplaceable equipment.
■ Never keep food inside a tent. Suspend
your pack about 10 ft (3 m) Trees
above the ground, and Although you may want to
camp near trees so that you
about 3 ft (1 m) away
have plenty of firewood, or
from tree trunks, so that wood for building a shelter,
animals such as bears beware of dead t rees that m ight
and monkeys cannot fall on your tent, and the
presence of dangerous animals.
reach it,
■ Unpack your gear,
do your repairs, and
let your clothes and
sleeping bag air in the River Bend
sun before repacking. Avoid the inside bend of a river,
since the land is often lower there
Drying Boots than on the outside bend, and is
Leave your boots to dry on sticks stuck vulnerable to flooding. Gravel
bars build up on inside bends,
into the ground to prevent animals
where the water flows slowly, and
from crawling inside them. these also contribute to flooding.
 CHOOSING A CAMPSITE
41

Avalanche Danger
If you are camping near
mountains, do not pitch your
Other Sites
tent in the path of a possible
When choosing a
avalanche or rockfall. In
addition, spring meltwater may site, avoid cold air
rush down a mountain, pockets and wet
causing a Jlood. ground. Imagine
how floodwater
and cold air will
How, and choose
a site above these
flow lines. If you
are bothered by
Collecting Water
Always collect water from upstream of biting insects,
your campsite. Collect drinking water avoid wet ground
upstream of places where you and seek high,
knotb animals drink.
windswept areas.

Dishes
Do not wash cooking pots
directly in your water
source. Instead, scrape the
food residue away with
sand or a cloth. You can
then rinse off the sand in
the river, as long as there
are no food remnants to
pollute the water and
attract animals. Do not
use detergent, since this
can poison fish.

Tent
Site the lent away from the sound of the river,
which can mask the noise of animals. Make
sure the entrance faces away from the wind,
as well as the latrine.

Latrine
Locate the latrine downstream and
downwind of the tent. Ensure that it is
far enough away from the river to avoid
contam ination of the water.

Fire
Smoke from the fire should
help to keep insects away
from the tent, but the flames
should not close he enough
to set it on fire.

Clothes
trees that might fall on the tent, the ideal campsite Wash your clothes downstream of your
is close to water but well away from the danger of tent and the place where you collect
drinking water. First wet them in the
flooding, and from evidence of animal use. On the
water, then use soap on land. Rime
side of a valley, but not at the bottom, the site is
them in a bucket, and empty the
level, well drained, and protected from the bucket well away from the river.
prevailing winds of the area.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
42

Choosing a Tent
T ents KEEP rain and wind out, while keeping
warmth in. The outer flysheet should be strong,
retain heat, with air vents. The inner and outer parts
of the tent must not touch each other - if they do,
impermeable, and taut, able to deflect even driving heat may be lost and condensation may form on the
rain and high winds. The inner tent - which may underside of the flysheet and seep through the inner
be attached to the flysheet - is loose, made of tent. An impermeable groundsheet is sewn into the
permeable material to minimize condensation but bottom of the inner tent to keep water out.

FEATURES OF A TENT

There are many different styles of tent, tent. The tent is held up by poles, and adjustable guylines attached to pegs in
but most are constructed along the is pegged down through eyelets along the ground. The tent may have a
same lines as a basic sloping-ridge its bottom edges. It is held steady by flysheet over the top.

Front pole is tall enough

Rea r pole is shorter
to allow comfortable entry
than front pole so
into and exit from tent
that back of tent
presents small face
Impermeable flysheet is
to the wind
stretched tight over poles
and inner tent

Full-length zipper allows

you to close the porch flap
at night, or open it when
you are cooking
Flysheet is stretched
over inner tent and
pegged down using
shockcord
Adjustable guylines
stretch and support the
inner tent and poles
Ridge Tent
Small porch serves Inner tent may not be A general-purpose ridge tent
as a cooking area necessary in warm areas, is suitable for camping
Strong, impermeable
and storage space groundsheet keeps except in winter; or to anywhere from mountains
for backpacks dampness out of tent keep bugs and snakes out to the backyard.

Selecting the right Tent

There are many different

styles of tent, but they are
all variations on a theme.
Your precise purpose, as
well as the climate and
terrain of your destination,
will determine the type of
tent you buy. You should
also take into consideration
the tent’s weight and size -
you will have to carry it if
you are not using a vehicle.
The privacy of a one- Two-person Tent Three-person Tent Four-person Tent
person tent may seem A two-person, wedge-shaped There is quite a lot of room Four people can fit into this tent,
ridge tent is lightweight, but has inside this dome tent, both for although they will make it very
appealing. However, in
space for storage and cooking storage of gear and for sitting cozy. In a shared tent, you must
cold climates the warmth of under the flysheet, and just up comfortably. Three flexible ensure that ventilation is good,
two bodies increases each enough room for two people to poles give the structure great and that gear is kept neatly
person’s comfort. sleep in it side by side. strength against high winds. packed to avoid conflict.
 CHOOSING A TENT
43

Tents for All Terrains

Certain styles of tent are more suitable

for a particular terrain than others. A
basic, traditional ridge tent can be
used almost anywhere, but some
modern styles, such as geodesic dome
tents, can better withstand harsh
terrain and extreme climate - for
example, the high winds and heavy
snow of mountainous areas. Tents
with external poles are easier to pitch
in high winds than those with internal
poles. Twe-hooped tents are unstable
in extreme weather.

Dome Tent
This is ideal for extreme conditions, like those
found in mountains or polar regions, since it
can be stabilized by being buried in snow. It
must be dug out, however, before the snowfall
gets too heavy. Being dug into a snowbank is
an ideal way to shelter from the wind.

Tunnel Tent
A tunnel tent is a cross between a dome tent
and a ridge tent. One-person versions of this
type of tent are ideal for backpackets, since
they are lightweight and easy to erect. They
can be used on grass or in rocky river valleys,
and can deflect high winds.

Three-hooped Tunnel Tent Horizontal-ridge Tent

Tunnel tents can have a frame of up to three A traditional horizontal-ridge tent can be set Bivy Sack
hoops, with small hoops at the ends and a up almost anywhere. It has a central,
large one in the center. Three-hooped tunnels horizontal roof pole, and two ends of the same A bivy sack can be either a simple,
can sleep two or three people. They are quite height. This style of tent can come in virtually waterproof cover for a sleeping bag, or
stable, and their shape allows rain to run off. any size, from a one-person tent to one that it can have short poles at its entrance
They often have two entrances. will accommodate several people. that form a porch, to make the bag a
small tent. It should be made of
Geodesic Dome Tent breathable material to minimize
Geodesic dome tents are
condensation, and may be used even
strong, light to cany, easy
in heavy rain out in the open -
to erect, and equally
although this is very noisy. A bivy sack
simple to take down
again. In high winds they can also be used on its own as a
must be firmly tied down, waterproof survival bag.
but the arrangement of
their curved, interlocking Sleeping Bag Cover
poles makes them sturdy. A bivy sack makes a good waterproof
Geodesic dome tents are cover for a sleeping bag, or it can be
supported by flexible poles used on its own instead of a tent.
that cross at different
internals to hold the tent
material taut instead of
guylines. Their shape
provides quite a lot of
valuable headroom.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
44

ERECTING A TENT
C HOOSING A CAMPSITE entails selecting the right
spot for your tent in relation to everything else
do anything else. As with all camp craft, try to
establish a routine, doing everything in the same
in your camp, and with regard to safety and shelter. order each time, so that it becomes a habit. This
You must decide which way the entrance will lace will enable you to erect your tent in darkness, or in
and how the guylines will be secured, and consider a blizzard or heavy rainstorm. Make sure you know
any potential hazards (see page 40). You must then exactly where to find each piece of the tent when
clear and level the site, removing or flattening all you come to put it up. You should pack it away
uncomfortable bumps. Get your tent up before you systematically (see page 46).

1 Get used to putting up 2 Assemble the

your tent as if there is a tent poles. Take
howling blizzard. Lay the care to screw
inner tent on the ground, the right pieces
making sure that the back together, or you
wall of the tent faces into may not be able
the wind, and to take them
immediately peg apart again.
down the corners. Hook the back
tent eyelet over
Peg corner eyelet
the short pole.
straight and taut

3 Hold the short pole upright and peg its guyline into the ground, 4 Insert the other pole into the front roof eyelet. Stand the pole
adjusting it so that the pole will stand up by itself. Make sure that upright and tighten its guyline. Work quickly - if it is windy, the
the back wall of the tent will face into the wind. tent will be unstable, and in rainy weather, the inner will get wet.

5 Slip the flysheet

over the short tent 6 Pull the flysheet over the top of the tent, slipping the
pole down at the eyelet over the main pole at the tall end of the tent.
small end of the Peg down the flysheet at the tall end. You may have to
tent, then peg it move the inner tent's guyline toward the pole to make
down securely. the flysheet fit.

CAUTION
Do not use tent tapes for pulling out pegs
that you have pushed into the wrong place.
If you do, the tapes will break. To remove
pegs from hard ground, use another tent
peg, or a special tent-peg hook.
 ERECTING A TENT
45

7 Zip up dig flysheet door flap over the inner tent's front guyline. 8 Peg the guyl
The space between the inner tent and flysheet provides a porch inner tent, taki
that can be used as a storage area for gear. and balance hot

9 Peg the sides

of the flysheet so
that it is stretched
quite tightly over the
inner tent. Make sure
that the flysheet does
not touch the inner
tent (see below).
Unzip the front flaps
and, using the guys,
adjust the balance of
the whole tent until
it is tight and secure.
Take care not to 10 The short end of the tent (the back) should
pull the tent over ideally face into the wind. The tent should be
by over-tightening stretched tightly, streamlined against the wind and
the guyline. the rain. Backpacks may be stored in the front
porch, but never leave unwrapped food in the
tent (see page 40).

Pitching a Dome Tent Using Tents

■ In winter, you must use both the
Dome tents can be easier and quicker Feed tbe/lexi-tube Insert the poles in
poles through very the correct order inner tent and the flysheet, but at
to erect than ridge tents, and provide
ca reft i lly, especially and do not force other times of the year, or in warm
more usable space and height inside.
at the crossover them through climates, the inner tent is unnecessary.
They are. however, less aerodynamic
Using just the flysheet gives much
and may require protection from high
more space inside the tent.
winds - behind a wall, some trees, or
■ Ventilation is essential. Never cook
a bank. When erecting your tent,
inside a tent, although you can cook
make sure you follow the instructions
inside the porch with the door flap
that come with it carefully. Dome
half unzipped.
tents must be pegged down before the
■ Tent pegs can be damaged by
poles are inserted as in high winds
very hard or rocky ground, so you
they will fly away like tumbleweed.
may have to tie the guylines around
One tip is to place a backpack inside
large rocks.
first and zip the door closed. All the
■ There should be a layer of air
usual considerations apply - checking
between the inner tent and the
the ground for rocks, bumps, insect
flysheet that serves as insulation. Take
nests and so on, siting the door away
care to pitch the flysheet taut enough
from the wind direction, and being
to avoid touching the inner tent. It it
careful with the peg-down ropes.
does, condensation may form on the
Additional care must be taken because Keep, the door Check the site and
remove any rocks
inside of the inner tent and run down
the material is stretched tight by the zipped up tight
until the lent is and hu mps from the walls and into your sleeping bag
poles and is easily ripped. underneath
fully erected and other equipment.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
46

Dismantling a Tent
HEN DISMANTLING A tent, you should pack on to your next campsite as soon as possible, so
every component neatly, so that it can be that you can re-erect your tent before it gets dark. If
found quickly when needed again. If it is raining, the weather is fine, before packing the tent, lay all
once the flysheet is down, stow all other parts of the parts out in the open air to allow the wind and
the tent as rapidly as possible. The inner tent in sunshine to dry moisture from both the flysheet and
particular must be packed quickly. In addition, you the inner tent. This will prevent them from
are vulnerable without shelter, and need to move becoming moldy when packed away.

1 First remove all pegs securing the flysheet and

inner tent. In high winds, keep hold of some
part of the structure to prevent it from
blowing away. Take special care with
tent pegs - never use guylines or
tapes to pull them from the ground,
and always keep count of them.

Pull pegs from

ground without
bending them

4 The inner tent and the flysheet must be rolled and packed separately so 5 Still holding the flysheet by the eyelets, lift it so
that you can easily tell them apart when you next want to erect the tent. To that it falls into its natural shape. Then carefully fold
stow the flysheet, first lift it from the inner tent, holding it by the eyelets in its it in half, to form a long “V” shape. Make sure that
roof peaks. Take care not to lift the inner tent, too. there is no moisture on it before folding it.
 DISMANTLING A TENT
47

6 Lay the flysheet on a dry patch of ground and begin rolling it 7 Shake out the inner tent so that the guylines hang down freely,
as tightly as possible. Fold in the flysheet’s sides as you roll it, then lay the inner tent on the ground and roll it as tightly as
making sure that the guylines are not tangled. possible. Fold in the sides of the tent as you go.

8 Tuck the guylines carefully into the 9 Store the pegs in a tough bag so that they 10 Wipe the poles clean and put them
roll before it is finished, ensuring that will not damage the tent. Keep the peg bag in in a strong bag, then into the tent bag.
they are not knotted or tangled. If they the main tent bag. Mud or moisture left on If you keep the poles clean, they will
are, they must be untangled first. the pegs may cause corrosion or damage. fit together easily when you use .them.

Care and Repair of a Tent

■ Your tent should be totally dry when
it is stowed - apart from being lighter
to carry, the fabric will be less likely to
rot than if it is packed when wet.
■ Avoid leaving your tent up in really
hot sunshine, or packing it up when it
is hot. The rubberized waterproofing
may melt in excessive heat and stick
other tent materials together.
■ Check all parts of the tent regularly.
Repair them immediately, if necessary.
11 Put both the flysheet and the ■ Before storing a tent, wash it in fresh
inner tent into the tent bag. It is a water, then rinse it in clean water.
good idea to place each item in a
Hang it up to diy before packing it.
separate plastic bag for protection
Repair Patches
You can buy special vinyl patches
with which you can make temporary

CAUTION
Make sure that you do not lose
any pegs, guylines, or poles
when you dismantle your tent.
You should also take care not to
damage any part of the tent - if
1 2 Before drawing the strings tight on the tent
bag, check that everything is packed, and that
you do, it will have to be repaired
you have not omitted any tent pegs or poles.
before you can use it again.
In long grass, it is easy to mislay these items.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
48

BUILDING A SHELTER
G ETTING OUT OF the wind, rain, and sun, and
being able to rest and sleep, are vital for
easiest and quickest type of shelter to build and is
suitable for most terrain. It should be erected on a
survival. The better you build your shelter, the more sheltered, safe, level site (see page 40), and built so
comfortable you will be - and the more rest you that the roof faces into the wind. The construction
will be able to get. Being rested is essential for your of your shelter will depend entirely upon the
physical health, as well as for your psychological materials at your disposal. If you have a tarpaulin or
well-being, which determines how sensibly and plastic sheeting, you should use that to make the
logically you think and how strongly you are roof of your shelter, but otherwise you will have to
resolved to survive. A lean-to shelter is probably the improvise with whatever items you find.
2 Cut two Y-shaped
Ridge pole should 1 To make a lean-to shelter, first cut a
supports to about chest
be taller tha n you long branch as a ridge pole. Measure
height, each with an extra
can reach the correct length of the ridge pole by
1 ft (30 cm) that will be
reaching up as high as possible and
hammered into the ground.
cutting it another 2 ft (60 cm) or so
Sharpen the bottom ends.
above that. Try to get
as straight a branch as
Sharpen post ends so that
possible for the ridge they can he hammered into
pole, and trim off ; the ground
projecting twigs. Do not
use a dead branch,
which may snap and
break in a high wind.

wm, 3 Hammer both the

supports into the
hmhh ground with a heavy
rock until they are
secure and will not
fall over. The distance
between them should
be about 2 ft (60 cm)
'/'l less than the length of
- ■ v.# v AT A- Jp the ridge pole.
it urn
4 Lay the ridge pole between the two forks of the support posts, 5 Cut several fairly strong branches long enough to lean against
allowing equal overlap at the ends. The ridge pole must be fairly the ridge pole at an angle of about 45 degrees to the ground. This
light, but sturdy enough to take the weight of the finished roof will allow maximum rainwater runoff from the roof. Space them
and withstand heavy rain and 8 in (20 cm) apart. They should overhang
strong winds without collapsing. the ridge pole by about 4 in (10 cm).
 BUILDING A SHELTER
49

6 Cut plenty of
straight, fairly sturdy
saplings. Weave the
saplings over and
under alternate
sloping roof
branches, until all
the branches are
joined fairly firmly
together in a lattice.
Weave a row of
saplings over and
under the ridge
pole, as well, to
hold it in place. Weave the top saplings
over and under the ridge pole to
hold il in place, thus giving the
structure tensile strength

8 Continue weaving the

foliage into the lattice
until you are content
with the density of your
roof. Some types of
foliage die faster than
others, and may have to
be replaced after a few
days. It is best to weave
new branches over the
old ones to build up
the layers of the roof.
Branches from small¬
leaved trees are
preferable, since large
leaves tear, die quickly,
and are hard to weave
into a flat mat.

Using Manmade Materials

Manmade materials should be used if
available, and augmented by natural ones
where necessary. Plastic bags and sheets
of polyethylene are common forms of
rural litter. Wooden boxes, plywood,
cardboard, and galvanized metal sheets
can also be used.

Other Materials
Shelters can he made from all kinds of
discarded manmade materials.

9 The finished shelter may require further winds, or to add side walls. Light your
improvement - for example, you may want camp fire in front of the shelter, but
to place large rocks along the back to hold keep the flames away from the thatch.
down the bottom of the roof in high Rethatch as the roof foliage withers.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
50

Snow Shelters
ROVIDED TEMPERATURES REMAIN below 32°F can range from a simple, hollowed-out heap of
(0°C), constructing snow shelters is relatively snow to an igloo, which can take a few hours to
easy. Sheltering from the wind is the first priority, construct. In a long-term shelter, such as an igloo,
since the wind can drastically decrease the air heavy, cold air can be diverted away from the
temperature (seepage 141). Temperatures below occupants by digging a cold sink to channel the air
14°F (—10°C) become increasingly unpleasant, so down and away from the shelter. It is important to
that it becomes necessary to construct shelters in allow for adequate ventilation in all snow shelters
which heat can be retained extremely well. These in order to prevent suffocation.

1 Cut blocks from dry, hard snow, using a 2 Form a circle with blocks around the hole 3 Build tip the walls, overlapping the
snow saw or large knife. Each block created where you cut the blocks. Cut the blocks and shaping them so that they lean
should be about 3 ft (1 m) long, 15 in circle in a spiral from the top of the last inward. Cut a hole under the wall for the
(40 cm) high, and 8 in (20 cm) deep. block to the ground ahead of the first block. cold sink and entrance. Put several blocks
This will make it easy to construct a dome. along one wall as a sleeping platform.

4 The last block must initially 5 Hot air from your

be larger than the hole, A irboles body and stove rises,
Place the block on top and is trapped inside
of the igloo, then, Cold the dome. Cold air
from inside, shape sink falls into the sink and
and wiggle it to flows away to the
slot exactly into outside. It is essential
the hole. to cut ventilation
holes in the walls
with an ice ax.

Finished Igloo
W ith warmth inside the igloo,
the surface of the walls will
melt and freeze over, to
form a smooth, airtight
ice surface.

Roof over ent ratio

tunnel prevents
WARNING snow from hlowin
into igloo
It is vital to make at least one
airhole in the roof to avoid
suffocation. The igloo will get very
warm inside with heat from your
body, even if it is cold and windy
outside. Without ventilation, lethal
carbon monoxide will build up.
 SNOW SHELTERS
51

Building a Quinze

1 Place backpacks and other equipment in 2 Using a snowshoe or a shovel, pile 3 When the snow in the pile is about 3 ft
a tight cone. The equipment will form the snow over the backpacks, compacting (1 m) thick, smooth the dome and leave it
inside core of the shelter, and will reduce it. Wait at least 30 minutes for the snow for about an hour to harden. This period is
the amount of snow needed to build the to freeze before adding more snow to important, since it allows the snow to
quinze (pronounced “kwinzee”). build up the thickness of the dome. recrystallize, bonding the particles together.

4 Gather several sticks about 5 Dig down beside the quinze

2 ft (60 cm) long. Push and burrow under the wall
them into the snow all I t I until you can carefully
/ over the dome as remove the backpacks.
6 depth guides, f Then excavate inside
pointing to with a cooking pot
/
the center of until the ends of
the quinze. the sticks appear.
l

Other Snow Shelters

Trench Natural hollotv

Dig a t rench and make a roof by weaving together Snou’ cave A snug, almost ready-made shelter can
sturdy branches. Take care to leave a branch poking Hollow out a shelter in a snow be found under an overhanging
through any snow that falls on the roof so that you bank. Block up the entrance and conifer. Take care not to dislodge snow
get adequate ventilation inside the trench. poke a ventilation hole in the wall. from the branches.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
52

Tropical Shelters
T he region between the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn, about 23 degrees north
mountain rainforests, it can get quite cold at night.
In jungles and swamps, you must sleep off the
and south of the equator, is known as the tropics. ground - preferably high enough to allow small
Within this region are rainforests, swamps, and animals to pass beneath you and to ensure that
savannah (grasslands), and all are characterized by torrential rain does not constantly splash you as it
lush vegetation, torrential rain, and abundant animal hits the ground. A waterproof roof and mosquito
life. Shelter from the rain, wind, and sun is very net are vital. Sleeping above the ground is not as
important in every kind of tropical area. In the important in tropical grasslands as in jungle areas.

A-frame Shelter

1 An A-frame shelter is the easiest type of 2 Make a second A-frame and set it at a 3 Place a lightweight branch across the
shelter to construct. Cut seven long distance of about 2 ft (60 cm) longer than two top V's of the A-frames. This will act
branches and lash two of them to a tree. your height from the first one. as a ridge pole to support the roof.

4 Tie the sides of a groundsheet together to make a tube -'“it 5 Stretch a waterproof tarpaulin across the ridge pole to make a
two long poles and pull them apart to make a stretcher. V roof. Pull it tight on either side and tie it to trees. The roof should
the stretcher between the A-frames with the poles on the or. keep off rain, yet still allow air to circulate around your head.
 TROPICAL SHELTERS
53

Bamboo Shelter

Lash vertical 1 This shelter can be Bamboo sections

and ridge interlock to shed
made wherever bamboo
rainwater into gutter
grows. Set four thick,
vertical posts in the
ground a distance of
your height plus one
arm’s length apart.
The front posts
should be about
1 ft (30 cm) shorter
Front ridge pole
than the back ones.
should be lower
than back to allow Place horizontal ridge
for rain to run ojj poles in between the
vertical posts as shown

2 Using a knife, split a bamboo

stem lengthwise and lay it between
the short vertical posts as a gutter. Block
CAUTION one end with leaves and set a billycan
Bamboo stems can easily be split down under the other end to catch rain dripping off
the center with a knife, but take care when the roof. Lay split bamboo stems between the
splitting them, in order to avoid razor- ridge poles, with their open sides uppermost and
their lower ends supported by the gutter. Place more Billycan catches
sharp splinters. Be careful when cutting
stems on top, round side uppermost, so that they water from gutter
bamboo, since some stems may be bent
interlock with the bottom layer as shown.
under pressure and whip back to cut you.

Jungle Shelter

1 To make the shelter frame, hammer four Leaves should hang

solid logs into the ground as corner posts, upside down and
spaced just over your height apart. Attach overlap each other
four branches between the posts,
lashing them into notches on
the outsides of the posts, to ^ Ak \ '
make a bed frame. Weave \
smaller branches across
the frame to make a s
bed (see page 48). Oft*'

Notch upright poles

so that frame
fits securely

Ridge pole should

be longer than
your height..

Cross supports /
lashed securely
to vertical posts

3 Lash more
branches between the
roof gables and hang large
2 Lash seven branches together to make the leaves over them. Overlap the
framework for a roof. The roof must be leaves sideways and downward.
pitched so that rain will run off, and strong The stem of each leaf should point
enough to bear the weight of the thatch toward the top, while its shiny side
Lash it to the vertical corner posts. should face outward to deflect rain.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
54

LONG-TERM SHELTERS
N A SURVIVAL situation, you do not know how Before you spend days, or even weeks, building a
long you are likely to be marooned, or how long permanent shelter, you must be certain you have
you will be in one place. Therefore, you should tiy the right location for it. Food, fuel, and fresh,
to make the best shelter possible. If you are forced reliable water must be nearby, the ground must be
to spend a winter in the wilderness, for example, well drained and solid, and the site sheltered from
you will need a sturdy shelter such as a log cabin. natural hazards (see page 40).

LOG Cabin

Straight, solid logs

To ensure
a proper fit, logs end to opposite end
should be notched to make them fit
at the ends on together closely
top and bottom and neatly

1 Clear the ground at least 3 ft

(1 m) beyond the walls of the 2 Using even, matched timbers and getting the notching exactly right is the
cabin site and lay logs in an secret of a successful building. Ensure that the notching leaves each log
placed squarely on top of the rest, so that the walls are as perpendicular as
outline of the cabin.
possible, with each corner square. Gradually build up the walls.

Prevailing Wind
3 Blank rear walls and the slope of the
roof should face prevailing winds and
bad weather, while the front elevation A STONE FIREPLACE
with entrance and any windows should
Because of the danger of
face toward the sun. Step the roof so
that the front is higher than the back, to setting fire to the cabin, a
allow rain and snow to run off. hearth and chimney must
be self-supporting and very
solidly built, preferably of
stone or brick. The chimney
can be built either outside,
with a hole in the wall as a
fireplace, or inside, with the
chimney protaiding from
the roof. To build the
Cut thick squares of twf
structure, use available
with plenty of earth
rocks or make mud bricks,
drying them in the sun.
4 Roofing can be
almost any material.
Lay insulation, such
as bracken, grass,
fir branches, or
sacking, on a frame
of logs. If available,
paper fertilizer bags
are particularly
good insulators, and
plastic sheeting Caulk between Stone Chimney
is also useful. Add logs with mud Build a stone chimney outside
an outer layer of and moss the walls so that the fire does
thick sods. not burn down the cabin.
 LONG-TERM SHELTERS
55

SOD HOUSE

Place each sod

over the join of the
Sod should be two below it „
cut in brick
shapes

3 Gradually build up Lhe cabin walls,

2 Lay an outline of the cabin on a clear
overlapping the sod at the corners. Ensure
piece of ground, leaving a hole for a door.
that each row overlaps the one below, so
The ground below must be flat and solid,
that the walls are firm and do not topple.
1 Turf blocks (sod) can be used for and capable of taking the considerable
Try to keep the walls straight, at 90
weight of the walls and roof without
building as if they were undried bricks, cut degrees to each other, and perpendicular.
and laid without mortar. Begin by cutting a subsiding. Begin building up the walls.
selection of sod from the ground. ." 1
*u-

Add a door frame

of wood, the lintel of
which must be strong
enough to carry the
weight of several
rows of sod

4 Build the front higher than the back, 5 Lay a roof of sods with the grass facing
sloping the roof into the wind to allow upward. Repair any cracks in the walls with
rain to run off. Construct a roof mud. After weathering, the walls will
framework of branches, if available. become hard and smooth.

OTHER LONG-TERM SHELTERS

Caves
When using caves,
explore their full extent
first. Ihe fire should be
built at the back of the
cave, so that the smoke
will escape and not blow
back inside. You can
build a rock or log wall on
the other side of the fire to
deflect the heat back into
the cave.

Natural Hollows
Natural shelters can sometimes be found under large rock
formations, but you should take great care to ensure that the
entire structure is solid and immovable. If digging into the
underlying ground, do not disturb the structure’s foundations.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
56

Running a Safe Camp

H aving chosen as safe a campsite as possible,
certain basic safety rules must always be
inside a tent also reduces the amount of oxygen
and may create poisonous gases such as carbon
observed. There is potential danger in many things, monoxide. Tents and other kinds of shelter must
from fires and unventilated stoves to lack of basic therefore be well ventilated (see page 114). Without
hygiene. Never cook inside a tent, since it can easily refrigerators and flushing toilets, food poisoning and
catch fire and will burn fiercely. Any sort of flame other illnesses can occur very quickly in camp.

SAFETY AROUND THE CAMP

If you are camping for more than one

night, you should make your camp as
safe as possible. Accidents often occur
at night - for example when
individuals stumble from their tents to Guide rope
the latrine and trip and fall into the to latrine

remains of the fire, or into the river,

or get lost in the darkness
and are unable to
relocate their tent.

Stout safety
post at water
Prepared for Danger collection point
Your camp should be well
planned, with plenty of
\ River presents
safety features in case of a constant
accidents, no matter how threat to safety
unlikely they may seem.

Building a latrine

A latrine should be located Wicker screen

for privacy Safety string to
downwind of your tent.
mark latrine edge Toilet Can
Sprinkle earth into it whenever
it is used. Never add chemicals Logs as Where it is impractical or illegal to
to a latrine, since they will position bury human waste, make a portable
guides
prevent the natural breaking toilet by lining a lidded coffee can with
down of fecal material and a plastic bag.
make it smell much worse Put bleach in
than it naturally would. Have a the bag to
separate urination point, reduce odor. Use
marked by a stake', over to the can only for
one side. Fill in the latrine solid waste.
when you leave (see page 64).
Portable Toilet
Camp Toilet
Dig a latrine only in a long-term
camp, or if there are a lot of people
in your party. Use it for solid waste.
 RUNNING A SAFE CAMP
57

Washing Clothes
When bashing clothes on a rock Keeping clothes clean maintains their
to raise a lather, take care not to ability to insulate, as well as preserving
smash buttons or break zippers
hygiene. In the tropics, clothes must be
washed every day, with a clean, dry set
kept for wearing at night. In cold
climates, only socks and underclothing
need to be washed regularly. Do not
wash or rinse clothes directly in your
water source. Clothes should be repaired
as soon as they get torn (see page 3 V, so
that the damage does not get worse and
make the clothes unwearable.

Do not let any detergent suds

get into your water supply

personal hygiene

Keep your washing

and personal gear in
a waterproof holdall Improvised Cleaners
so that you do not
lose items. Using a
bag will also keep
the items clean.
While you are using
the wash kit, have it
hanging on a tree for
easy access to the
items inside. A large Horse Chestnut Leaf Strawberry
towel can be used for Horse chestnut leaves Strawberries can remove
many purposes. It crushed in warm water stains from teeth if
can also be cut up can be used as soap. rubbed on them. Wood
They also have a mild ash can also be used as
and reused in various
antiseptic effect. toothpaste, or as soap.
ways (seepage 27). WASH KIT Towel

KEEPING FOOD SAFE

PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
■ Keep soap suds, food debris, and other
pollutants out of your water supply, 1 While you are cooking
washing and rinsing clothes and dishes in a meal, you may want to
keep some items of
a bucket, and emptying the wash water
prepared food cool and
well away from the river. Bear in mind
“ fresh, away from insects
that there may be other campsites
and animals. Make a
downstream from you.
temporary holder from
■ Avoid keeping a tent pitched in the
a roll of cloth, tying
same place for too long, so that the grass the ends to close it.
can have a chance to grow back. Put a plate inside to
* Do not mutilate trees and plants unless act as a base.
you need to build a shelter.
» Use existing fire pits when possible,
rather than making new ones, and be Plate of food kept
safe from insects
careful not to start a forest or brush fire.
* Burn all garbage and take the residue
with you when you leave.
■ Always fill in the latrine and fire pit, 2 Hang the cloth roll from a branch. Keep
and remove all traces of your camp when food inside the holder only for short
periods. Food in cans can be kept cool by
you leave (see page 64).
being placed in river shallows.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
58

Campfires
H AVING A CAMPFIRE will determine whether or
not you survive, providing warmth and a way
clothing and boots. You will need three ingredients
for a fire - tinder, kindling, and main fuel. A fire
of cooking food, as well as an enormous boost to also needs oxygen in which to burn. The best
morale. Fire keeps wild animals and insects away, source of diy fuel is standing deadwood of all sizes.
provides heat that conserves precious body calories, If you have to use fallen wood, leave any in contact
turns inedible food into a cheering meal, and dries with the ground, and take branches overlaying it.

Types of Tinder

Moss Fungus
Green, damp moss is useless Shelf fungus, found on
as tinder. Dead, dry moss, trees, has a waterproof
however, is fine and dense, outer skin and a soft
and is ideal for starting a inner flesh that is dry
fire. You can find moss and fluffy, and makes
growing on tree trunks or in excellent tinder. You will
boggy grou nd. It may have to probably have to cut off the
be dried before use. outer skin with a knife to get
at the soft inside tissue.

Bark
Even in wet weather, the inner bark, of dead logs
may be dry inside. Carve away the wet bits or look
for where insects have burrowed into the wood,
producing dry sawdust, which is good tinder material.
Rotten ivood can also be used as tinder.

Dead Leaves
There are always dry, dead
leaves to be found, even in the
wettest woods. Put the leaves
straight into a waterproof bag
whenever you find them. You
can either use them whole, or Dry Grass
crumble them into small pieces This is very easy to buff up into a bundle offine fibers that will
before using them as tinder. quickly take a spark and produce flames (see below).

Preparing Tinder

Powdering Nicking Buffing

You can turn dry sticks and pieces of bark Make a small depression in the surface of the To take the smallest spark, tinder must be as
into powdery tinder by trimming them into tinder - for example in a piece of shelf fungus. fine as cotton wool. Rub and twist the
tiny pieces with a knife. Make the pieces as A glowing ember dropped in the niche will material in your fingers, or against a rock.,
fine as possible, and keep them in a bag. have a large surface area to heat. in order to break up the fibers.
 CAMP FIRES
59

Fuels

Fuels for Warmth Fuels for Cooking

Soft woods, such as fir, apple, hazel, Dense, hard woods, such as
and holly, bum quickly and brightly, oak, ash, beech, birch, maple, Oak
and give off good heat. However, they hickory, and sycamore, bum
also produce sparks. The woods that slowly and evenly, giving off
Holly
give off the most sparks when heated great heat and producing coals
are cedar and hemlock. Because they that can be used for slow
bum so quickly, soft woods are good cooking (see page 117). The
forgetting a fire going, and can be taste of the food you cook over
useful for fast cooking, for instance a fire can be affected by the
boiling water. However, they are smell of the smoke. Different
soon used up, and leave a lot of woods produce different smells when
ash, ratherJhan embers that can burning. For example, pine tends to
be used for baking and other make food taste of resin, while apple and
forms of slow cooking. sycamore can add richness to its flavor. Beech
Experiment with different kinds of wood.

Emergency Fuels WOODS TO AVOID USING

In a survival situation, you may
have to use whatever you can find Some resinous woods spit quite fiercely
that will bum. Emergency fuels in a fire, and should be avoided when
can include animal dung, dry possible. These include pine and
lichen, moss, heather, and even blackthorn. Other woods, such as
blocks of peat, all of which have to be Dried dung alder, chestnut, poplar, and willow,
dried in the sun before use. On a do not burn well, but merely
seashore, you can use dried seaweed.
smolder. Bamboo may
Lu mps of coal can sometimes be
explode when
found and burned, while oil
Seaweed heated, unless it
occasionally seeps into pools on
the surface of the ground. Sand is split open first.
may contain oil and, if so, Willow
can be burned. You can also
use animal fat as fuel.

Ingredients for a fire

The secret of making a good fire is to to larger branches and logs as the fire lots of small sticks, large sticks, and
build it up gradually, beginning with gets going. Your wood should be logs. Get each grade of wood burning
small pieces of wood, then progressing graded into tinder, dry kindling, and well before adding larger pieces.

Tinder Kindling Small Fuel Main Fuel Large Fuel

You will need a ball of tinder Once the tinder has When the kindling is Large sticks act as the Thick logs are for keeping
at least the size of a grapefuit, begun to bum, you burning well, you can main fuel. They should be an established fire going
buffed to its finest consistency can add dry kindling add sticks about the thicker than your finger, all night, or in a semi-
(see opposite). Tinder is the in the form of small thickness of a finger. The but easy to break into permanent camp. Make
most important part of a fire, sticks and leaves. sticks take the flames manageable pieces. You sure that they are
since you cannot start a fire Make sure that the from the initial stages to will use mainly this size completely burned when
by lighting thick sticks, unless kindling is bone dry. a fully burning fire. fuel for your campfires. you put out the fire.
you have a manufactured The sticks should be
firelighter that takes the place about the thickness
of the tinder (see page 62). of a pencil.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
60

Building a fire
T he SECRET OF making a fire is having dry fuel
and building up the fire steadily from a small
Fires are potentially dangerous - they can get out of
control, setting dry vegetation, tents, or clothing
beginning. You must choose and construct your alight. They can also use up all the oxygen in an
fireplace with care, and build the right type of fire enclosed shelter, asphyxiating the inhabitants. A fire
for your purposes, in keeping with local conditions can scar the landscape if not properly put out and
(see opposite). Safety is an essential consideration. cleaned up (seepage 65).

Simple Tepee Fire

1 Remove a square 2 Begin building a

of turf and put it to tepee shape by Do not build a fire:
one side. Lay a balancing four upright
■ where vegetation is dry
platform of green sticks against each
because of drought
sticks in the hole. other, their top ends
■ under overhanging branches
meeting in a point.
The tepee does not that may catch fire
need to lie very big. ■ larger than you can control
■ on private land without
special permission

"f :

jwlpfe.

3 Build up the teepee gradually, trying to

make it as sturdy as possible. Make sure
you leave enough space underneath the
teepee in which to put your tinder, as well
as an opening to one side.

ijHijSSjg 4 Put your tinder inside the finished tepee.

HMs Ignite the tinder (see page 58), then add dry
leaves and twigs, building up the flames within
Ujgd the tepee. As the heat builds up, the tepee will
catch fire, creating a surge of flame. The tepee
6s will eventually collapse in on itself and create a
r hot bed of embers that can either be fed more fuel,
or used for cooking. The wood platform will also
eventually burn, creating more hot embers.

Keep kindling close al

band for feeding the fire
 BUILDING A FIRE
61

Fires For All Conditions

Although you can use the basic tepee conditions. For example, in a”strong still burn. In snow, you may have to
fire for almost all areas, you may find wind, you can build your fire in a scrape down to bare ground and lay
that you have to adjust it under certain trench so that it is sheltered and will a platform on which to build your fire.

You can build up one Using a Fire Ring

side of the ring lu shelter A fire ring contains a fire and protects the
the fire from wind surrounding ground from scorching. If you
find an old fire ring at a camp site,
always reuse it to avoid marking
the ground elsewhere. In windy
conditions you can build up the
windward side of the fire ring
to provide shelter. This prevents
dangerous swirls of flame and
conserves fuel. Select dry, non-
porous rocks, and avoid slate
or flint, which can explode
when heated. Use the laigest,
most stable rocks you can
find. You can fill the gaps
Trench Fire
with mud or clay to form a
In very windy conditions, dig a trench about 1 ft <30 cm)
functional area for cooking.
deep. Trench fires are excellent for cooking, and conserve
fuel. The flames are prevented from faring too fiercely in
the wind, yet still have enough air for burning.

Star Fire
Rather than having to
long-lasting fire
constantly collect fresh wood, To keep a fire going all night or all day, lay three
once your fire has a good
thick logs close together over a deep bed of hot
bed of embers, feed four
coals. For added warmth, you can build a wooden
long logs, each at least
wall behind the fire to reflect
6 in <15 cm) in
diameter, into the the heat back to you.
center of it. As the logs Do not sleep so close
hum. you can push that you might
them in farther. Only catch fire.
use this fire in a long¬
term camp, so that you
can he sure that the logs All-night Fire
are fully burned when you A long log fire
clean up the fire (see page 64). can burn all night.

Carrying fire

3 Place healthy,
Driest moss glowing embers
goes on top
into the nest of
moss, then cover
them with more
moss. You can
blow gently on
2 Fill the can
the embers
with dry
whenever they
moss. If you
appear to be
can only find
going out.
damp moss,
you can still
use it, as long
as you place it Smoldering
1 You can keep smoldering embers at the bottom, wit embers set moss
alive for several days so that you can drier moss or gra> on fire
start a fire wherever you are. Attach a top. The damp moss
handle of string or wire to a can. will soon dry out.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
62

LIGHTING A FIRE
N ext TO FIRST aid, fire lighting is the most vital
survival skill, separating us from the rest of the
gradually. Having diy fuel is important, since wet
wood will kill all but the very hottest fire. As well as
animal kingdom. When wood or other fuel is heat and diy fuel, fires also need plenty of oxygen,
heated, it gives off gases that ignite to create flames. particularly when being lit. A fire can be put out by
Fires must start very small - as just a few wisps of being smothered with soil so that the flames cannot
bone-dry tinder coaxed into flame - and be built up get enough oxygen to continue burning.

FIRE-LIGHTING METHODS

Flint and Steel

Make a tinder nest just outside Tips for Fire Lighting
the tepee. Strike the flint with
■ Ensure that the fire is sheltered from
the steel, over the tinder. Blow
on the sparks, coaxing them the wind (see page 60), but remember
into flame. Once the that fire needs oxygen to burn.
tinder catches fire, ■ Always keep a supply of dry tinder.
push it into the tepee. ■ Gather together all the materials you
need before lighting the fire.
Strike flint with steel
saw, aiming sparks ■ Waterproof matches by dripping
onto tinder candle wax onto their heads. Scrape off
the wax before striking them.

Matches
Magnifying Glass
Strike a match inside your
Place a nest of tinder
cupped bands, allowing the
inside your tepee, then
flame to hum the stem.
focus the rays of the sun
Hold the match to the
through the magnifying
tinder until the tinder is
glass so that the strongest
burning. Leave the match
point of light plays on the
in place, and
tinder. As the
add more
tinder smolders,
tinder, then
blow gently
kindling.
until it glows.
Cup hands Focus sunlight on
around match to tinder through
magnifying glass

Shortcuts to lighting a fire

There are many different ways to light a fire, using a great many tools. They range from the
traditional flint block and steel saw, to modern paraffin blocks and sticks of wood chips treated
with various chemicals. Choose the method you find easiest to use.

• 1 1
yt.

Waterproof Flint and Steel Magnifying Glass Cotton Wool Paraffin Fire Sticks
Matches This steel saw and The larger the Cotton woo! soaked Blocks These sticks of wood
Scrape the wax magnesium alloy magnifying glass, the in kerosene is These can be shavings treated with
from the heads of "flint "produce better, particularly in available as a light used to ignite chemicals can be lit with
the matches before larger sparks than the weak sunshine of alternative to large sticks a match to easily start a
you use them. natural flint. northern latitudes. natural tinder. without tinder fire without tinder.
 LIGHTING A FIRE
63

Bow Drill

1 Cut a stick for the drill from hard wood 2 Choose a piece of soft wood, such as 3 Dig out a small hole beside the notch for
(see page 59). It should he about 1S in pine or balsa, for a hearth and cut a V- the drill point to fit into. Hot black ash
(38 cm) long and 2 in (4 cm) thick. Round shapecl notch in the side. Friction between created by the drill spinning in the hole
the ends, caning one to a point. the drill and hearth will create ash. will fall through the notch onto the tinder.

5 Cut a strong,
hardwood stick for
the bow, about 2 ft
Extreme pressure
(60 cm) long and 1 in
is needed. Tty to
(2 cm) thick. Loosely tie push your
string or natural cord to shoulder down
4 Use a piece of hard wood as a both ends, making sure it onto your band
bearing block with which to press is slack enough to wind
down on the drill. Carve a hole for around the drill.
the top of the drill in the center.

HAND DRILL Drill center

is notched so
A simpler method method of fire lighting than that how string
the bow drill involves rotating a pointed stick does not slip
between your hands in a hearth. However,
since hands can create less friction than the
bow drill, this method only works effectively
in hot climates where the wood is really dry,
6 Notch the center of the drill
and if incendiary lichens are used as tinder.
and wind the bow string
Push the drill down into the hearth as you
around it. Place tinder
turn it, making it spin in short bursts. beside the notch in the
Indigenous experts add pressure by pushing hearth. Set the drill
down with their foreheads - a tricky skill to point in the hearth and
acquire! Dry tinder is crucial to all fire-lighting place the bearing block
methods, as even slight dampness will on its top end. Rotate the
prevent sparks or embers from taking hold. drill by pulling and pushing
Carry a sealable plastic bag to collect any dry the bow, while pushing down on the
material you come across - inside tree drill with the other hand. Smoke will
soon be produced, along with hot caused by friction Pull and push how to
stumps, under logs, or after a dry afternoon.
rotate the drill, which
ash and sparks, which will fall from
is harder than it looks
the notch onto the tinder.
 LIVING IN THE WILD
64

striking Camp
S TRIKING CAMP MUST be a routine, with everyone
working toward an agreed time by which the
must check the campsite before setting off. It is
important to clean up your campsite so that it looks
party hits the trail. In extreme cold and heavy rain, as if you have never been there — unless you are in
waiting for one person to get ready is irritating, and a survival situation and must leave signs for possible
can be dangerous. The second-in-command - who rescuers. Dismantle your tent or shelter last, so that
should walk at the rear of the party {see page 136) - you can benefit from it as long as possible.

Cleaning up the campsite

You must leave your campsite exactly local rules. Not only will this ensure In a survival situation, if you need to
as if you had never passed through, that the wilderness remains unspoiled, leave messages for possible rescuers,
taking all garbage with you, replacing but it will also contribute to the you can do so without damaging the
any sod you removed, and obeying enjoyment of future visitors to the area. environment (see opposite').

Tent Latrine
Tents should be dismantled last, The latrine must be filled in and
so that in bad weather you can resodded, and labeled with the
shelter until the last possible date of your departure for the
moment. “Pull Pole” is the time benefit of future campers. In
toward which everyone should areas where the environment
be working, with everything else was too sensitive for you to
completely packed and ready to have dug a latrine, you must
go. Having packed the tents, take all your waste with you
leave the site immediately. in plastic bags.

Site of fire pit must

be resoclded and
scattered with leaves

Pack garbage in
plastic bags and
take them with you

Erasing Your Presence

It is very important to leave your
Fire
campsite looking as if you had never
Your fire must be
been there. Dismantle your fire and
completely out. Its
camouflage the fire pit, take away all ashes should he
waste, garbage, and food residue, scattered and. dug
and fill in the latrine. If you always well into the
do this when you strike camp, you ground. Any
will leave the wilderness undamaged unburned debris
for the wildlife that lives there, as should be collected
and taken away to
well as for other campers.
be disposed of.
 STRIKING CAMP
65

Cleaning up the Fire

You must make sure that the fire is may contain embers that are still cook breakfast on the day of your
fully out when you finally strike camp. smoldering - these can cause a forest departure, and make sure that every
Even if you have filled in the fire pit, it tire. Use as little wood as possible to piece of wood has been consumed.

1 When the fire 2 Making sure that

has burned down, there are no ashes on
rake the remains the surface to kill the
into the center grass, fill in the fire pit
until they have all with soil. Smooth it
crumbled to ash. down with your hands
When the ashes Then lay the sod that
are cold, spread you cut to dig the fire
them out and dig pit back over the site.
them into the If you used any rocks,
ground to scatter them and
disperse them. camouflage them.

3 Fill in the edges Leaving No Trace

of the cut sod with
Many wilderness areas suffer damage because visitors
dirt and grass so
that there is no leave garbage that despoils the landscape and can kill
trace of the joint. animals, damage trees and other vegetation, cause
Scatter leaves and forest fires, and pollute watercourses. You should
grass on the site so leave all wild areas looking as if you had never
that it resembles the passed through, paying particular attention to your
surrounding area. campsite. In some managed wilderness areas,
Pack any unburned building a fire or digging a latrine is forbidden, and
debris in plastic you must respect these rules - for the benefit of the
bags and take it environment and for the enjoyment of campers who
with you until you may use the same site after you. If you leave food
can burn it or remains animals may become a nuisance to campers,
dispose of it. perhaps endangering themselves and people.

Leaving Messages for rescuers

Anything out of the ordinary will be Indicate your direction, as well as the you to retrace your route, if necessary.
noticed by people who come behind, time and date, on any signs you leave Place signs as high as you can reach,
especially if they are looking for you. for rescuers. These signs will also help so that they are secure against animals.

Light-colored
stones stand
out against
background

Flag Pinecone Arrows

Lash two sticks together to form a cross and Wedge a pinecone into a split branch at the Laid in clearings, huge stones in the shape of
hang a brightly colored T-shirt on top. Set the side of the trail you have taken. Something an arrow will indicate your direction of
cross upright in a clearing. If you use two or that never occurs naturally will be noticed by travel. The atrow will also be visible from the
more of these signs, they can be set so that they anyone looking for you. Be careful not to use air. Make new arrows every so often, and
lead in the direction you have taken. anything that animals might eat. where your trail divides into separate forks.
 %mm v
m ff;li
:f V 1
■ 1’ 1 1
4: «•:
fe.<
4 . *.i k
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 Chapter four

Finding
Water
All living things consist largely of water, without
which they die. In a survival situation, after finding
shelter, your first priority must be to locate an
adequate supply of clean water. Not even food is this
important. Water is the basis of all human settlement
and social organization. Rivers provided the rich soils
from which ancient civilizations grew, their constant
supply of water giving mankind surplus food. This
allowed the development of commerce and culture,
and gave people time to step away from the thin line
of harvest-to-harvest survival. Water has also brought
death to human civilizations, spreading lethal
epidemics of cholera and typhoid, or killing whole
cities as rivers changed course and flooded or dried
up. Today, urban dwellers take fresh, clean water for
granted. However, this is a fundamental delusion of
Western life, which seems likely to be shattered as our
groundwater resources are used up, bleeding the rivers
dry. To survive you should not take either life
or water for granted.

Essence of life
Water is the most important element in our lives. Although ire
can live without food J'or several days, without water, our
bodies soon cease to function properly, and we die. Finding
water is probably the most important thing you should learn
before venturing into the wilderness.
 FINDING WATER
68

The importance of Water

H umans must drink a bare minimum of 6 pints
(3 liters) of water every day. Having a constant
days’ supply. On foot, you should always carry
enough water to last at least one day, as well as an
supply of good water is thus vital for life. Traveling emergency reserve. It is vital to reach a waterhole at
is usually determined by the availability of water, least once every day. Knowing where to find water
since even vehicles cannot carry more than a few and how to obtain it is, therefore, essential.

WHERE TO LOOK FOR WATER

When rain falls in mountains, it gathers in Glacier

Glacier snouts often have vigorous meltwater streams. However, glacier
small streams, which join together in larger water contains large amounts of abrasive rock powder, which can cause
torrents. By the time water reaches the diarrhea. Before drinking the water, you must leave it overnight for the
lowlands, these torrents have become large, rock particles to settle out, then carefully pour the separated water through
a filter (see page 75).
slow-moving rivers, which eventually flow
into the sea. Drinkable water may be found Cliffs
Look for patches of green
anywhere within this system. All water
vegetation, such as mosses or
should be purified before being drunk, to ferns, or for cracks at the bases
avoid waterborne diseases (see page 75). of cliffs, from which fresh water
may be trickling.
Trees
Trees or other green Rock Crevices
vegetation indicate water Look in crevices
Dunes of some sort. Always look in rocks, where
Dig at the lowest point between for visible sig ns of life rainwater may
dunes until you reach damp such as these. have collected.
sand. There may be water where
ram has run down the dunes and
seeped into the ground. Continue
to dig until fresh water seeps into
the hole. v

Beach
If you dig above
the high-water Diy River Bed
mark, water will seep Digging where it appears that water
into the hole. If fresh used to be-for instance in the
water is present in the outside bend of a river- is often
sand, it will seep into fruitful. The inner bends often have
the hole on top of thick layers of silt or gravel, which
denser salt water. are difficult to dig through.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER
69

Signs of water

The presence of water is usually habitation. However, there are other out for living things, although certain
indicated by signs of life such as green natural signs indicating hidden water. birds, such as vultures, can travel large
vegetation, animal tracks, or human In an otherwise lifeless terrain, look distances from water.

Animal Tracks
Grazing animals
need to drink at
least twice daily, at
dawn and at dusk,
so at those times
they are usually
heading to orfrom
water. Look for
places where
animal tracks
converge; this may
Trees and Other Vegetation mean that a water
All trees need water to live, although some drive source is nearby. If
very long taproots into the ground in search of it. using a waterhole,
Palm trees usually grow where there is some kind of take care to avoid
water close to the surface, and some varieties store predators that may
water in their trunks or roots (see page 72). also be using it.

Bees and Flies

Bees do not usually fly more
than about 3 miles (5 km)
from their nests and must
have a constant supply
of water. Watch the
direction in which
they fly upon leaving
the nest. Flies stay
even closer to water -
about 110 yards
(100 m) or so.
Nevertheless, in the desert Ants on the Move
they seem to arrive from Ants are dependent on having a constant water
nowhere, regardless of the supply. If you see any marching up a tree, they are
nearest source of water. probably heading for a reservoir of rainwater.

Dehydration and the Body’s water Needs

Water is a vital constituent of the waste products through the

human body. However, we have kidneys, and the operation of our PREVENTING WATER LOSS
no method of storing water in our nervous systems. Without food we
Even when resting in the shade, the
bodies as we do with food fats. We can survive on our bodily reserve
average person loses over lk pints
therefore need a constant supply Ifor about three weeks, but if lost
(1 liter) of water each day through
for control of body temperature water is not replaced within five breathing and urination. Exertion
(perspiration), the elimination of days, we will die. increases water loss through
perspiration, especially in hot weather,
THE EFFECTS OF WATER LOSS Water Needs so if you are short of water, you
About 75percent of should rest, working only at night. Try
1-5% Lost 6-10% Lost 11-12% Lost
the human body is to stay cool and in the shade. Breathe
Thirst Headache Delir
water, which is vital through your nose to reduce water
Discomfort Dizziness Swollen tongue for life. As this water loss, and do not smoke. Do not lie on
Lethargy Dry mouth Twitching is lost from the body
the hot ground. Eat the minimum
through sweating
Impatience Tingling in limbs Deafness amount to keep you alive. Omit fatty
and urination, it
Lack of appetite Blue shade to skin Darkening vision foods from your diet and do not drink
must be replaced. If
Flushed skin Slurred speech Lack of feeling in skin it is not, health alcohol - both require large amounts
problems begin to of water for digestion. Do not wait
Increased pulse Difficulty in breathing Skin starts to shrivel
occur. These become until you have run out of water before
Nausea Inability to walk Inability to swallow
more serious until going to search for more.
Weakness Blurred vision Death they result in death.
 FINDING WATER

COLLECTING WATER
IN A SURVIVAL situation, after finding shelter, the
collection of water is your next most important
can sustain yourself in an emergency by collecting
rain or dew. Water collected from the atmosphere,
task, since without water you cannot survive for or from plants or ground stills, has the enormous
more than a few days. You may not always be advantage over other natural water sources of
fortunate enough to be camped beside a safe, always being pure (seepage 74). Dawn is the best
reliable water supply (see page 40). However, you time for the collection of water.

COLLECTING RAIN

Rock weighs
While you are in camp, you should set out
down center
containers to collect any rain that may fall.
You should also collect the flow from
the roof of your shelter, using Water runs down
improvised guttering to channel the sides into container

rain into containers (see page 53) or

into a pond (seepage 77). Even if Sticks hold
there is a river or stream nearby, edges taut
you should still collect rainwater,
since it will he pure, allowing you to
Rain Collector
dispense with chemical purification or
Any waterproof sheet will
boiling (seepage 75). To collect collect rain, which can be
rainwater, stretch a waterproof sheet channeled into a container. In
tightly over a wide area, preferably on a heavy rain, keep close watch so that
slope. Peg down its corners with sticks and you can quickly change the container
collect the rain in a container. when it gets full.

COLLECTING DEW

As air cools at night, the 1 You can collect

water vapor it contains dew by soaking a
cloth in long, wet
condenses as dew on low-
grass. The best time
lying ground, vegetation,
for collection is
and vehicles. This water
around dawn, since
rapidly evaporates as the dew quickly
sun rises. Many plants, evaporates after
insects, and animals sunrise. Indigenous
depend upon dew to people in arid lands
survive, and humans can regularly use this 2 When the cloth is soaked,
method of obtaining wring it out into a container.
also make use of this
pure water. Repeat.
natural water supply.

DIGGING FOR WATER

Water will often seep into a hole dug Water seeps into
in boggy ground. Dig a hole about hole from WARNING
surrounding soil
1 ft (30 cm) deep. Scoop up the Before you dig a waterhole, note
water that rises in the hole. The
your surroundings. Never dig
water will be silty for the first
where the mud has a potent smell,
few times the hole fills, but
or has green slime on its surface -
clear water will eventually rise
any water there is probably
and can be purified and drunk.
contaminated. Do not collect
Cross-section water where there are dead
Water from Mud shows hole dug animals. Always purify the water
Scoop muddy water from a hole in below where
before drinking it (see page 74).
boggy ground until freshwater rises to water Jills soil
the surface.
 COLLECTING WATER
71

Water From Vegetation

Plants give off water vapor through plastic bag so that the
their leaves. This water can easily be vapor condenses into
collected by enclosing foliage in a
Other methods
droplets on the bag.
You can sometimes collect water
droplets from fog or a heavy ground
mist by laying out a cloth on the
ground, or hanging it up between
trees. In an emergency, you can lay
out a plastic sheet on grass overnight.
As the night air cools, the warm air
from the ground will condense into
water droplets on the underside of the
sheet. Although this method will not
provide much water, it may be enough
1 Dig a shallow crater on a slope, with a 2 Place a large plastic bag over the craters to keep you going until you find a
larger crater outside that forms a channel held up with a stick and weighed down more reliable supply.
to a collection point. The craters should be with stones around the inside. Put green
separated with a raised ridge of earth. leaves and grass inside the central crater. Using a Branch
Tie a plastic bag over a growing branch
Vegetation or a whole plant. Tire water vapor given
should not 3 Close the end of the bag tightly, making sure that
off by the foliage will heat up inside the
touch plastic the vegetation does not touch the plastic. As the
plastic and condense as water on the
vegetation “sweats,” the water vapor given off
inside surface of the bag.
will heat up and condense on the side of the
plastic. It will run down the sides of the
bag into the channel, and then down to
the neck of the funnel. Tip it into a
container when you
have enough.

Extracting Water from Soil

Water can be extracted from soil using surfaces, air between them will heat up
a solar still. As long as there is a and become saturated, condensing as Condensing Seawater
difference in temperature between two droplets on the cooler surface.
Seawater or urine can be condensed
Weigh down
into freshwater by employing the same
plastic with
Constructing a Solar Still principle as the solar still. Put seawater
rocks
Dig a hole about 3ft(l m) wide
in a bowl, with a mug in the center.
and 2ft (60 cm) deep. Put a
Drape a piece of plastic over the bowl
container at the bottom.
and tie it down. Place a stone in the
Spread a plastic sheet across
the hole and hold it in place center so that a cone is formed over
with rocks. Weigh down the the mug. The air under the plastic
cen ter of the sheet over the heats up, and as the seawater warms,
container with a fist-sized rock. it condenses as freshwater on the
As the air in the hole heats up. underside of the sheet.
water vapor will condense on the
Seawater still
underside of the cooler sheet, then
run into the container. This still
works very well in the desert - by
night, as well as by day. At night,
the outside air cools the sheet,
Soil heats
and because the air in the hole is
up and its
warmer, you still get
moisture
condenses condensation on the sheet. Dig
onto plastic another hole when the moisture
in the still has been used up.
 FINDING WATER
72

NATURAL WATER SOURCES

T here are many natural sources of water. For
example, you can obtain water from plants,
their most precious resource. In taking natural water
supplies, you could be destroying a carefully
from the blood and eyes of animals, and from some maintained lifeline, to which the local people may
frogs that retain moisture in their skins while they strongly object. You must therefore be careful not to
hibernate baked in the mud of dried-up waterholes. damage waterholes or wells, and must ensure that
Local people know where to find water, which is you can collect the water so that none is wasted.

EXAMPLES OF WATERBEARING PLANTS

There are many different kinds of plant in order to trap insects for food, while drunk by humans in emergencies.
that store water, either in their roots or others secrete special fluids for their Below are a few examples of plants
in their leaves. Some collect rainwater own use, which can be tapped and around the world that store water.

Acacia Tree (Acacia spp.) Neoregelia

Carrion Flower (Stapelia spp.)
Like some other types of Bromeliads often collect
Like other succulent plants, the
desert tree, the acacia rainwater in their centers,
carrion flower retains water in its
stores water in its roots, just and have edible leaves that
stem. You can also chew the fleshy
below ground surface. can be chewed for water.
leaves to obtain moisture.

This plant catches insects in a watery fluid in

its "pitcher." You can extract the water, but it
must then be strained to remove any insects
(which you can eat).

OTHER SOURCES OF WATER

Many palm trees contain a sugary
liquid that can be drained from
flowering stalks. The roots of desert
plants store water, but are hard to
locate and dig up. Some Australian
and African frogs store water in their
Prickly Pear
bodies when they spend chy seasons
(Opuntia spp.) Barrel Cactus (Ferocactus and Echinocactus spp.)
Some cacti, such as prickly pears, underground. In a dire emergency, These barrel-shaped cacti are the only exception to the ntle
have fleshy leaves that can yield this water can be squeezed out. about not drinking milky plant fluid (see opposite). Tire
moisture when chewed. various species of barrel cactus grow to about 3 ft (1 m).
 NATURAL WATER SOURCES
73

WATER FROM A CACTUS

3 Suck out the juice from the pulp

through a hollow grass stem or
reed. You should only use
cacti for water in an
emergency, since they
are very slow-growing,
and some species could
easily become extinct in
certain areas if overused.

Suck up moisture from

1 To extract moisture from a 2 Mash up the flesh inside the pulp with hollow reed
large barrel cactus, carefully cut cactus with a stick to make a
off the top with a sharp knife or pulp. This will release the
machete, avoiding the spines. moisture from the flesh.

WATER FROM A VINE

WARNING
Milky plant sap is usually
poisonous, as is the fluid from
the giant saguaro cactus
(Carnegiea) of the American
Southwest. Coconut milk and
Waterfloivsfrom lowest
animal fluids contain protein,
cut end of vine
which requires extra water to
be digested by the body. In
addition, thick, rich, mature
coconut milk is a strong
1 Cut through a vine as high as you can 2 Have a container ready. Cut o
the vine at the bottom end and laxative, so it can cause
reach with a large knife or machete. Do not
cut the bottom first, since liquid will flow collect the liquid that flows out. diarrhea. This can result in
upward through capillary action. Cut another vine as needed. weakness and dehydration.

WATER FROM TREE ROOTS

WATER FROM ICE AND SNOW

1 Cut down a
young banana Melting Snow
or plantain tree Use dense snow dug
from as far below the
to about 3 in
surface as possible.
(8 cm) above
Hang it in a cloth
the ground.
over a container close
to a fire and it will
gradually melt. Do
not melt snow in a
pot over a fire, since
any water produced
will be quickly soaked
Melting Ice up by the remaining
Cut trunk to Melt ice slowly on a tilted rock snow and the pan will
just above over a fire. Do not use recently bum. About 16 in
the ground 2 Hollow out the center frozen sea ice, since it contains (41 cm) of compact
of the trunk. Water will salt. Old sea ice, such as Arctic snow yields only
seep into the hollow pack ice, has a blue color and 1 in (2.5 cm) of
from the roots, and can contains much less salt. fresh water.
be scooped out.
 FINDING WATER
74

water Treatment
I n THE WILD, water is seldom pure,
and should always be treated
many areas, even tap water is not pure.
Some people acquire a tolerance for
before being drunk, since it can slightly impure water, but they also
contain harmful microorganisms become used to suffering, as a
that transmit disease. Particles of matter of course, from a wide
silt and other contaminants range of gastroenteritic problems.
should be filtered out. In Western
countries, people assume that Drinking Water
Wild water should he filtered, even if only through a
water is always drinkable, especially sock or handkerchief. It should always he purified, as
if it comes from a tap. However, in well, to eliminate harmful organisms.

METHODS OF TREATING WATER

Except for rain, even the purest-looking wild
water is never just H20, but contains salts, , Make sure
minerals, and harmful organisms. Wild water rubber dropper-
cap is screwed Potassium Tablets
must first be filtered to remove particles, then
on tight Permanganate These chlorine-based
purified to remove harmful organisms by being This is a general- tablets make water taste
boiled for at least five minutes, or treated with purpose chemical for of swimming pools, hut
chemicals. Seawater and urine must never be Iodine sterilizing water. Use they are very safe. Use
drunk in their natural state, but they can be Iodine can be messy to use, enough to stain the one tablet per pint (half¬
distilled in an emergency (see opposite). There and turns water pink. It also water a light pink. liter) of impure water.
are many treatment devices available, gives it a distinctive taste.

most of which filter water, then Impure water is

sucked through bulb
purify it with chemicals.
and passes through
Alternatively, you can use chemicals before
purifying tablets, or boil the Filter fits on top
emerging treated
water after filtering from other hose
of canteen for
it (see opposite). Fitter ltd filtering small
doubles amounts of water
Pump handle
as cup
can be moved
Pump up and down
handle Canteen

Filter parts fit

together on
water bottle

Water is ' Bulb is put

pumped from into
container into impure nisiae 10

collecting bottle water treat

End of hose goes
into impure water water

Built-in Jitter net with

chemicals

Mini Portable Filter Cup Treatment Device Large Water Treatment Device
The end of the hose is put into a container of This treatment device can he stowed in a pocket The bulb is put directly into a stream, and the
impure water. Treated water comes out of the when dismantled. Impure water is poured into end of the other hose is put into a bucket.
spout as the handle is pu mped up and down, the filter, which fits on top of a water bottle. Water from the stream is sucked through the
and can he collected in a container. Treated water drips through into the canteen. device by moving the handle up and down.
 Improvised Water Treatment

Tripod Filter
If you do not have a manufactured Distilling Salty water
Tripod lashed
water treatment device, you can
together with lirine
use a sock to filter wild water In an emergency, yon can
before purifying the water by obtain pure, freshwater from
SALTWATER
boiling (.see opposite). If you impure water, such as
Water is poured STILL
do use a sock, line it with a seawater, by distilling. Boil
into sock
much finer one. fine sand, or the impure water and collect
a handkerchief and after
the steam on a cloth placed
each filtering session, turn the
over the top. Use several
whole thing inside out and
tinse it well. Make a cloths, one after the
tripod to support your other. Lift them off the
filter (see page 119). pot with a stick to avoid
being scalded. When
they have cooled,
Filtered water
wring out the pure
is collected in
billycan water in them. IM

Dangers of Natural Water

When animals drink, they transfer into wide range of industrial chemicals
Signs of Bad water
the water a variety of microorganisms used on the land, as well as
and intestinal parasites harmful to possible soil seepage from human Animal skulls and bones may not always be
humans. Some of these can do a lot of settlements, make it safest to present to indicate bad water. If the water is
damage over a long period of time, assume that all water collected in polluted by chemicals, look for powdeiy
while others can make you the wild must be purified deposits around the edges (or boil a small
ill immediately. Since before being drunk. amount and examine the residue). The
urban dwellers have absence of vegetation,
not acquired a or a lot of green algae
on the surface, also
tolerance to these
indicate that the water
contaminants, Lurking Danger
is unfit to drink.
they are badly Collecting water in
affected by the wild can be Stagnant Pond
them. Although dangerous. If using Cattails and rushes often
waterholes where wild indicate stagnant water,
mountain streams
animals drink, take care which should be avoided.
should be pure, the to avoid predators.

How to Prevent
WATERBORNE DISEASES Waterborne Diseases
Disease Causes Symptoms The only way to avoid
contracting waterborne
Leptospirosis Transmitted to humans from animals Causes influenza-like symptoms (fever, chills, headache, diseases is to purify your
(severe form = infected with Leptospira bacterium muscle pain). More severe forms lead to meningitis, water. If a member of
Weil's disease) (rats, cattle, mice, dogs, pigs). Caught jaundice, kidney failure, hemorrhage, and heart damage. your party becomes ill
through contact with infected animal urine from drinking the water,
or fetal fluids. Enters through skin abrasion segregate him and bis
or lining of mouth, nose, throat, or eyes. nurse. Feed the victim
using separate cups,
Bilharzia Caused by parasitic flatworm in slow- Causes itching, hives, asthmatic attacks, enlargement of the plates, and utensils. You
(schistosomiasis) moving, freshwater streams. Can enter skin liver, and irritation of the urinary tract. should be particularly
directly, lodging in intestine. Also transmitted careful with the victim 5
by parasites in freshwater snails. excreta and soiled
garments, which will
Dysentery Contracted by drinking water contaminated Causes diarrhea with blood and/or mucus, and infection of
contain large quantities
with infected sewage. colon. Complications of infection include hepatitis,
of the organ ism that has
abscess of liver and lungs, and perforation of bowel.
affected him. Take extra
Parasite larvae enter human body in drinking Adult worms lodge in the intestines, causing anemia and care with camp hygiene
Hookworms
lethargy. Larvae in the bloodstream may cause pneumonia. so that no one else in
water or directly through the skin.
the party becomes
Giardiasis Caused by parasite Giardia in water Causes diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Increasingly infected (see page 56).
contaminated with infected urine or feces. prevalent in North America, Africa, and Asia.
 FINDING WATER
76

Carrying and Storing Water

E ven IF YOU are camped right beside
a stream you will need vessels of
option, carrying water will almost certainly be
a daily or twice-daily chore. As you
some sort for containing water. For forage for food, explore, and work,
instance, you may want to keep you will have to carry water with
water handy for use when you because you may not be able
cooking. You may also need a to find it when you need it.
container for scooping water
from a stream. In addition,
Conserving Water
because camping beside a water Water is precious- you should never waste it.
source is not always the most sensible You may not he able to easily reneiv your supply.

WATER CONTAINERS

There are many different kinds of plastic or steel flasks or bottles, to sure that you can tell the difference
container for carrying both hot and collapsible fabric bags that can be between your water containers and
cold liquids. They range from solid folded up when they are empty. Make those in which you carry stove fuel.

Belt Pouch
Plastic Bottle Steel Bottle A belt pouch enables you to carry
Flask
A light, tough plastic bottle This is strong but it water within easy reach while
A metal vacuum flask is Bottle with Cup
is ideal, but it will melt if can be heavy when traveling, but allows you
almost unbreakable and This bottle has a
holds hot or cold liquids. placed too close to a fire. filled with water. to keep your handsfree.
handy plastic cup
as a lid, much like
a vacuum flask.

Carrying water
With water-cariying a daily chore, and the
likelihood in many areas of safe campsites
being some distance from a water source,
Small Water Bag large water containers must be filled and
This can be folded up when not in transported back to camp. It is best to carry
use. Do not lay it on the ground,
the water container on your back, leaving
because it can easily be damaged.
your hands free to
negotiate obstacles. If
you can, use a small
bottle to fill the
container to the very
brim. This prevents
water from sloshing
around, and avoids
wasting water.

Water Carrier
Collapsible Canteen
Large Water Bag Make a frame (see
This is a traditioncd. popidar water
Useful for a large camp, this water bag can page 135) to carr\>
container. Take care that you do
be suspended from a tree in a breeze, a large container.
not break the tab linking the cap to
keeping the contents cool.
the bottle, in case you lose the cap.
 CARRYING AND STORING WATER
77

Bark Water Container

1 You can improvise a water 2 Soak the corners in

/
container from flexible green water to soften Improvised Containers
bark, such as birch. Cut a the bark, then
Bamboo Segment
piece into a gently crease
Bamboo stems consist of hollow
rectangle. the sides,
segments divided by “walls, ” and
Crease sides make excellent water containers.
and cornel's Cut a thick bamboo
to make box stem about 1 in
(2.5 cm) below one
segment ring, and
the same amount
below the next one.
This will leave a
hollow container
with an open end.
Coat container
with tree resin to
waterproof it

Gourds
Gourds and squashes can be
hollowed out and dried for
use as water containers.
Cut the top off
the gourd to get
at the flesh with
a knife, or
scrape the
insides clea
with a long
pointed
3 Make pegs from split twigs bound with 4 When the container has dried in shape,
grass. Glue the sides of the box together remove the pegs and waterproof it with
with pine resin, which can be scraped from pine resin, using a chewed twig as a brush.
tree bark. Peg them until they are dry. Allow the box to dry before using it.

STORING WATER
Wild Water rules
b Always filter and purify water 1 You may have to store water during the rainy
gathered in the wild (see page 74). season to last over the dry months, or because
■ Try to collect enough water to you need more water than you
cater for your needs, as well as a can carry from a water
reserve supply for emergencies, source. Choose a site
when you cannot find fresh water. into which groundwater
■ When it rains, put out as many will flow, for example a
containers as you can, in order to natural hollow, and dig
down to clay or bedrock.
collect as much rainwater as
possible - you never know when
Hold groundsheet in place
you might need it. with large rocks, but take
■ Treat water with respect. Never care not to damage it
waste any of it, even if you have a 2 Line the hole with a groundsheet, or
plaster it with wet clay, smoothing
surplus, since you may one day be
the clay until it makes a
short of water.
watertight surface.
» Never drink untreated urine or
Cover the hole during
seawater. In an emergency, these
the day with a vinyl
can be distilled (see page 75). groundsheet or woven
■ Drink plenty in cold conditions, as vegetation mat (see
well as in hot ones, since they can page 49) to minimize
cause dehydration, and walking in evaporation. Remove
snow or skiing can make you sweat, the cover at night and
a Do not eat food if you have an when it rains so that
inadequate water supply, since rain and dew will fall in
water is needed for digestion. the pond. Collect the water
regularly, before it evaporates.
 Chapter Five

Finding and
Preparing
food
Away from refrigerators, stoves, and all the
equipment of a modern kitchen, a very different,
simple approach is required to food gathering, storage,
and cooking. Away from the familiar diet of home, it is
essential to understand what foods your body needs, in
what quantities (see page 14), and where those foods
may be found. A full range of vitamins and minerals is
difficult to obtain in the wild. Meat and fish would
provide virtually everything you need, ffowever,
although it may be relatively simple to gather plants,
invertebrates, and even fish, it is far more difficult to
hunt animals for meat, and the energy you expend in
hunting makes it inadvisable in a survival situation,
unless you are an experienced hunter. Most food items
are best eaten immediately, before heat, insects, or
bacteria can spoil them. If you have to spend a long
time in one place, however, it is necessary to build up
a surplus of food and preserve it for times when food
is scarce.

NATURAL SUSTENANCE
We can lake a variety of prepared foods with us into the
wilderness, yet, if we are in a survived situation without these
items, lie need not starve. The wilderness is full of natural foods,
ranging from plants to insects. Although they may he unfamiliar to
your palate, one day they could save your life.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
80

Food for Traveling

OOD CAN BE TAKEN on backpacking trips in cans, regions you would have to carry water specially for
dehydrated in foil bags, or in its natural state, in this purpose. The temptation to eat dehydrated food
some sort of container. Canned foods are cooked without leaving it for a long enough period to soak
and ready to eat (hot or cold), but heavy to carry. up water must be resisted. It will absorb water from
Dehydrated foods are much lighter, but require your body and may cause uncomfortable and even
large amounts of water for rehydration, and in some dangerous intestinal blockages.

High-calorie Foods
Sweet foods provide little
nutritional value, but
they are a welcome
dietary variation to
more useful items.
Mountaineers and
polar explorers often rely
on hard candies to help
provide the large amount
of calories necessary for CHOCOLATE Dehydrated STRAWBERRY FRl 'IT-FLAVORED
survival (.see page 15). CUSTARD POWDER ICE CREAM PUDDING MIX HARD CANDIES

Breakfast Foods
Breakfast foods are vital
for eneigy at the start of
the day. Cereals such a
oats atid muesli can
also provide roughage
(fiber), which prevents
the digestive tract from
clogging up. Dried fruit
contains fiber, and trail
mix contains a wide range
of nutritious morsels.
Trail mix Muesli Dried fruits Oats

Rice and Legumes

Rice provides necessary
carbohydrates, but can
be difficult to cook on
a camp stove, and
uses a lot of fuel.
Legumes provide fiber
and protein. They must
be well soaked before
cooking, particularly
kidney beans. Follow the
manufacturer's instructions.
RICE Lentils Kidney beans Dried peas

Trail Snacks
To maintain energy,
it is best to nibble mm
constantly during the
day to keep hunger
sf. .
pangs at bay, and to
.
'V.
have a big meal at
night, which you can Custard cookie
digest thoroughly while
sleeping. Trail snacks
include candies,
chocolate, cookies, and
crackers, all of which
provide energy and
carbohydrates. Chocolate cookie
 FOOD FOR TRAVELING
81
wm
----

Beverages
Beverages are luxuries
with little nutritional
value. However, they
provide warmth and
comfort. Dried milk can
be a source of calcium,
as well as making drinks
tasty. Hot chocolate is a
delicious drink on a
cold evening.
Coffee Tea Hot chocolate Dried milk

Main Meals
Freeze-drying is a
method of dehydration
that leaves the structure
and texture of foods,
particularly fruits,
intact. Dehydrated food
is lightweight and easy
to cany, but must be
soaked in water before
being cooked.
SOYA MEAL Freeze-dried meal Dehydrated meal VEGETARIAN DRIED MEAL

Mixers
Flour and salt are the
basic staples, from which
a wide variety of dishes
can be prepared (see
page 117). Suet
can be invaluable if you
cannot obtain necessary
fats from your food.
Sugar can help to make
wild food pleasant. Flour

Flavorings
Anything that enlivens
camping food is worth
carrying, especially if
you are going to rely on
wild food (see page 93).
Curry powder adds a
distinctive flavor to food,
as do garlic cloves,
onions, spices, ketchup,
and sauces. Gravy cubes Onion sauce Sour Ketchup

Meat and Fish

Although red meat and fish provide necessary protein, all
kinds of meat are difficult to keep fresh. It is therefore best
to carry cans or preserved products. Once cans have been
opened their contents must be consumed immediately,
so always buy cans that are not too large to empty in one
meal. Canned foods can, however, be heavy to carry in a
backpack. Preserved meats, such as salami, are more
lightweight, but their variety is often limited. You can
preserve your own meat or fish in several ways (seepage
118). An alternative to canned or preserved meats is a
selection of complete meals prepared with soya protein or
tofu, as well as pasta and vegetables. Salami
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
82

EDIBLE PLANTS
U NLESS YOU ARE in the middle of an add desert,
there will always be plants, and many will be
barbs, which irritate the mouth and throat, or
poisonous seeds. Furthermore, at different times of
edible and nourishing. The problem is knowing the year, some plants become less edible — and
which ones are nutritious, while avoiding the ones even poisonous. Others are edible but only mildly
that are poisonous or could make you ill. Some nourishing - collecting and eating them uses more
otherwise nourishing plants have line hairs and calories than they actually provide.

The Edibility Test Temperate plants

In an emergency, you can rule out Avoid old plants, shoots, and leaves, far more goodness, and may be edible
many harmful plants with these simple which are fibrous and tough, and may without cooking. Below are a few
tests. Any plant with white sap is taste unpleasant. Young shoots contain examples of temperate edible plants.
probably poisonous. Keep sketches
in your notebook of tested plants. Wall Pepper (Sedum)
Wall pepper grows on
rocks, walls, and shingle
1 Break open or crush a in temperate regions. It
leaf of the plant and sniff. has a sharp, peppery
Reject any plant that taste. Its leaves can he
smells bad, or of eaten raw as a salad
peaches or almonds. vegetable, or cooked anil
used as a tasty flavoring
for soups.

Sea Kale (Cramhe) Slimmer Purslane

Sea Kale grows on (Portulaca)
temperate seashores. Summer purslane grows
2 Gently rub juice Its thick, leaves and in temperate salt
from the sample on undergrou nd stems marshes below the high-
the sensitive skin can be hoilecl and tide mark. The leaves
eaten, and taste a ca n he picked at any
inside of your
bit like cabbage. time of the year. Simmer
elbow. Wait 20
them in water, and
minutes, and check
flavour with lemon juice.
that there is no
Eat purslane with other
stinging sensation,
plants or foods, since-
and that no irritation eating a lot of one thing
or rash develops. can lead to
malnourishment.

3 Place a small piece on your

lips for five seconds, then
wait 20 minutes. If there is
o burning, stinging, or
numbness, then repeat Other
in the corner of your
Temperate Plants
mouth, on the tip of
Bistort
your tongue, then Seaweeds such as laver (Porphyria) can he
(Polygonum)
under your tongue. boiled, baked, or dried. Carrageen
This plant is found
all over Europe, with seaweed produces a kind of gelatin (see
related species in page 93). Dandelion (Taraxacum) leaves
4 If there are no
Norfb America. It and dock (Rutnex) leaves can be used like
unpleasent sensations grows up to 60 cm spinach. The young leaves and leaf stents
under your tongue, (2ft) tall in grassy Wintercress of ground elder (Aegopotlium) can he
swallow a small piece areas or woods. (Barbareu)
eaten when the shoots are about 15 cm
and wait for five The leaves and Tins plant grows
hours. Consume (6 in) high. Wild garlic, such as ramsons
shoots can be boiled in Europe, North
nothing else. If you and eaten. The roots America, and New
(Allium), can be used as flavoring.
have no unpleasant are also edible if Zealand. The leaves
reactions, you can soaked in water and can be eaten raw
eat the plant. then roasted. or boiled.
 EDIBLE PLANTS
83

Tropical plants
Many kinds of plants flourish in the year. There are a great many different plants before you eat them. Below are
warmth and humidity of the tropics. In varieties, with particularly nourishing just a few common varieties found in
the absence of seasons, they grow all fruits and vegetables. Test unfamiliar tropical areas.

Palms
The young shoots of
palms such as the
coconut palm
(Cocos), the sugar
palm (Arenga), and
the sago palm
(Metroxylon) are all
edible. The sago
palm also has
starchy pith inside its
trunk that can be
Bamboo (Pseudosasa) boiled like rice into
Cut young bamboo stems from the sago pudding. Not
base of the plant: split the husk with a all palms are edible, Palm Heart
knife. The. tender flesh inside can he however, so you The growing tip, or heart, of some
cooked in water like asparagus. You should learn to palms can he eaten, either raw or
can also eat the seeds. identify safe ones. cooked. Do not eat palm fruit
unless you can identify it.

Amaranthus
(Amaranthus) OTHER TROPICAL PLANTS
This plant can grow
up to 3ft < 1 m) high. Plant species vary from region to
Cut the leaves and region, and there are hundreds that
stems into pieces are edible. Many bear delicious fruit,
and boil them in
although you will be unable to reach
salted water like
it if it grows high in the canopy of a
spinach. Young
tropical forest. Plants that can be
shoots can be eaten
raw in salads. reached include Ceylon spinach
(Basella), whose stems and leaves are
rich in vitamins, and sugarcane
(Saccharum), the stems of which can
be chewed raw.

Trees

Most trees produce fruit, berries, and tender buds, shoots, and inner bark of needles of some evergreen trees are
nuts of some kind, all of which can be many trees are also edible, and some rich in vitamin C, and can be steeped
highly nutritious (see page 88J. The trees have sap that can be drunk. The in hot water to make tea (see page 93)

Spruce (Picea)
The inner bark of the Other Trees
spruce is rich in
vitamin C. It is best The young needles of the pine
taken front the (Pinus) taste good and can be
bottom of the trunk, made into tea (seepage 93>-
near the roots. Peel The inner bark of aspen
back, the outer bark (Populus) is vety nutritious,
and boil the inner while birch (Betula) has
bark until it is soft
delicious sap. Collect sap by
before eating it. The
cutting a V in the bark, but do
needles can be used
not damage more than a
to make a refreshing
drink (see page 93). Maple (Acer) quarter of the tree’s girth.
The maple has sugary sap that can Other edible trees include the
he collected from natural wounds, carob (Ceratonia) and the
or tapped from a slit in the bark. The tamarind (Tamarindus), both
sap can then be boiled until it of which have pulpy pods.
thickens into a high-energy syrup.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
84

POISONOUS PLANTS
T he number of poisonous plants is very much
less than the number of edible ones, particularly
Some poisonous plants resemble edible ones, so the
only way to avoid disaster is to learn what each
in temperate regions. Some are poisonous on poisonous plant looks like. Always exercise extreme
contact, causing rashes and severe irritation (see caution when tasting plants (seepage 82),
page 181). Others are toxic when eaten, and can particularly in a survival situation, when medical
cause vomiting, diarrhea, and sometimes death. help is not readily available.

Temperate plants

The leaves and stems of some plants against some of them can induce them edible plants in temperate regions than
are poisonous, as well as some to release their poison from stinging poisonous ones, but the toxic plants
flowers, roots, and sap. Even brushing hairs or pores. There are far more can sometimes be deadly.

Foxglove
(Digitalis)
Other Temperate plants
All parts of the
One of the deadliest temperate
foxglove contain
plants is the purple-flowered
digitalis, a highly
monkshood (Aconitum), which
toxic heart
stimulant. The grows in damp woods. Deadly
plant grows to a hemlock (Conium) and cowbane
height of 5 ft (Cicuta) can be recognized by their
< 1.5 in), and can white flowers, which are carried
have distinctive Lupine (Lupinus) like an umbrella. Avoid all
ptuple, pink, This plant grows in North America. umbelliferous plants, since most of
yellow, or white, Europe, and Asia. All parts can cause them are poisonous. Poison oak
hell-like foil <ers. fatal inflammation of the stomach and and poison sumac (Toxicodendron)
intestines. The plant has purple, pink, both cause irritation after contact.
white, or yellow flowers.

Poison Ivy
(Toxicodendron)
Poison ivy is found
in woods in North
America. It can be
trailing or upright,
like ordinary ivy.
but may be
distinguished by its
greenish flowers
and white berries.
It causes a burning
Castor Bean Plant (Ricinus) rash after it
Although this plant is native to tropica! touches skin.
regions, it has been introduced into
temperate areas. It is often cultivated
for the purgative oil released from its Buttercup
crushed seeds. In the wild, however, (Ranunculus)
the seeds can be fatal if ingested, All members of this
genus cause severe
and painful
inflammation of the
WARNING
intestines if eaten.
Many common poisonous plants in They are found almost
temperate regions resemble edible worldwide, and all.
ones, so unless you are certain of species have at least
Death Camas (Zigadenus)
five glossy, yellow,
correct identification, you should The lethal bulb of the death carnas can be
overlapping petals.
avoid eating them. Even a confused with a wild onion (see page
mouthful of some, such as the 86). The plant has long leaves and white
cowbane, can cause paralysis and flowers, and grows up to 2 ft (60 cm)
high. It is commonly found in wooded
death in minutes.
and grassy areas of North America.
 POISONOUS PLANTS
85

Tropical Plants

Tropical plants are so varied and identify. If you do need to consider only eat very small amounts. Below
plentiful that, for your own safety, you eating unfamiliar species, always apply are a few examples of poisonous
should stick only to the ones you can the edibility test first (seepage 82), and plants found in tropical areas.

Sapium
insigne Other Tropical Plants
The sap of this
plant is milky The nettle tree (Laportea) grows
and highly near water throughout the tropics.
toxic. Do not It causes burning rashes when
get it on your touched, and has poisonous seeds.
skin, or it will The beachapple (Hippomane) has
cause blisters.
toxic fruit and sap. The cowhage
Avoid ait plants
(Mucuna) grows in woodland and
with milky sap,
scrub, and its pods and flowers
since they are
likely to he irritate the skin if touched. If they
Jatropha glandulosa
Several species of tropical plant in the Jatropha poisonous. come into contact with the eyes,
genus have poisonous leaves, seeds, sap. or these parts can cause blindness.
fruit. The seeds are violently purgative.

Jatropha
Jatropha
podagrica
integerrima
This plant has a
This plant is found in
turniplike base, but
wooded areas
all parts of it are
throughout the tropics.
highly poisonous. All parts of it can cause
The only way to
inflammation of the
identify unfamiliar
intestines, along with
plants is to learn
diarrhea and vomiting.
them from a
Tloese conditions can
reliable source,
lead to dehydration
such as a local (see page 181), which
guidebook, or from could endanger your
the people who live life in a su rvival
in the area. situation if you are
unable to find prompt
medical help.

Trees

There is no set rule for identifying be eaten, while other parts may be trees, since seeds and fruit from some
which trees are poisonous and which poisonous. You should be particularly can be lethal, while sap from others
are safe to eat. Parts of some trees can careful when dealing with tropical can blister skin and cause blindness.

Blinding Mangrove
(Excoecaria) Other Trees
This small tree is found
in mangrove swamps Tire seed pods of the
and estuaries in laburnum tree (Laburnum)
A i tstralasia, sot it beast are deadly, as are the berries
Asia, and tropical of the yew (Ta.xus). The black
Africa. You should locust (Robinia) of North
avoid it whenever America contains poisonous
possible, since its sap substances in its bark, flowers,-
can blister the skin and seedpods. The rhengas
and cause blindness if
tree (Gluta) of southeast Asia
it gets into your eyes.
has irritant sap, while the sap
of the sandbox tree (Hua) of
California Laurel (Umbellularia) South America can cause
California laurel grows in North
blindness. Avoid eating parts
America. Its tough, oval, evergreen
of any tree unless you can
leaves smell strongly aromatic and
positively identify it.
are poisonous. It has yellow flowers
and green or purple berries.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
86

roots, Tubers, and Bulbs

T he roots, tubers, or bulbs of some plants are
rich in vitamins and high in starch, and can be
fire (seepage 116). The skins of many roots are rich
in vitamins and minerals, so avoid peeling the roots
eaten in a survival situation. Some are harmful if if the skins are in good condition. Bear in mind,
eaten raw, so it is best to always cook them before however, that some roots such as those of comfrey
eating them. Scrub the roots first, then boil or must be peeled to eliminate harmful substances.
parboil them before roasting them on a spit over a Learn a few edible roots and disregard the rest.

_EDIBLE ROOTS_

The only way to determine whether a regions often look alike, or have of the deadly death camas resembles a
root or bulb is edible and safe to eat is similar bulbs, so never just assume that harmless onion (see page 84). Almost
to learn to recognize the plant that because a root or bulb looks familiar, all bulbs and roots should be cooked
grows from it. Plants in different it is safe to eat - for example, the bulb thoroughly before being eaten.

Water Lily
(Nymphaea)
The water lily has
heart-shaped,
floating leaves, and
grows in tropical
and temperate
freshwater almost
worldwide. Its seeds,
tuber, and stem are
all edible, although
the seeds are
somewhat bitter.

Sweet Flag
(Acorus)
The distinctive sweet
flag can grow to a
Salsify (Tragopogon)
height of 4 ft (1.3 m),
Salsify is 2-3 ft (60-90 cm) high and
and is only found
grows in dry waste areas. It has
beside freshwater. Its
purple, dandelion-like flowers. Its
rootstock is strongly
long leaves and parsniplike tuber are
aromatic and can be
edible, and it is often cultivated.
eaten. It should first be
sliced, then boiled
OTHER EDIBLE ROOTS down to a syrup
before being eaten.
The roots of dandelion
(Taraxacum), galingale
(Cyperus), and some other
plants can be roasted to make
a coffee substitute. The Peanut
rootstock of other plants, for (Arachis)
example the wild calla, or bog Despite its name,
the peanut does not
arum (Calla), can be ground
bear true nuts. Its
to a powder and used as flour
“nuts"are really
(see page 92). The roots of seedpods and grow
sweet vetch (Astralagus) can underground,
be eaten raw or cooked, as Arrowhead (Sagittaria) attached to stems.
can the tubers of the Jerusalem Arrowhead can be found near freshwater. The peanut plant is
artichoke (Helianthus), which It grows up to 3 ft (1 m) high and has small and bushy,
grows wild in North America. arrow-shaped, erect leaves and small, with stubby, oval
three-petaled flowers. Its tubers are edible leaves and flat,
raw, but are better cooked. yellow flowers.
 ROOTS, TUBERS, AND BULBS
87

POISONOUS ROOTS
Generally speaking, if a plant’s roots example of this - even handling the cooked, and may be lethally poisonous
are poisonous, its leaves, stem, flowers, plant can result in blistered skin. if eaten raw. Always take great care.
and sap usually are, as well. The lesser However, there are exceptions to this Unless you can be certain of correctly
celandine, or pilewort, is a good rule. Some roots are only edible if identifying a plant, do not eat it.

Bog At~utn (Calla)

Also known as the
wild calla, the bog
arum has a very
distinctive flower
spike inside a hood.
It grows beside
freshwater. The roots
can be eaten or
ground up to make
Jlourisee page 92),
Manioc (Manihot)
but they must be
The tubers of the manioc, or cassava,
cooked first, since
are lethal if eaten raw. They must be
they are poisonous if
soaked for 48 hours, then cooked
eaten raw. All other
thoroughly before being eaten.
parts of the plant are
poisonous, and
should be avoided.
WARNING
Since it is so difficult to
distinguish poisonous roots from
edible ones - unless the plant is
very distinctive - it is best to
avoid eating any roots. As long
Daffodil (Narcissus)
as you can positively identify a It is easy to recognize the daffodil by its
handful of species, just stick to familiar flower. If there is no flower, leave
those and ignore all the rest. the plant alone.

Wild Yam (Dioscorea)

Although some species of
wild yam are cultivated for
food in tropical areas, a
few are poisonous unless
they are peeled and cooked.
Unless you can identify safe Taro (Colocasia)
varieties, therefore, it is best Taro grows on wet ground throughout tropical regions.
always to peel and cook all The plant reaches a height of 5 ft (1.5 m), and has long,
wild yams. They have large green, wedge-shaped leaves, and a yellow-orange Jlower.
leaves and often grow Its tubers are poisonous if eaten raw, but they can be
around tree trunks. consumed after being cooked, and taste a bit like potatoes.

OTHER POISONOUS ROOTS

The tubers of the wild potato
(Solanum) can be eaten, but must
always be cooked first. Its tomato¬
like fruits, however, are
poisonous. The wild tomato
(Lycopersicon), which is edible,
looks so similar to the potato
plant that it is best to avoid both.
The death camas (Zigadenus) has
a bulb that looks like an onion,
but it is lethal (see page 84). The
Swallow-wort (Vincetoxicum ) Starflower (Ornithogalum)
tubers’ and roots of the lesser
This has sharply pointed, heart-shaped leaves and This temperate plant grows up to 7 ft
celandine (Ranunculus) and the
small, yellowish white flowers. If ingested, its roots and (30 cm) tall. Its bulbs can be eaten as long
cowbane (Cicuta) are also deadly. seed pods cause vomiting and water loss, and its milky as they are cooked first, but the rest of the
sap is also toxic. It is common in temperate regions. plant should be avoided.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
88

NUTS AND FRUIT

B OTH NUTS AND fruit provide possibly the most
important source of survival food. In temperate
mind that, in gathering fruit and nuts, you are
competing with birds and animals, particularly when
regions, wild fruits appear from midsummer it comes to collecting nuts, which some animals
onward, with nuts coming later and in the autumn. gather as their prime source of winter nourishment.
Most wild fruits are hard to store, unless you make Do not bother with any fruit or nuts that are over¬
jelly or dry suitable species (seepage 118). Bear in ripe or moldy, since they may make you ill.

EDIBLE NUTS

Nuts provide both protein and fat. store it for use in cooking. Boil the ground into flour (seepage 92). Nuts
With particularly oily nuts, such as nuts gently in water, then skim the oil are the easiest wild food to store, and
beech, you can separate their oil and from the surface. The nuts can then be are very good to eat while traveling.

Hazel (Corylus)
Hazelnuts grow on tall
shrubs and trees in
temperate areas, and have
serrated, heart-shaped
leaves and brownish
yellow catkins. The nuts
come in baity husks.

OTHER EDIBLE NUTS

Pecans (Carya) are fairly

common in wet areas
throughout North America.
They contain more fat than
Walnut (Juglans)
any other nut, vegetable,
Walnut trees grow in temperate
or fruit. Macadamia nuts Chestnut (Castanea)
areas. They have distinctive
(Macadamia) from Chestnut trees have long, serrated
gnarled hark. The nuts have a
Australia are also good to leaves and spiky husks, inside
green, pulpy busk, which rots
Pistachio (Ptstacia) which the nuts develop. To eat the
away after falling from the tree. eat. Pine nuts ('Pinus) are
Pistachios grow in Europe, Asia, nuts, you must fits! peeI them,
The nuts are high in calories. edible, although they taste
and Australia. 'Their nuts can be then boil and mash them, or
better roasted than raw.
eaten raw or roasted. roast them over a fire.

poisonous Nuts

Nuts must be tasted carefully, using the some can be dangerous unless they are uncharacteristic sweet, almondlike
edibility test (seepage 82). Although cooked, while others may make you ill smell, discard it, since it may contain
there are few really poisonous nuts, if they are moldy. If any nut has an irritating prussic acid.

Horse Chestnut
(Aesculus) OTHER
The horse chestnut, which
grows in temperate POISONOUS NUTS
regions, has large,
handlike leaves, pale Although they are edible,
Jtowers, and sticky buds. It almonds (Primus) can
can grow up to 100ft contain prussic acid, and
(30 m) in some areas. Its taste bitter as a result.
poisonous seedcases are
Acorns, from oak trees
less heavily prickled than
Cashew (Anacardium) (Quercus), are also edible,
those of the chestnut, and
The nuts of the cashew are poisonous but they must be boiled, or
the nuts inside the husks
("buckeyes") are much u nless peeled and boiled. Take great steeped in cold water for
larger than those of the care when they are cooking, since the several hours, then roasted,
edible chestnut. fumes can cause blindness. The to remove their bitter taste.
cashew grows in tropica! areas.
 NUTS AND FRUIT
89

Edible Fruit
Edible fruits contain a great many mammals use fruits as a major food can benefit from this by eating any
essential nutrients, including sugars source and will compete with you. nutritious larvae you find inside. Do
and vitamins A, B>, and C. Birds and Insects may also attack fruit, but you not eat too much of any fruit.

Passionfruit
(Passiflora)
We passionfruit has
long, vinelike stems,
trilobed leaves, tendrils,
and white and purple
flowers. It grows in
tropical areas,
particularly in South
America. The edible
purple fruits are egg-
shaped and juicy.

OTHER EDIBLE FRUIT

Wild grapes (Vitis) are

common in warm parts of
the world. Their leaves can
be boiled and eaten, as well.
Cloudberry (Rubus) Various species of the wild Juniper (Junipems)
The cloudberry grows in Juniper grows in northern temperate
strawberry (Fragaria) hide
northern-temperate and mountains in the form of large
away in woodland and dry,
arctic regions. The shrubs or small. Compact bushes. In
grassy areas. They are rich
bramblelike plant grows to some parts of North America, they
in vitamin C, very sweet, Cranberty (Vaccinium)
about 1 ft (30 cm) tall, and are known as "Oregon grapes." We
and delicious. This grows in northern temperate
has white flowers and fruit mature indigo berries can be eaten,
that resemble raspberries. moorlands, tundra, and woods.
but they are a little bitter.

Poisonous Fruit

Because fruits are designed to attract feces), many poisonous berries the wilderness on natural foods. As
mammals and birds (which, having resemble edible ones. This can be a with leaves and fungi, learn a few
eaten, then spread the seeds in their hazard if you are trying to survive in edible kinds and avoid the rest.

Sorbtis
Although the fruit of
some Sorbus species
is edible, in general,
white berries are
poisonous. Do not
risk, eating any
berries of th is color.
Other plants with
poisonous white
Duchesnea
berries include the
The fruits o/'Duchesnea, also known as "mock
baneberry and some
strawberries, "can be fatal. The plant grows in
kinds of nightshade.
parts of Asia and North America.

OTHER POISONOUS FRUIT

There are many poisonous fruits, particularly in warm regions. Some of these are only
mildly poisonous and can result in diarrhea or nausea if ingested in quantity. Others are ‘
highly toxic and only a small amount can be fatal if eaten. In a survival situation, the risks
are greatly increased, especially if you are in a weakened statu. Some common poisonous
fruits include the purple berries of the deadly nightshade (Atropha), which are lethal if
Virginia Creeper < Parthenocissus)
ingested. The cuckoopint (Arum) has red berries that can cause severe digestive upset if
The dark blue or purple berries of this
eaten. The baneberry (Actaea) has white or black berries that can cause vomiting and
temperate plant resemble grapes. No blue
internal irritation. The tropical strychnine tree (Sttychnos) has orangelike fruits with
or purple berries of a vinelike plant with
tendrils are edible. deadly seeds. The fruits of the crabapple (Malus) can cause diarrhea if eaten in quantity.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
90

Fungi & Lichen

OR MANY PEOPLE around the world, gathering foods. Some fungi are lethal, but may very closely
fungi and lichen is a regular activity. Apart from resemble edible varieties. Even experienced fungi
being absolutely delicious, dew-fresh fungi contain gatherers can make mistakes - sometimes what is
minerals and some protein, and provide the staple safe to eat in one country looks almost the same as
of many national dishes. However, great caution a poisonous variety of another country. Only eat
must be exercised when gathering and eating these fungi if you are certain of correct identification.

EDIBLE FUNGI

There is no logical way to identify just one or two edible varieties, with the deadly ones. Reject all but healthy,

edible fungi. Go gathering only with special reference to their habitats. Also unmarked examples. Below are just a

experts, and train yourself to identify learn poisonous varieties, particularly few examples of edible fungi.

Puffball (Calvatia utriformis)

Found in summer and autumn, among fields
and meadows, the puffball is best if eaten
when voung and its flesh is white.

Morel (Morchella spp.) Cauliflower Fungus (Sparassis crispa)

This white mushroom is found in This fungus is found in autumn in coniferous woodland,
spring on sandy and sand-clay growing around the bases of trees and on their roots. Its
soils, under trees or in the open. flesh has the scent of anise and the flavor of walnut.

OTHER EDIBLE FUNGI

The Boletus varieties have a traditional
mushroom shape, but have pores
underneath, rather than gills. They are
generally delicious. A few species are Orange Peel Fungus (Aleuria aurantiai
moderately poisonous, but these can be This fungus needs sunlight to grow, and is
distinguished from the edible ones found in bare patches of woodland and in
grassy areas in autumn. Despite being good
because they taste unpleasant raw, and
to eat, its flesh has no striking flavor or scent.
have reddish or orange pores and stems.
Select only mushrooms with yellow- or
cream-colored pores. Shelf fungi, which
grow on the sides of trees, are generally
safe to eat, but some varieties are tough
and tasteless. All wild fungi must be
cooked before eating, in order to help
destroy mildly toxic compounds.
Remember, however, that cooking will
not make poisonous varieties safe to eat.
Fungi differ slightly worldwide, and you
Hen-of-the-woods (Grifola frondosa) Beefsteak Fungus (Fistulina hepatica)
should learn the ones in your area or in Found from spring to autumn, this bracket This fungus is found on oak trees in autumn.
the place to which you are traveling. fungus grows on deciduous trees. It has a Its red flesh tastes bitter when raw, so it must
mushroom odor and a sweet flavor. be soaked, then stewed before being eaten.
 FUNGI AND LICHEN
91

Poisonous Fungi
There are no features that characterize other kinds look completely different. Unless you can positively identify a
all poisonous fungi. Amanitas are Worse, some poisonous ones resemble fungus as an edible variety, leave it
among the most poisonous, and are edible mushrooms in other countries. alone. Below are a few of the most
perhaps the easiest to identify, hut The signs of fungus poisoning vary. poisonous species of mushroom.

WARNING
Although the Amanita fungi
contain the most deadly of all
mushrooms, not all poisonous
fungi look like them. You should
always rely.on making a positive
identification of an edible variety,
rejecting all others, unless you
are certain that they are safe.

Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)

The most deadly poisonous of all the death
cap is found in woodlands, under beech or
oak trees. It has an olive-greeti cap. a pale
stern, white gills and flesh, and a large volva.

OTHER POISONOUS FUNGI

Some poisonous varieties of fungi

Panther Cap (Amanita pantherina) Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria muscaria) often appear identical to edible ones
This fungus is often deadly. Found in Tlois easily recognizable mushroom is found in in other areas. For example, while
beech woods, it has a brown, white- autumn, particularly in beech and pine woods. It has many of the Agaricus species can be
flecked cap, white.gills, and two or a bright red cap flecked with white. eaten, the yellow-staining mushroom
three rings around its stem. (Agaricus xanthodennus) is very
Destroying Angel poisonous. It can be recognized by its
(Amanita virosa)
RECOGNIZING strong smell of iodine, and the yellow
Deadly poisonous,
bruise that forms when it is touched.
this fungus is found
POISONOUS FUNGI Other poisonous varieties of fungi
during summer and
autumn in woods. include the fool's mushroom (Amanita
Poisonous Amanita mushrooms are
Its white flesh smells vema), which is white and found in
fairly easy to identify. They all have a
sweet and sickly. sandy soil under broad-leaved trees;
volva, or cup, at the base of the stem,
Young specimens can and several Cortinarius species, some
white gills, and rings around the stalk.
look like an edible of which are deadly.
Agaricus mushroom.
Warts

edible Lichen

Lichen are usually found growing on but they must all be soaked in water
rocks, often in northern or arctic overnight and boiled well to remove
regions. There are no poisonous kinds, irritating acid, before being eaten.

Reindeer Moss
(Cladonia
Amanita rangiferina)
This North This hardy plant
American type grows in arctic
of fly agaric regions, and is
is found in named for its
coniferous resemblance to
forests. If it reindeer antlers.
is eaten, it Before being eaten,
causes deep reindeer moss must
sleep and be soaked in water Rock Tripe (Umbillicaria spp.)
hallucinations, ff... Jf for several hours, This nutritious lichen grows in northern
then boiled well to temperate and arctic regions. It must first
make it digestible. he soaked, then boiled before being eaten.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
92

PLANTS AS FOOD
G athering plant foods is not just a matter of
foraging for anything that seems edible. You
of including something inedible or poisonous (see
page 84). When gathering plants, make sure you
must collect enough of one or more species to leave enough of each species to allow regeneration,
make a meal, or part of a meal. Restricting yourself thereby providing another meal. Crushed plants
to gathering only a few species lessens the chances spoil very quickly, so carry them in a box or bag.

DIGGING FOR ROOTS

Some plants store starch in their roots sugar, which feeds the new shoots. care when gathering roots in spring,

for use in the following growing Roots are thus most nutritious in however, since some plants may be

season. In the spring this turns to autumn, and sweetest in spring. Take hard to identify at this time.

Dig to one side of

plant, loosening
Preparing roots
earth around
You should prepare and cook
the root
roots as soon as possible after
gathering them, to prevent
them from spoiling. Roots
should be carefully cleaned
but not peeled, since the skin
Sharpen end of often contains valuable
stick to chisel vitamins. Cut the roots into
shape chunks and boil them in
water. This removes the bitter
chemicals present in some

1 Cut a strong stick from a hardwood such 2 Dig deeply to the roots. The chunks are cooked
as hickory, and sharpen one end to a side of the plant. Loosen when they are soft enough for
chisel shape. The end can be hardened in the earth around the root you to be able to insert a fork
a fire for even more strength. until it can be removed into them.
in one piece.

MAKING FLOUR
Most seeds cannot be properly stews or mix it with a little water to 117). You can also make flour from
digested unless they are first ground make dough, which can then be baked many nuts (see page 88), as well as
into flour. You can add the flour to into pastry or damper bread (see page from roots and flower heads.

Grind seeds
between
smooth stones

Toss seeds to
separate them
from the husks

1 To make flour from seeds, begin by 2 Thresh the seeds by rubbing them to 3 Grind the seeds by rubbing them
bending the plant’s seed head into a bag. loosen the husks. Then winnow by tossing between a large stone with a depression in
Either shake the head to dislodge the and shaking in a container. Being lighter, the center, and a smooth stone. Use a
seeds, or pull off the seeds with your hand. the husks (chaff) will separate from the steady, circular motion. Take care that the
Lay the seeds in the sun to dry. seeds, and be blown out of the container. resulting flour does not blow away.
 PLANTS AS FOOD
93

Using Seaweed

Carrageen seaweed (Chondrus) can be iodine, minerals, and vitamins A and B. boil and eat the leaves of laver
eaten fresh, dried, or cooked into a It is found on lower-shore rocks in (Porphyria), sea lettuce (Ulva), and
gelatin-like pudding. It is rich in spring and early summer. You can also various kelps (Alaria).
Dry seaweed on
4 Pick out the seaweed
and sweeten the
mixture with berr'^
or sugar.

5 As the
mixture
cools, it
will set,
and can be
spooned out
of the pot.
1 Gather the seaweed by cutting it from Take care not to eat
the rocks with your knife. Lay it in the sun it until it is completely cold, or
to dry. As they dry, the strands will grow you may burn your mouth.
paler and become leathery.

Making Drinks
Natural flavorings
Needles from evergreen trees such as only fresh green needles with no
Wild plant foods are often rather bland
pine (Pinus) and spruce fPicea) are discoloration. A substitute for coffee
in taste, and you may want to liven
rich in vitamins A and C and can be can be made from chicory leaves
them up a bit with spices and
used to make tea. You should collect (Chicorium) or acorns (Quercus).
seasonings. Prepared spices such as
X-i-7 curry powder, cinnamon, and cloves,
\ 2 Drop the carried in your backpack, can be
needles into added to dishes as required.
boiling water. Alternatively, you can collect spices
Keep the pot and flavorings in their wild state and
hot but not
dry them for use later on. An example
simmering, and
of a spice that you may find growing
let the needles
wild is nutmeg, the kernel of a fruit
infuse for
from an evergreen (Myristica) native
1 To make tea from evergreen between 5 and
to the east Indonesian islands. After
needles, gather two teaspoons per cup 10 minutes,
being dried, the kernel can be grated
of water. Bruise them by rubbing them stirring them
with a large stone. occasionally. or chopped to flavor baked foods,
puddings (see above), or dishes made
from vegetables such as spinach or
Remove the needles squash. Savory flavors can be obtained
from the liquid by Other Drinks from herbs such as basil and thyme.
straining the tea
In Australia, leaves from the
through a doth tied
eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus)
over a billycan.
impart a refreshing menthol-
You can sweeten
the tea with sugar type flavor to ordinary tea.
or honey. This brew is known as “billy
Cinnamon Curry Chili
tea." The dried flower heads of POWDER POWDER
clover (Trifolium) and the
leaves of nettle (Urtica) and
Strain tea
ground ivy (Glecboma) can
through cloth
also be used to make tea. Sap
from maple trees (Acer) can be
Peppers Nutmeg Garlic
mixed with water and drunk.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
94

INVERTEBRATES
T he idea of eating slugs, snails, or grasshoppers
makes most people feel that they would rather
less able to investigate other sources of food.
Experimentation is vital, and to survive, no potential
go hungry or wait until something more appetizing source of food should be rejected - regardless of
comes along. In a survival situation, however, an how squeamish you might feel. Some invertebrates,
acceptable meal is unlikely simply to drop into your such as insect grubs, contain more protein than
lap, and while you wait, you will get weaker and vegetables, so it is worth your while to collect them.

EDIBLE INVERTEBRATES

Although many kinds of invertebrate chew well, and swallow. Only parts of eaten. Some must even be specially
are edible, you do not simply pop these creatures are edible, and they prepared (see page 96). Below are a
slugs or grasshoppers into your mouth. must all be well cooked before being few examples of edible invertebrates.

Bees
Wild bees and their
pupae and larvae
are all edible. In
addition, bees
produce honey’,
which provides
instant energy.
Take care when
Grasshoppers
All hopping insects have large leg muscles, dealing with
Snails
which can be eaten. Roasting kills parasites bees, since their
Worms, slugs, and snails provide
and gives the meat, by wilderness gourmet stings can cause
excellent eating, but avoid all
standards, a good flavor. anaphylactic shock
sea snails and any bright land
(see page 180).
snails, which may be poisonous.

Butterflies
and Moths
Butterflies and moths
can be eaten, but they do
Ants not provide much nutrition
All ants can sting or bite, but they can be unless caught in large
eaten if gathered carefully {see page 96). numbers. Caterpillars are
Some honey ants store nectar and water in much easier to catch and
their distended abdomens. make more of a meal.

OTHER EDIBLE INVERTEBRATES

Insects have a higher dietary value

than vegetables, and are plentiful
everywhere, although you do have to
Sak. Starfish
gather a great many to obtain sufficient
Starfish cent often be
nutritional value from them. Beetle
found on driftwood.
grubs are particularly juicy. Some Crabs and shrimps are
indigenous peoples rely heavily on also edible, and may be found in
grubs to supplement their diets, and rock pools at low tide.
spend many hours collecting them.
Do not forget aquatic insects, such as
the whirligig beetle (Gyrinidae),
Sea Urchins
although they can be difficult to catch
Some echinoderms, such
unless you use a fine mesh net. Other
as the the cake urchin
edible invertebrates include termites, (Echinocyamus), can
sowbugs, and shellfish. It is not be dug up on a sandy
advisable to eat spiders, since many beach arid eaten.
have irritating hairs or toxins in their Take care when
»> > NjjJl
mouthparts to kill their prey, and these collecting them,
can be harmful to humans. since some have
long spines.
 INVERTEBRATES
95

POISONOUS INVERTEBRATES

The rules of common sense apply to carrion, sickly or dead individuals, or eaten by other animals may still be
collecting invertebrates for food. Avoid any that have a potent smell, since harmful to humans. Take care when
brightly colored insects, those eating they may be poisonous. Invertebrates collecting invertebrates (see page 96).

Red Beetles Cone Shells

Brightly colored insects, such as beetles and All the hundreds of
weevils, are advertising to predators that types of cone shell shoot
they taste bad. so you should leave a harpoon barb that
them alone. Their toxin may not injects poisons. In some
kill you. but it m ight make varieties this is lethal.
you rety ill Cone shells bury
themselves in sand, and
you may step on one
accidentally.
Red Moths
The red colora tion of the
cinnabar moth
(Callimorpha) indicates
that it has a bad taste. As with all wild food, it is best
Although some
to learn to identify a few edible
nontoxic species of
invertebrates and avoid the
insect mimic the
colors of poisonous rest. If you are in a survival
varieties, it is best to V situation, you may be weak
avoid all those with > and susceptible to smaller
bright colors. amounts of poison than you
OTHER POISONOUS would be normally.
Invertebrates
Hairy7 caterpillars and bristleworms
have irritating substances in their
spines that can cause a rash if you
touch them. Centipedes, especially the
large, tropical species, often have
poisonous substances in their skins.
Some species of yellow ladybird
(Coccinellidae) are also poisonous. Wasps V
Although most octopus species are Wasps are very aggressive, and
edible, the blue-ringed octopus of their stings work even after they
Australia (Hapalochlaena) has a lethal die. Never try to catch wasps to
eat. If you are stung on the face
sting, so it is best to avoid all species
the swelling may impede
unless you can positively identify Marine Hydrozoans
breathing, sometimes
them. You should also avoid pupae Stinging hydrozoans such as hydra (Hydra) are found in
resulting in death.
buried in the soil, and formica ants warm currents. 'The Portuguese man o' war (Physalia)
(Formica), which can squirt formic can have stinging tentacles up to 42ft (12 m) long.
Avoid these creatures if possible. You should also
acid at attackers. If you cannot identify
avoid jellyfish, some of which can deliver a
invertebrates, leave them alone.
poisonous sting (.see page 180).

Shellfish
Shellfish are generally edible Sea Anemones
when cooked, but they Anemones can sometimes
are also potentially he found cling ing to rocks
dangerous. To feed, in tidal pools. Most have
they sieve large tentacles that produce
quantities of an irritating sting,
water, and may fjftj
and they should
thus concentrate therefore be
/'cl/uhinls and avoided. Most
poisons within ' - creatures that kill
their bodies. All their prey with stings
mollusks must be can be harmful to
humans, and they should
collected live and
prepared and eaten as be avoided if possible.
soon as possible.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
96

INVERTEBRATES AS FOOD
NVERTEBRATES are far more plentiful than other However, invertebrates may appear less palatable
animals, and are often the only creatures living in than other creatures. In order to overcome this, you
the most extreme conditions and environments. It is may want to chop them up or grind them finely,
easier to gather invertebrates such as insects than to then add them to other, highly flavored dishes,
catch fish, and doing so also expends less energy. rather than eating them whole.

FLYING INSECTS

Most flying insects, such as moths, can eaten, and they provide honey. However,
be eaten, but the honey bee provides the since bees can be dangerous, only collect Preparing insects
best food. Adult bees and larvae can be them if there is no other option.
Remove stings from bees. Cut
Night Fliers off the wings and legs of all
At night, stretch a insects. Insects provide the best
light-colored sheet nutrition if eaten raw, but they
between two can be made more palatable by
branches and peg its being boiled or roasted.
bottom edge taut.
Grinding
Place a flashlight
Insectsjnay he ground between
behind the sheet, and
two stones and added to stews.
put a bowl of water
on the ground in
front. Moths will be
attracted to the light,
hit the sheet, and
fall into the water.

Bees and Honey

To gather bees and honey, hold smoking
grass to the nest entrance until the nest is
full of smoke. Seal up the hole and leave it
overnight. In the morning, cautiously dig
into the entrance with a stick and scrape
out the dead bees and honeycomb.

CRAWLING INSECTS

Beetle grubs are very nutritious, and stick to see if there are any grubs large colonies, but bear in mind that
can be found in rotting tree stumps or under the surface. Caterpillars are many have irritating hairs that may
under bark. Probe rotten wood with a found on their food plants, often in sting when touched.

Trapping Insects
You can collect insects in a trap. Dig a hole
the depth of your billycan and sit the can in
it. Lay a slab of wood over the hole,
balanced on two stones. This will leave a
shallow space between the wood and the
ground around the hole. Insects will crawl
under it seeking shade, and will fall into the
trap. Adding a drop of water to the billycan
will provide a further attraction.
PITFALL TRAP

1 To collect termites or ants, first cut a 2 Withdraw the stick slowly and
long, straight stick and peel it so it is gently. Termites will have attacked
smooth. Then push it slowly into a termite the stick and will still be attached to
or ant nest. Have a container at hand so it by their jaws. Scrape them off into
that you can collect the insects without a container. You can then prepare
dropping any on the ground. them as above.
 INVERTEBRATES AS FOOD
97

Shellfish
Shellfish are easy to collect on most they are still alive when you c'ollect eat shellfish immediately after
beaches, and can be very nutritious. them, since their flesh deteriorates collection. Do not collect them near
However, you must make sure that quickly after death. Always cook and any source of pollution.

Cooking Shellfish
Boil shellfish in their
shells for at least five
minutes before eating
them. Discard mussels
that fail to open in
boiling water, since Billycan
this means that they hangs from
forked twig
are rotten. After
(see page
boiling, limpets 116)
Periwinkles and Limpets and periwinkles
Pry small mollusks such as limpets from can be extracted
rocks at low tide. Only take those that are from their shells
alive- they will be clinging tightly. with a fork.

Shellfish Steie
Boil shellfish to
WARNING
eliminate
Caution when dealing with harmful
Digging for Razor Clants shellfish cannot be overstated. substances.
Razor clams burrow vertically into sand, leaving They must never be eaten raw,
breathing holes at the tops of their tunnels. You
and should be boiled or steamed
can hook them through these boles with a piece
for at least five minutes, as soon
of wire or a thin stick. Alternatively, sprinkle salt
around the burrow entrances and pull up the after collection as possible.
shells as they surface.

Dressing a Crab
Other Invertebrate
When collecting crabs, avoid being
Delicacies
pinched by their claws. With large
Many snails, slugs, and worms are species, you may have to tie up their
edible, and can be gathered at dawn. claws to prevent them from fighting
Keep snails and slugs alive on a diet and damaging each other. Kill by
of green leaves for 24 hours before plunging them into vigorously
killing them by dropping them into boiling water.
boiling water. You can boil snails,
but slugs are better roasted. Soak
worms in salty water for 24 hours,
2 Open the crab's N
then squeeze out their guts before
shell by inserting the
adding them to stews or drying them.
tip of your knife between
Honey Ants the two halves and twisting it.
Honey ants feed on nectar and water, and
individuals become living storage ja rs,
hanging up in the nest. Scrape meat
from shell
with knife

3 Remove
the stomach,
any green matter,
and the two gills,
1 A crab must be dressed carefully so s*nce these are
that all the poisonous organs are - poisonous. Scrape
removed. To prepare a crab for eating, the meat from the
first twist off the legs, then the large shell. Crack the claws
daws. All contain edible meat. and withdraw the long
muscles with your knife.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD

FRESHWATER FISH
F reshwater fish live in rivers, streams, and lakes,
and in the estuaries of rivers above where the
The condition and size of freshwater fish vary
according to the amount and variety of food they
freshwater becomes salty and enters the sea. A eat, as well as to the seasons. Although lakes and
handful of species travel the length of rivers, while some rivers may have deep stretches well away
some saltwater fish, notably salmon, migrate inland from the banks, most freshwater fish live in the
to spawn in the relative safety of inland streams. relatively shallow and narrow waters at the edges.

EDIBLE FISH

Most fish found in freshwater can be prepare than others. Some fish have a can be dangerous if they get caught in
safely eaten, although some species lot of tiny bones that make their your throat. Below are a few
are more pleasant to eat or easier to preparation difficult, and the bones examples of edible freshwater fish.

Bream (Abramis, Pagellus )

The bream belongs to the same family
(Carp) as the goldfish and the
minnow, or “tiddler.” It feeds
quietly on the bottoms of
deep, slow-flowing
rivers throughout
Europe and Asia.
Tench (Tinea) Some individuals
The tench lives in the still water of the lower can grow to a very
reaches of rivets before they merge with the latge size.
sea. It is found in Europe, North America,
and Australia.

Carp (Cyprinus)
The common carp grows up to 2 ft (60 cm ) long
and feeds quietly either at the bottoms or at the
surfaces of streams and rivers. Although
legend suggests that it can live for several
centuries, 40years is a more credible
figure, so you should not feel
guilty if you catch a large one.

Other Edible Fish

There are a great many other
species of edible freshwater
Trout (Oncorhynchus)
The trout is closely related and very fish, especially in tropical
similar to the salmon (see page rivers and lakes. Common
100). The rainbow trout lives species around the world
in cool, clear streams and lakes include the dace and chub
in Scandinavia, North America. (Leuciscus), and the roach
Australasia, Africa, and India. (Rutilus). Observation will
determine which species are
surface or bottom feeders,
and experimentation will tell
Rudd (Scardinus) you which are the best for
The rudd lives in still water where there eating. Be careful, however,
is a lot of vegetation, behind which it
when handling an unknown
can hide. It is found in North America,
species, If in doubt, grill it,
Europe, and Scandinavia. The rudd is a
surface feeder, although some old. large remove the skin and bones,
individuals often lie on the bottom. then boil the flesh.
 FRESHWATER FISH
99

Dangerous fish
Predatory fish are more aggressive of these fish have sharp barbs' which causing a rash on human skin when
than their prey, and also eat smaller may be connected to poison sacs. touched. The mucus may make the
members of their own species. Many Their skin mucus may also be toxic, fish poisonous to eat unless skinned.

Pickerel (Esox)
This is a North American member OTHER
of the pike family, and can
grow up to 3ft (I m) long. Dangerous fish
It prefers still, clear water
Many edible freshwater fish
with vegetation, and lives in
can cause injuries with their
rivers and streams that drain into
the Atlantic. It has sharp teeth. sharp teeth or spines, or have
skins coated with poisonous
mucus. The infamous piranha
Tandan (Tandanus) (Serrasalmus) of tropical
A member of the catfish family, the tandan lives in still South America is an example
water in Australasia and the Indo-Pacific region. Other
of a voracious, dangerous fish,
catfish are found worldwide. The
while the electric eel
catfish's dorsal or pectoral fin can
(Electrophones), also of South
have a strong spine, sometimes
attached to a poison sac. Catfish are America, can injure a
also covered in poisonous mucus. swimmer or wader with a
powerful electric shock.

Bullhead < Ictalurus)

The bullhead has poisonous spines and is
covered in toxic mucus. It must be handled
carefully, and should be skinned before
being eaten (see page 110). The bullhead
eats plants and insects, feeding mostly on
the bottoms of slow, still streams,
particularly in North America and Europe.
It is a type of catfish, and has the
characteristic whiskers of this family.

Perch (Perea)
The perch is a voracious feeder, moving
WARNING mainly in schools, which can
considerably reduce fish stocks,
Once dead, unless they are especially of smaller fish. It is
preserved by being dried, found in still or slow-flowing
smoked, or pickled (see page rivers and streams in Europe,
Asia, North America, and
1 18), all fish rapidly become
Australia. It is good to eat, but be
dangerous to eat because of careful of its shaip dorsal fin.
the growth of bacteria. Unless
you have killed it yourself, Pike (Esox)
therefore, it is best not to eat The pike is solitary and aggressive, with razor-
any dead fish, regardless of sharp teeth. In some areas it is known as
the “river wolf because of its greed and
how fresh you believe it to be.
destructiveness, and it will fight and catfish of
its own size. It does, however, make good eating. It is
found in Europe and North America, in most types of water.

Walleye (Stizostedion)
Sometimes known as a “pikeperch ” because of its
similarity to its close relatives, the pike and the
perch, the walleye is named for its large, glassy
eyes, which glow in the dark when light
is shone on them. It is found chiefly
in North America, and belongs to
the perch family, so it is good to
eat. However, it has a shatp dorsal
fin, so be careful when handling it.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
100

Saltwater fish
A S A GENERAL rule, the biggest saltwater fish live
_ in deep seas, while large schools of smaller fish
will sometimes come close enough to the shore to
be caught by a net or a hook and line, but are more
live in shallow waters just offshore, where sunlight likely to be caught from a boat offshore. In a
can penetrate to the bottom, enabling vegetation to survival situation, if you have no boat, you can
grow. Fish may migrate long distances for food and wade in sea shallows or estuaries to catch saltwater
to breed, assailed by a host of predators. Large fish fish, or walk out to deep channels at low tide.

EDIBLE FISH
There are only a few fish that cannot which preserves all their natural oils 117). Do not, however, eat the skin,
be eaten. The most sensible and and fragile food values. To cook fish, which may be coated with toxic mucus
healthy way of consuming fish is raw, steam, grill, or bake them (seepage or have dangerous spines.

Salmon (Salmo)
The Atlantic salmon, the "King
of Fish, ” travels long
distances upriver to
p"' spawn, and is a fine, tasty
=■& fish. It is found in
Europe, North America,
Australia, New Zealand. South
America, and Asia.

Tarpon (Megalops)
The tarpon is found in tidal creeks,
mangrove swamps, and lagoons,
as well as in shallow coastal
waters in tropical _
and warm- '
temperateareas.lt V.'O^y- A :
has large, tough scales,
and can be quite a fighter
when it is hooked.

OTHER EDIBLE FISH Skate (Raja)

Turbot (Scophthalmus) The skate spends its day buried
The herring (Clupea) lias
This popular fish is j in sand or mud on the bottoms
become a rarity in temperate
found near the A of Pacific or Atlantic waters,
offshore waters, but remains a emerging at night to eat
shore in Europe,
staple catch of fishermen around shellfish and other fish.
particularly in
the world. It moves in large Individuals of some species can
Scandinavia. It can be
schools that may pass close to caught quite easily using grow up to 8ft (2.4 m) long.
shore, where individuals can be small fish as bait.
netted or hooked. The bass
(Morone) is a fine, medium-sized
fish, which may be caught with Tuna (Thunnus, Euthynnus)
a hook and line at night at low Tl.re tuna is predatory, living on
tide, when it comes inshore to small fish, either aliue or dead.
feed. Other common edible fish Some species can grow
found in saltwater are various quite large. The
species of mullet (Mullidae, tuna is found
in both temperate
Muglidae), grayling (Thymallus),
yr and tropical waters,
and grouper (Serranidae).
often in large schools
near the shore.
 SALTWATER FISH
101

Dangerous Fish
Even though the biggest fish tend to Hungry sharks have been known to in water over long distances. Some fish
inhabit deep waters, large and come up to beaches to seize animals have spines or stings that can cause
dangerous species do patrol shallow and bathers. They can sense blood and excruciating pain if hooked on human
waters looking for an easy meal. the sound of distressed animals or fish flesh. Others have sharp teeth.

Barracuda \
(Sphyraena)
The barracuda has razor-sharp teeth and may attack
swimmers. Small species are edible, and can be found
in shallow water, blit they too can bite. They also leap Other Fish to Avoid
Stingray (Urolophus, Dasyatis) when hooked, and can therefore be difficult to catch.
The stingray has venomous spines and a The barracuda is found in warm- temperate and Triggerfish (Balistidae), which
whiplike tail. Its sting can be fatal if not tropical waters worldwide. live in shallow, tropical seas,
treated promptly. It lives in the North Pacific each have a single spine
and in tropical waters. protruding from the abdomen
Mackerel (Scomberomorus)
The mackerel makes excellent, like a trigger. Their flesh is
if oily, eating. In spring it moves poisonous if eaten. The tropical
in huge schools offshore, ivhere it stonefish (Synanceia), toadfish
can be netted. However, it (Batrachoididae), and
swims fast, and has sharp scorpionfish (Scorpaenidae) all
~ teeth, fighting hard
have venomous spines. Weever
pp when caught. It is
fish (Trachinidae), found off
found worldwide.
Europe and West Africa, lie
buried in sand, and their spines
can cause excruciating pain.

When spear fishing, get out of

the water as soon as you spear
a fish. The smell of blood and
the sound of its struggling will
travel a long way, attracting
predators. Avoid splashing,
Marlin (Makaira, Tetrapturus)
since predators perceive this as
The marlin is found in warm-temperate and tropical waters. Although it is very good to eat, catching
a fish in trouble. it can be difficult, since it swims fast and fights bard when caught. It also has a tough, sharp,
swordlike bill. The marlin is best caught by trolling at the surface or in mid-water.

Wahoo (Acanthocybium)
^ The wahoo leaps from the water when
hooked, making it hard to catch,
ff-ppp It also has razor-sharp teeth, so
it can be dangerous when
landed. It is found worldwide in
warm and temperate waters.

Shark
There are hundreds of species of shark worldwide, many of
which are aggressive and will fight when hooked.
These species sometimes ‘play dead" when
landed, catching fishermen off guard.
The leopard shark CTriakis) lives
in shallow, inshore waters
along the Pacific coast of
North America. Shark liver is
poisonous if eaten.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
102

Angling equipment
ATCHING FISH ISvery much a question of trial, manmade. Line can be made from natural grasses
error, and a lot of patience. Without strong, (see page 34), or you can use the fishing line in
ready-made equipment, fish may be caught and your survival kit (seepage 28). You can improvise a
then get away. Fish can be hooked, trapped, netted, rod from a stick. Take great care not to break your
snagged, speared, or even picked up in your hands improvised equipment when fish bite, and make
(seepage 100). Hooks, lures, and floats can be sure you have ready alternate methods of snagging
made of all kinds of material, both natural and or netting to ensure that nothing gets away.

Thorn hook

Tie line
Cut notch around notch
around

Finished
Hook
Use this hook
for fish that
swallow bait
whole, such
as eels and
catfish. The
hook may
also catch in
1 Cut a section of bramble stem 2 Using a pocketknife, cut a notch in 3 Tie the fishing line around the gills or
about 1 in (2.5 cm) long, with a the end of the stem so that the line the stem notch, making mouths of
large, strong thorn. does not slip when it is tied around it. several turns over the top. other fish.

NAIL HOOK AND FEATHER LURE

1 A lure is meant to look 2 Tie a feather above the

like bait, so that a fish hook to act as a lure. It may
Finished
bites and swallows resemble an insect
Lure
the hook. Study and attract
Make sure
what fish in your a fish.
that the
water are eating, hook is tied
then make a securely to
suitable lure. To the line, so
make a simple that you do
hook, bend a not lose the
nail and attach a hook when
line to it. a fish bites.

ROSE-HIP FLOAT AND PIN HOOK

Thread line
Twigs act as
through rose hip
stabilizers,

1 You can use natural materials 2 Thread fishing line or string 3 Tie small twigs above and below 4 Attach your hook (in
to make a float. To use a rose through the rose hip. A float the float to act as stabilizers and to this case a safety pin)
hip, make a hole in it with a keeps a baited hook at the best prevent the float from slipping up at the desired depth
knife, a sharp stick, or a thorn. depth for the fish being sought. and down the line. below the float.
 Bait
Bait may be spread on the surface of fruits, worms, bread, raw meat, and indicating injury and an easy meal.
the water, attached firmly to hooks, or pieces of fish all work well as bait. The secret of successful baiting is to
placed inside traps. Insects, small Live bait attracts fish by its movement, tempt fish with their normal diet.

Trap harpoon

Cut off shoots to 3 Bind two sharp sticks to either

make spear smooth Sharpen spear side of the spear shaft so that they
to a long point close over and beyond the point,
making it hard for an impaled
fish to wriggle off. The trap
1 This type of sticks are then wedged apart
fish spear is with a straight stick,
primarily for which will fly off if
use in deep 2 Sharpen the thick end of pushed, allowing the
water (see page the shaft to a good, long point. trap sticks to close.
100J. First trim This point may be hardened
side shoots by carefully dipping it in the
front a straight, flames of a fire. Carve Spikes on sides of
slender branch. opposite sides of the point prevent fish
from escaping
point to a flat surface,
to which the trap will
be lashed with cord.

Spiked Harpoon
Taking Care When fishing

Take great care when using improvised fishing gear, since

it may break easily, causing you to lose either your catch
or your balance. If you fall into the water, apart from the
danger of drowning, you could contract pneumonia or
infection from waterborne diseases (seepage 75). Do not
enter muddy water without a stick for support and to feel
the ground in front of you. Be aware that other animals -
1 Notch
such as predators - may be fishing or drinking nearby.
the end of a
long, straight Hunting the Fisherman
hfanch so that Look out for animal Irails to watering points,
barbs can easily be and ensure that you are not offering
2 Bind thorny sticks tightly
lashed to the spear. yourself as bait for a predator.
around the shaft. They will
need to support some of
the weight of the fish.

Finished Spear
Take great care not to
damage the barbs against
rocks or the river bottom. It is
best to use a landing net to
get the fish out of the water.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
104

Angling Techniques
T O A MODERN sport fisherman, these traditional
techniques will seem very crude. However, both
for catching them. When using improvised fishing
gear, take care not to break or lose it, and always
his success, and yours with these methods, depend think first of your own safety. The techniques
not upon equipment, but upon knowledge of the described here can be used in freshwater rivers and
prey. Spend time observing where the fish go at streams or in saltwater creeks. Some of these
different times of the day, when and where they techniques are illegal in many parts of the world,
feed, and what they eat. Then determine strategies and should only be used in a matter of life or death.

USING HOOKS AND LINES

Running Line
The more hooks you have
in the water, the greater
your chances of a catch.
But with this method
your bait will be nibbled
away faster than with a
Biting fish will single hook. Only use this
jerk trigger from method in a survival
notch, allowing rod
situation, either in
to snap back
freshwater or across a
saltwater creek.

ICE FISHING

Using an ice saw or knife, cut a small hole in the ice near the bank
to check that it is at least 2 in (5 cm) thick, and will bear your
weight. Cut a fishing hole about 1 ft (30 cm) across. Do not smash
the ice, since this may weaken it, causing you to fall in. Tie your
hooked and baited line to a flagged stick across the hole.

Baited Hook Fish Caught

Tie you r line to a When a fish is
flag so that you hooked, the flag
Self-striking Line
? do not have to is pulled upright,
A self-striking line will operate by itself. When
keep checking and you can
a fish bites, the line will be jerked out of the
your hook. collect the catch.
notch and the rod will fly back, embedding
the book in the fish’s mouth.

Spear Fishing
Tickling a Fish

Trap Harpoon
This type of spear grabs
the fish and keeps it from
wriggling off the point. .

Using a Harpoon
Spear fishing takes time and
great patience. Be careful not
to break your spears against
1 This primitive method is illegal 2 Slide your hands under
rocks or the river bottom.
in most countries. It is most a resting fish very slowly,
Keeping the point of your spear
successful in sheltered water. Feel thumbs uppermost. Then
in the water avoids splash.
along the bank with your palms grab the fish and throw it
Strike very quickly once you
upward and your hands flat. well onto the bank. see a potential catch.
 ANGLING TECHNIQUES
105

Landing a fish

2 Take your time

Using a Gaff
pulling in the fish.
Use the net as Gaffing
early as you can to As an emergency
take the weight of alternative to netting,
the fish, entering grab the fish with a
the water yourself, gaff. Do not lift the
if necesssary. Do fish high in the air.
not get carried
away, however,
either by your
enthusiasm or by
1 When a -fish bites, “strike" fast water. Your
sharply by pulling up the rod. safety is more
important than Gaff made
Take great care not to break
from bent fork
your gear, particularly when anything else.
hooks fish
drawing fish toward the bank.

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FISH

Hidden Bounty
Fish are to be found where they can eat without feeling insecure, which
varies according to species, the environment, and the time of day. Slack
water (when a river is in flood), overhanging banks, large logs, and rocks all
offer shelter, and in hot weather with bright sunshine, fish will seek shaded
Overhanging trees
water or deep pools. In cold weather, look for fish in shallow water, for create patches of
example at the edge of a lake, in an area wanned by the sun. shade where
fish can rest on
hot days
In fast or flood water,
check downstream of +
boulders, or on the
insides of bends,
where the river flows
more slowly than on
the outsides
Check undercut
banks quietly,
without upsetting
the fish

Bubbles or rings on
Fallen tree offers water’s surface
cool shelter i ndicate feed ing fish

Fish may rest in still water

Check floating
downstream of gravel bars,
weed patches where fast water swirls back
on itself to make a pool
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
106

Fishing nets and Traps

IN A SURVIVAL situation, fishing nets and traps are
more convenient than hooks and lines, simply
also make a net from discarded clothing. Traps can
be made from sticks and cord, woven from rushes
because they can be left for a couple of hours, or or tough grasses, or improvised from manmade
overnight, allowing you to get on with other things. materials such as bottles. Improvised gear can be
Nets can be made from string, rope, or natural cord very effective, and should only be used in an
(see page 34), with saplings as handles. You can emergency (see page 104).

Making a Landing Net

Using an Undershirt Using cord

1 Thread the forks of a thin sapling into 1 Tie the ends of a forked sapling
the hem of an undershirt, through two together to form a circle.
small nicks in the seam.

2 Cut a nick in
the hem at the
point where the
forks meet and
pull the ends of
the stick through.
Tie the sapling
ends together
with cord, and
push them inside 2 Tie one end of pieces of cord
the hem. to the circle. Tie the other ends
of the cord to the opposite side
of the circle to form loops.
3 Tie off the
undershirt
above the
armholes and
neck. Then cut
off the fabric
below the tie, or
invert the net so
that the surplus
fabric does not 3 Weave more cord in and out
drag in the water of the loops hanging from the
when you use it. sapling circle to create a net.

Making a Gillnet

Gillnets can be any size. Suspend

a rope between two trees and
tie one end of several pieces
of cord at regular intervals
along it. Pull the cords tight
by tying their bottom ends
to a narrow branch. Weave
more cord in and out of the
hanging strings, tying a knot
around each one to secure the
mesh. You can adjust the mesh to
the size of fish you want to catch.
The finished net can be cut from
the rope and branch.
 FISHING NETS AND TRAPS
107

«
Making a Basket Trap

Hoop braces bars

of trap and holds
them apart .

3 Insert the hoop into

2 Make a hoop by the bundle of saplings,
tying together the spacing and binding the
ends of a sapling. saplings around the hoop
1 This trap can be used in a to form the longitudinal
river or tidal creek. Bind bars of the trap.
together a bunch of saplings
at their thick ends.
4 Tie in a second hoop
at the opposite end to
create the chamber of
the trap. You can make
it as long and as wide as
you require.

Other Traps

Crab Cage
5 Make the mouth of the trap by
fitting two hoops, one large and
one small, over a bundle of
sticks, forming a funnel shape
with a splayed end.

6 Invert the funnel in the

open end of the trap and tie
it in place. Begin weaving
cord around the bars to
make the sides of the trap. it on the bottom of the river or
sea. Place the trap in shallow seawater to catch crabs and
lobsters, or in a freshwater stream to catch crayfish.

Tie cord /
to each bar Bottle Trap
to form mesh Cut the neck and shoulders off a plastic bottle, invert the
7 Fill in the sides of the trap top, and insert it into the base. Fish swim in through the
with cord. Fish can push their neck to reach bait at the end, but cannot find their way
way in, but will not be able to out. Place the trap in a stream and check it regularly.
get out Cseepage 105).
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
108

using Fishing nets and Traps

OU CAN LEAVE a hooked line overnight, but for trawling. Fish of all sizes can be entangled or
unless you check it at first light the next day, damaged in a gillnet, and if such a net is left across
any fish caught is likely to be taken by larger fish, a flowing river, it can rapidly take or injure every
or to wriggle off, usually taking your hook with it. fish in a stretch of water, irrespective of whether it
Unlike hooks, traps can be left for a few days at a is edible or not. For this reason, gillnets are illegal
time. Nets must not be used in the same way - they in many parts of the world. A gillnet should, only be
should only be set for short periods of time, or used used in an emergency survival situation.

USING A Gillnet

1 In a desperate, 2 Hammer three

long-term survival stout posts into the
situation, you may stream bed about
have to dam a 3 ft (1 m) apart. Set
stream to catch fish them diagonally
to preserve for the across the stream so
oncoming winter. that the water does
Build a rock wall in not knock over the
the center of a finished log wall.
stream, choosing a Lay a couple of logs
bend where the against the posts on
water slows as the the upstream side.
bed widens. Hammer in three
retaining posts.
Set wall at angle Then add more logs
across stream to build up the wall.

Purse Seining
As the name indicates, a purse seine
Fish are forced down gathers fish as if in a drawstring purse.
open channel and One person takes the end of the net over
are caught in gill net the shoulder and enters the water, while
the other remains on the shore. The first
person walks out to the limit of the net,
then curves back to the shore, creating a
purse with the net. As the person reaches
the shore, any fish caught within the net
are encircled and trapped. The net can
then be dragged onto the beach and the
fish killed.

Fishing on the Shore

Schools offish can be caught
in shallow water by two
people using a large net.

3 Hammer two posts on either side of the and will get caught in the net. When not
channel next to the wall, and tie your gill fishing, remove the net and the horizontal
net between them (seepage 102). Fish will logs in the wall to avoid catching fish
be diverted by the dam down the channel unnecessarily and straining the posts.
 USING FISHING NETS AND TRAPS
109

Rock wall Traps

In a tidal creek, you cart

build a wall of large rocks in a curve
from the bank. When the tide recedes, fish may be trapped in the little Double-wall Trap
pool created between the wall and the bank. On a seashore, if there is Build two rock walls in a funnel shape, with the
no turf batik or cliff, you can use the same principle, but you should opening of the funnel facing downstream. Fish swimming downstream
build your wall in a complete circle. Any gaps between the latge rocks will be guided by the walls into a bottleneck. You can place your trap or
can be plugged with small stones to prevent fish from escaping. net at this narrow opening to catch them (see page 102).

Using a Dip Net

1 Many fish dislike muddy water, since 2 Use the net slowly and carefully, hut when
they find it hard to breathe with the fish are inside, lift it quickly from the water,
reduced level of gathering the top of the net together like a b ag
Have net oxygen. Stir up the to prevent the fish from jumping out.
ready to mud on the bottom
catch fish- Df a p00] with your
Fish coming to
feet. The fish should surface can be
come to the surface caught in net
in order to breathe.

Stir up mud on
bottom with feet

Using a Baited Net POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN FISHING

Some fish can be ■ Water is always dangerous, whether it is fast-flowing, still,
caught using a shallow, or deep. Even a fall on wet rocks can be fatal.
baited net. Use an ■ Think through every aspect of how you intend to catch fish,
undershirt net (see trying to imagine the hazards before accidents occur - and
page 106), or make take precautions against them.
one from a sock. ■ Fish are adept at slithering back into the water. Think
Push a forked stick particularly about how you are going to land fish safely once
through the sock’s you have caught them.
hem as a handle. ■ Underwater hazards vary from entangling weeds and
Bait the net with dangerous creatures such as crocodiles, to deep potholes and

dung or fish offal, strong currents. Do not enter a river or stream if you can
avoid it, even if you can see the bottom.
and trawl it slowly
■ Never jump or dive into water. Do not swim or bathe until
through the water.
you have taken cautious reconnaissance.
Baiting Eels ■ Take great care when using improvised fishing equipment,
Eels are often attracted such as a spear, since it may break and cause you to fall in.
to a net baited with
offal or animal dung.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
no

Preparing fish for Cooking

IMMEDIATELY AFTER LANDING a fish, kill it with a
stick or stone, using a firm blow to the back of
bad. In cold climates you can afford to leave
filleting for six to twelve hours after killing, which
the head. You must gut a fish as soon as possible allows time for the nerve endings to die. This makes
after catching it, then either cook and eat it, or butchering easier than if you do it when the fish is
preserve it for later use (seepage 118). In hot freshly caught. The bones, skin, and head of the fish
climates, only a short time in the sun can cause fish may be boiled in water to create stock - provided
to spoil, since their moist skin is an ideal breeding that you do this immediately. The stock must be
ground for bacteria and flies. Once a fish has been treated in the same way as unpreserveci flesh - kept
scaled, skinned, and filleted, it is less likely to go cool and eaten as soon as possible.

FILLETING A FISH
Filleting removes the parts of a fish contaminants from the environment, concentrate in the liver and can be fatal
that are likely to spoil, while leaving which can lodge in its internal organs to humans if eaten, particularly in
as much of the flesh as possible. In For example, metals such as mercury, quantity. Flarmful substances do not
addition, the fish may pick up present in small quantities in the sea, usually collect in the muscles of a fish.

Do not bear
down on your
knife - use only
its point

Take care not

to cut into the
tail muscles

3 Carefully pull out the

internal organs. Spread the fish
2 Insert the point of
open to check that everything 1
a sharp knife into the
been removed. Save the roe (eggs in a
anal opening. Taking care
female, or milt in a male) to eat, then wash
to cut only through the outer
the fish thoroughly, inside and out.
scales must be removed. Scrape off the belly, slit the fish open to just
scales from the tail to the head with your behind the gills. Do not cut the tail
knife, moving the blade away from you. muscles or puncture the internal organs.
SKINNING FISH

Cut off head and Not all species of fish must be

use to make skinned before being cooked,
particularly the small ones. However,
some fish secrete irritating or
poisonous mucus on their skins.
Others, such as catfish and sharks,
have very tough skins. It is therefore
best to remove and discard the skin
before the fish is eaten.

5 Separate the top of the

Skinning a Fillet
spine from the flesh with
Separate the skin and flesh
4 Trim off the head, tail, and fins. Open the tip of your knife. Then, slowly and
Hold the skin taut with
up the body and separate the ribs from the firmly, pull the spine and ribs away from
one hand and cut the
flesh, using the point of your knife blade. the flesh in one piece. If the ribs do not
flesh from the skin in
You may find it easier to remove the come out cleanly, you may have to scrape
a sawing motion.
bones after the fish has been cooked. the flesh from them with your knife.
 Skewering fish for Cooking
Fish are best if eaten immediately after tastiest flesh. Fish do not require much (see page 116), Single fish can be fried
being caught and killed. The simplest, cooking. Grill them at an angle over whole in a pan, steamed, or baked in
quickest cooking methods result in the an ember fire or impale them on a spit mud (see page 117).

1 Open out the fillet, then

insert two thin, supporting Cooking Small Fish
sticks across the top and
Fry, grill, or roast small fish whole,
bottom. Green
without filleting them - there is no
sticks will char
point in filleting anything that is less
the least. Do
than 6 in (15 cm) long. After gutting,
not use wood
with a lot of Tie sapling impale them on a green stick and grill
shut to hold over the embers of a fire, or in
sap, since it
fish fillet a pan. Do not
may spit.
remove the
heads and
tails, since
they keep the
2 Split a sapling
flesh together.
along half its length 3 Tie the
Insert the fillet into sapling shut at
the split and stretch the top to prevent
it out flat, teasing the fire's heat from
springing it apart. Skewering
apart tire middle of
The sapling can Gut small fish but
the fillet so that it
now be pushed into leave the heads and tails
will cook all the
on. Skewer the fish on a
way through. the ground at an angle so that it leans
stake. You can then hold
over the embers of a fire. The fish is
them over afire.
cooked when the flesh is flaky.

Skinning an Eel
Eels make very good eating, but must slipperiness make skinning very the method shown opposite, then
first be gutted, skinned, and filleted difficult, unless you do it immediately skin it as shown below. You can also
before being cooked. Their length and after they are killed. Gut an eel using skin whole fish using this method.

2 Grasp the eel 3 Separate the top

with a cloth and of the skin from
cut through the the flesh. Then,
skin all around using a firm, steady
the head. action, peel the skin down
(Although it is toward the tail. You will
f dead, the eel probably need to use both
| i may still hands to get a good grip.
»’•. twitch.)
Using both hands,
pull skin
downward

1 Push a strong stick through

the eel's gills just behind the
skull. Hang the stick between
two forked, upright sticks.

4 Discard the skin and take 5 Holding the

the eel off the stick. Cut off eel in place
; eel’s head, and the end with a rough
part of its tail. cloth, run a
sharp knife steadily
along the backbone,
Take care not parallel to the surface
Cut off to cut through
on which the eel is
eel's head the ribs
lying. Do not cut too
close to the backbone.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
112

COOKING UTENSILS
T HE basic cooking utensils for camping
are a pot, a stove or fire upon which
backpacking food is best cooked and eaten
as an all-in-one stew made with a lot
to cook, and a wooden spoon. To of water in one pot. Experienced
conserve fuel when cooking, both backpackers tend to mix together
pot and stove or fire must be fruit, dessert, and main meals.
sheltered from the wind, and a This helps to conserve fuel and
secure lid should be placed on the also saves on washing up.
pot. Hygiene and tidiness when
Outdoor Cooking
cooking are vital. Wash your hands
Keep stoves sheltered from the wind, and make sure
first, then take from your backpack only they do not fall over. Take care not to touch a hot pot
what is needed to make your meal. Most with your hare hands.

POTS AND PANS

Eating straight from a pot, especially when cooking

over an open fire, can result in burned fingers, lips,
mouth, and tongue. The use of plastic plates
and cups prevents this. Carrying a variety of
cooking vessels is unnecessary, unless you
are traveling with a large group of people or
are in a vehicle. Choose one kind of pot
that you are likely to use the most, and take
good care of it.
Mug
A tough, plastic mug is
invaluable. It should Plate Bowl
UTENSILS
have a strong handle. A plate holds a portion of A bowl can be used for
Retain your lightweight camping food, leaving the rest to stay breakfast cereal, soups,
utensils for your own use only and, ivarm in the pot. or stews.
since they will go into your mouth,
keep them scrupulously clean. Dirty
utensils can cause mouth ulcers and
other infections. To clean utensils,
simmer them in boiling water
whenever possible. If you lose or
break your knife, fork, or spoon,
you can carve new ones from wood
(see opposite). You can improvise Shallow Nonstick Pan Deep Nonstick Pan Kettle
utensils and dishes from sticks, A nonstick pan is a help when A deep pan is useful A lightweight kettle
bark, shelf fungi, bones, and day. camping, but take care not to when cooking for n, allows you to use other
damage the coated surface, than one or two pec pans for cooking food,
since food can then stick to it rather than for heating
quite badly. water for hot drinks.

Fork Knife Teaspoon

Billycan Set Frying Pan Aluminum Pot

A high-quality billycan set is light Special, lightweight frying pans Aluminum pots heat up
Utensil holder and contains a variety of pans, are available for camping. Take quickly, but can bum food
and sometimes a kettle. care not to bum them. if not watched constantly.
 COOKING UTENSILS
113

Making a Clay Pot

1 Y ou can find clay in steep stream 2 Keeping the sides straight, 3 Smooth off the lip of the top 4 Smooth the pot with
banks. Make a thick, circular base to build up the walls of the pot coil with your thumb once the water. When the pot is dry,
give the pot,strength and stability. with the rolls of clay. desired pot height is achieved. stand it in a fire to harden.

Making a wooden Spoon

Use a knife
to smooth away
any splinters

be narrow
Begin carting enough to fit
a spoon shape into your mouth
at one end of
the wood
3 Carving the bowl is
the most difficult and
time-consuming part.
1 Cut a piece of finely grained wood 2 Always cut away from you in case the Take care not to make
and begin carving it down the knife slips. The spoon should be small the wood so thin that
length of the grain. Avoid resinous enough to fit comfortably into your mouth it breaks. Smooth
woods, which break easily. although a narrow handle is not important away any splinters.

Making a wooden Bowl

IMPROVISED POTS AND PANS

Tin-can Billy
Make a billycan by tying a
string or wire handle to an
empty can. Take care to keep
the billycan well above the
flames of your fire to
prevent the string handle
from burning.
of the burned wood, then
reapply the embers, blowing
gently to burn the right places.

1 Carve a bowl from a block of

Sardine-
wood or a burl. Wood burls can
can Pan
be extremely hard, so carving
Tie an empty
takes a iong time. The careful
sardine can to a
use of embers from a fire green, forked twig
can speed things up. with string or natural
3 In the
last stages, take cord. Use the pan only
care not to make over a gentle fire,
Keep burning and although the handle will
cutting to hollow out the wood too thin, or
withstand a lot of heat
the bowl to break through the bowl
before it catches fire.
with the knife or embers.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
114

Stoves and Ovens

T he simplest form of cooking device
is an open fire, or solid fuel blocks
steam pit. Keep your stove, preheating
tablets, matches, and cooking pot and
that burn with a regular flame for lid in a side pouch of your
long enough to make a hot drink. backpack where you can easily
If you cannot build a fire easily or reach them whenever you stop.
safely, however, you will need a
Filling a Store
stove with a controllable flame Choose a stove according to your cooking
that lights easily and burns fuel needs and whether you can get replacement
efficiently. For more elaborate gas cylinders or fuel. Before filling a stove with
fuel, make sure that the flame is really out.
cooking you can build an oven or a

Camping stoves

Mini Store General-purpose Store Unleaded Fuel Store Multifuel Store

This ultra-lightweight stove This fast-burning stove is for Burning unleadedgasoline, A popular, lightweight,
burns a butane/propane fuel all-around use, and has this stove has a purge control compact stove type. This
mixture. It is not suitable for foldaway supports for cooking so that the generator can be model will bum kerosene, AV
supporting large pans. with large pans. blown clean. gas, and white gas.

WARNING FUEL
All stoves must be treated with great Fuel bottles must be easily distinguishable from water
care. The danger of an explosion bottles so that you do not mix them up. They must be
must always be kept in mind. absolutely free from leaks, since leaking fuel could
Cooking areas must be well pollute food and rot clothes and equipment.
ventilated, since stoves use Availability of fuel must be considered before travel.
up oxygen and give off as well as safe disposal of cylinders.
lethal carbon monoxide.
When a pressurized gas
stove goes out, vapor builds
up, and any flame or spark
will create a fireball explosion.

Nonpressurized Store
This popular stove bums
methyl alcohol and has a
built-in windshield, as well as
pans that pack away together.
There are no mechanical e ® @ « ® ® •««
parts to break down, and it is • •••••
very stable, although it does Gasoline bottle kerosene bottle Butane/propane
not burn very fast. CYLINDER
 STOVES AND OVENS
1 15

Mud Oven

Stick will make

chimney hole Trench should he
narrower than pot

1 Dig a narrow trench about 20 cm (8 in)

deep. Set a lidded pot about 23 cm (9 in)
deep over the top. Ram a long stick into
the ground at the pot's bottom end.

2 Completely cover the pot with

earth or wet clay, wiggling the stick
to keep the chimney hole free. Pat
down the earth
to make the 3 Remove the
dome smooth stick and use it to
and stable. keep the lid on the
pot. Light a fire in the
trench underneath the pot,
and allow it to die down to
embers before placing food inside
the oven to be cooked.

STEAM PIT
Yukon Stove
1 Light a fire on a stick 2 When the platform has burned through
platform over a trench and the rocks have fallen into the pit, Essentially a chimney above a fire, a
(see above). Place small push an upright stick into the pit. Yukon stove will burn even damp
rocks on the platform. Brush away the embers. Wrap wood, and cook very effectively at its
food in grass and put it in the ft top end. First build a teepee fire (see
pit on a thick layer of grass. 1 page 60) but do not light it. Erect a
wall of stones around the teepee,
using day for mortar, and seal the
outsides with day. The cone shape of
the structure increases the airflow
around the fire, so creating-more heat.
Light the end of a long stick and push
it into the fire from above. Use plenty
Stick wilt form of dry wood to get the fire going.
chimney hole
When it is going well, you can dry wet
Rocks on wood wood on top of the stove.
platform trill he 4 Remove the
heated by fire stick and pour
a little water
into the hole
to create steam

3 Put meat in the centre of the pit, Efficient Burner

where there is the most heat. Put a thief 5 Seal the the pit with earth, patting it The Yukon store bunts fuel efficiently
layer of grass over the food. Cover the smooth. Leave the pit for about four hours, and with great heat.
pit with earth. during which the food will cook.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
116

COOKING METHODS
T he most basic form of cooking is
roasting, usually using a spit
digestible than they would be if eaten
raw. In addition, a hot meal cheers
over the flames or the embers of a you up immensely.
fire. In a survival situation, it is
important to cook everything you Cooking Over an Open Fire
are not sure about in order to kill Yon can cook stews in a billycan suspended
over your fire, or you can wait until the flames
harmful bacteria, parasites, and
have died down, then use the embers for other
chemicals. Cooking also helps make forms of cooking (see opposite). If you have plenty of
many wild foods more palatable and water, always keep some boiling for making hot drinks.

PAN RESTS

Spit
You can make a spit
by hammering two
forked sticks into the
grou nd on either side
of the fire and
banging a third
stick between
them. Keep the
fire from blazing
up and engulfing
the pot. Use a stick to
push the pot to the end of
the spit when you want to
dish up your meal.
Dingle Stick
This is useful when you are cooking stews, which may
need to be moved off the fire to adjust the temperature.
Hammer a forked stick into the ground and balance a
long stick in the fork so that one end hangs over the fire
Tripod to hold the pot. Tie the other end loosely to the upright.
This is very stable and safe to use. The pot can easily be pushed off the fire with a stick.
Make a tripod (see page 75), and
hang a forked stick from its center
tied on with string. Hang your pot
on the stick. This will enable you Forked stick allows

to raise and lower the pot above

for adjustment of Using Bamboo
pot posit ion
the fire, and thus control the
Being tough and hollow, bamboo makes an excellent
temperature of the meal Allow
cooking pot. Using a pointed stick, make a hole in each
the fire to die down before
putting the tripod in place of the walls between the hollow compartments, leaving
over the embers. the bottom end intact. Pour water into the stem so that
it does not quite reach the first stem ring. Lean the stem
Fire should die
over a fire with the top end resting in a forked stick.
down to embeis
before you Heat the stem to boil the water, and this will steam
begin cooking food placed in the top.

Natural Cookpot Place food to

Hollow bamboo can be be steamed in
used as a cooking pot top section

over an open fire.

Water boils
in bottom
section
 COOKING METHODS
117

COOKING ON HOT ROCKS

1 Make a closely laid Place tinder on the rocks

bed of large, flat and cover it with dry
rocks, Do not use sticks. Then light
slate or other types of the tinder. The
layered rock, since they fire can be left to
may shatter when they burn down to
are heated under the ashes while you
cooking fire. prepare your food
(see page 110).

3 Using a bunch of green twigs, brush the ash

and embersrfrom the surface of the rocks. Take
care not to touch them with your hands' 4 Place food on top of the rocks. Items that
Food cooks directly
because they will be extremely hot. need long, slow cooking should be placed
on top of hot rocks
towards the edges, where the rocks are cooler
than in the center.
Keep putting on
more food, until
the rocks have
cooled. Unpeeled
potatoes can be
buried under the hot
rocks and left to bake.

Baking in mud

1 You can bake food such as 2 Wrap the food in the leaves 3 Encase the entire package 4 Place the package on a bed
fish in a casing of mud in the and bind it up with twisted in mud. Make sure the food of hot embers and build a fire
fire. First gather a large bundle grass strands to make a neat, is completely and evenly up over the top. A fish should
of long grass and leaves. secure package. covered, and well sealed. be cooked in about an hour.

Cooking Tips Damper Bread

■ Herbs and spices are invaluable for

making food (especially wild food)
palatable. Also useful are fresh garlic,
onions, and stock cubes.
■ Boiling water and using it to create an Dough should
“all-in-one” stew is usually the easiest he rolled into
slide off stick when
form of outdoor cooking. Mixing sausage shape
cooked
together everything from canned fish
and cookies to dried fruit sounds
dreadful, but with the addition of curry
powder and lots of fresh air, such a
meal will taste delicious.
■ If cooking by boiling, it is important to
drink all the water, as well, in order to
obtain the maximum nutritional value 1 This Australian camp delicacy is easy 2 Wind the dough in a spiral around a
from the food (unless you are boiling and quick to make. First make a pliable stick, and hold it over the embers of a
away harmful substances). dough from flour and water, then roll it fire until it is cooked. The bread should
into a long, thick sausage shape. easily come off the stick when it is done.
 FINDING AND PREPARING FOOD
118

PRESERVING FOOD
O NCE GATHERED, ALL food starts to deteriorate.
Without refrigeration, fresh meat and fish are
and preserved for times when wild food is scarce.
A balanced diet is hard to gather daily. Scouring the
questionable a day after being killed in all but the landscape for enough food for even a day uses up a
very coldest regions, while without proper storage, lot of calories. In all but short-term survival
vegetables and other plants quickly lose their situations, you should begin preserving and storing
nutritional value. For mid- to long-term survival in food immediately, keeping your bought supplies,
the wild, food must be gathered at a time of plenty such as canned food, for real emergency rations.

DRYING FOOD

Other Drying Methods

Natural Drying
In warm, dry climates, you
can lay fungi and
plants on a rock to
dry. Herbs can
be hung up by
their stalks
to dry head
downward.
Branches lashed
together to form
frame Drying over a Fire
To dry fruit, slice it up and suspend it over
a smoking fire on a spit. Take care that the
fire does not get too hotymd cook the fruit.

Drying Frame
You can dry fish in the sun by
hanging fillets on a specially-built
drying frame made from branches
lashed together {see page 37). Your
frame must be ready before the fish
Natural Preservatives
are killed. Then filleting, followed
by drying, must take place
You can preserve foods with natural ingredients. Rub salt into fish, and
immediately (see page 110). Strong sunshine
soak vegetables in lime or lemon juice, or boil them in water containing
is required to allow fish to dry before it goes
bad. Stand the frame in a breeze that will pickling spices. Salted fish will last well in temperatures up
keep away flies. Hang fish fillets on the frame, to 50°F (10°C).
allowmg plenty of room betiveen the pieces so
that the air can circulate. The pieces offish
are ready when all the water has been
removed from them, and they are brittle.
When the fillets have dried thoroughly, they
can be stored to be eaten later, or you can
grind them to a powder between two stones
and use them to thicken stews or make fish
pemmican (see opposite), Salt Pickling spices Lime- Lemon
 PRESERVING FOOD
119

Building a Tepee Smoker

1 If there is not 3 Make sure that

enough sunshine the triangle of
to dry fish, it can sticks forming the
be smoked on a drying platform
L tepee smoker, is at least 1 ft
ft Lash three (30 cm) above the
R straight sticks ground so that a
■ together at one fire can be built
■ end with a underneath it.
f length of string
(see page 3 7).

Secure saplings
with cord

2 Set the legs about 2 ft (60 cm) apart

Lash horizontal / then tie horizontal sticks between the
sticks securely to legs to form the supports for a grid,
uprights or drying platform.

4 Lay smaller sticks

across the triangle
of sticks to
form a grid
on which
food can
be smoked. i

5 Leave plenty of space between the

Place sticks /
across supports to
sticks to allow smoke to percolate up
make platform through food on the grid. Stand the
smoker over a fire until the fish is dry

MAKING FISH PEMMICAN

I You can preserve cooked fish 2 Cut or grate the cooked 3 Add berries to taste, and 4 Roll each clump into a sausage
by making pemmican. First fish into powdery pieces and separate the mixture into shape and leave it in the sun to
soften congealed fat from the mix it with the fat. You can small clumps, each about set hard. Pemmican will remain
fish in your hands. add seasonings if you wish. the size of a golf ball. edible and nutritious for years.
 Chapter Six

On the Move
For MOST people, enjoying the great outdoors means
moving through it, perhaps camping overnight and
then moving on again. Traveling on foot, in a vehicle,
or by boat, is integral to a wilderness vacation. It is
important to have all the right equipment, and to make
a comprehensive plan, with your safety always in
mind. In survival situations, you are uprooted from
your normal existence, and need to carry all your food
and equipment across possibly unfamiliar terrain,
perhaps to an unknown destination. Traveling under
such circumstances is potentially dangerous. You may
not know where the next water will be found, or how
far you are from civilization. In addition, rescuers are
more likely to find you if you stay in one place. When
in a survival situation, therefore, unless there is a very
good reason for traveling, it is best to stay put. If you
do have to travel, for example because flooding or
forest fires threaten your campsite (see page 122),
make sure you have all the proper equipment for the
particular terrain you will cross, and plan
your route carefully.

CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL
Travel in wild areas is vastly different from moving in urban ones.
There are different considerations, ranging from terrain to mode
of transportation. Walking across country requires sturdy boots,
while the use of animals involves specialized equipment
and extra food supplies.
 ON THE MOVE
122

DECIDING TO MOVE
E VEN IF YOU are on a well-planned
expedition, traveling may
Animals may move in on your food
supplies, or a natural disaster,
expose you and your party to such as a flood or forest fire,
many unpredictable risks. In a may destroy the vegetation
survival situation, these risks around you. Before you start
become more pronounced. It your journey, you should
is important to be properly carefully assess the terrain
prepared and to have a sound you will have to cross.
plan. If you are waiting to be Floods
rescued you should stay where Floods destroy vegetation and leave a thick
layer of mud eveiyivhere. This may make it
you are. You may have to move
difficult to find plants to eat and diy wood with
camp, however, for various reasons. which to construct shelters and fires.

ASSESSING THE TERRAIN

Mountains
Treeless mountains provide little shelter, and
there is a danger of rock falls, snow, ice, and
changeable weather. You may need special
Temperate Forests
equipment and mountaineering skills to
In a forest there is often the danger of dead
negotiate dangerous slopes (see page 146).
trees falling on you. Dangerous animals,
such as wild pigs, may inhabit forested
areas (see page 166). Although shelter
materials and food may he easy to find,
movement may be difficult.

Deserts
Water is the key consideration
in the desert (see page 142).
With no clouds to retain heat,
temperatures can soar during
the day and drop severely at
night. If you have to cross a
desert, you should travel only
at night, from one waterhole to
the next.
 TRAVEL PLANNING
123

Assessing Your Companions

A group of survivors must
elect a leader, who should Working Together
Mothers and children are Tloe group will have the best chance
assess the capabilities of each quite resilient, but need of su rvival if it stays together, its
individual before making a careful consideration
integrity maintained through good,
plan to travel. Each person's caring leadership.
strengths and weaknesses
Watch out for signs of depression,
must be carefully and Injured people
and involve everyone in the
privately considered by the may hold back the activity of the group
others and expose
leader, whose plan of action
them to danger
will be determined by what
Older people m ay be
the group as a whole is vulnerable to heart attacks
capable of doing. Leadership - or they may be the fittest
is very difficult, especially ones in your party
under the pressure of a life- Individuals may
or-death situation, and he inappropriately
particularly if some people dressed for walking

are unwilling to be led.

Being Prepared
Before moving anywhere, you must find out as much as using Binoculars
possible about the land that you intend to cross. Do not Binoculars save a lot of legwork. Adjust
always assume that maps are accurate (see page 126),
their width and focus until you can see
particularly when planning where to get water. A series
one sharp image, then look through
of short, lightly equipped reconnaissance expeditions is
well worth the effort before you travel anywhere. them into the terrain. Survey the area
from different vantage points, trying
to understand where streams and
rivers flow, and the lie of the hills.

Rivers Scanning
Rivers are dangerous, and you Scan very slowly, looking hard into,
should approach them with Jungles rather than at, the landscape.
care. To cross a river, you may Tloe heat and moisture of jungles
have to search for fallen logs to are unpleasant and unhealthy
use as bridges, or shallow, for humans, hut allow insects
narrow parts that you can and bacteria to flourish. Small
wade (. see page 150). There cuts get infected, food goes bad, Savannah
may also he dangerous and clothing is permanently Water is an import ant factor to consider Beach and Sea
animals such as crocodiles soaked with either rain or sweat, in tropical grassland. You may have The sea must never be
living there (see page 75). or both. Travel is particularly trouble finding shelter (see page 53). underestimated. It is always
difficult in secondary jungle Bear in mind that you may also be dangerous. In tidal areas,
(see page 145). exposed to danger from the predators walking along flat sand at
that hunt the large herds of herbivores low tide is much easier than
usually grazing these enormous areas. negotiating inland dimes or
cliffs. You must, however,
watch constantly to ensure
that you know which way the
tide is going. There may be
dangerous creatures on the
beach or in shallow water
(see page 109).
 ON THE MOVE
124

Finding Direction
D irection-finding is the most important aspect
of navigation, so a reliable compass is your
that other essential part of navigation (see opposite).
There are many different types of compass, all of
most important tool while you are on the move. A which work because they are attracted to the poles
watch or clock comes a close second, since it can of the Earth’s magnetic field. If you do not have a
indicate both direction and elapsed time, by which compass, you can find basic directions by using the
you can estimate the distance you have traveled; sun and stars, and by watching animals and plants.

Making a Compass
Compasses is attracted by the Earth’s magnetic
If a piece of magnetized ferrous metal
Compass needles indicate magnetic (containing iron) is freely suspended, field. You can take advantage of
north and magnetic south, the poles of it will swing around until it hangs in this to make your own compass, by
the Earth's natural magnetic field. If you a north-south axis. This is because it magnetizing a piece of metal.
imagine the Earth as containing a large,
vertical bar magnet, the poles are at the
top and bottom of the magnet, where
the magnetic charge flows out. There Instead of using a piece
of silk to magnetize a
are many different types of compass.
needle, a magnet will do
Walkers should keep a simple compass the job faster
for emergencies (seepage 28), but use a
protractor-type compass (such as a Silva
compass) for basic navigation and 1 Magnetize a needle by stroking it
orientation (see below). Prismatic repeatedly in one direction with a piece of
compasses contain built-in prisms, silk, such as your scarf (seepage 142). This
through which their bearings are read, generates a charge of static electricity.
and are sturdy and accurate. Some of
these compasses incorporate mirrors, as
well as, or instead of, prisms. However,
they are quite expensive. A simple Silva
compass is all you really need for
Allow needle to
accurate navigation, in order to avoid move freely by
complications and errors. floating it in
Pointer shows bowl of water
direction you should Distance
follow after sett ing measurements
2 Float a blade of grass
in a bowl of water, and place
the needle on it. The needle will orient itself
so that it points in a north-south direction.

Using a Razor Blade

In an emergency, you can make a
compass from a razor blade, if you
have one, instead of a needle.
However, you should blunt the blade
first on a stone, and be extremely
careful when
magnetizing it JtlKtSStt
as above.

Razor Compass
A protractor compass allows you to measure Magnetize a blunt
bearings on a map without having to move razor blade and
the compass from its position (see page 3 When the needle has settled, check suspend it on a piece
130). This saves carrying a separate the position of north using other of string so that it can
protractor and using mental arithmetic to guides (see opposite), and mark the swing freely and ^
calculate your route. north end of the needle. You can now point north-south. \
use the needle as a compass.
 FINDING DIRECTION
125

USING THE SUN

Since the sun always rises in the east long as you can see the sun and know You can also make a sundial, or use a
and sets in the west, it can be used as the approximate time of day, you can watch or clock as a protractor to find
a simple indicator of direction. So as orient yourself in relation to the sun. north and south.
South Direction North
Direction
of SUN of SUN Sundial
Place a vertical post Improvised
in the ground. In the sundial
morning, mark the tip
of the post’s shadow
(west in the northern
hemisphere). Tie a
string the same length
as the shadow to a
stick and draw an arc
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere around the post. Mark
Point the hour hand at the sun. In the southern hemisphere, point the
where the shadow touches
Imagine a line halfway between the 12 o'clock mark on the watch at the
the arc in the afternoon (east)
hour hand and 12 o’clock. South sun. North lies halfway between
will be at the head of that line. 12 o clock and the hour hand.

USING THE STARS

Stars never move relative to each movement of the Earth. Only one star northern hemisphere to find north. In
other. They only appear to move appears not to move - the North, or the southern hemisphere, you must
across the sky because of the Pole, Star. This star can be used in the use the Southern Cross to find south.

Northern Southern
Hemisphere Hemisphere
Looking at the Big Use the Southern
Big Dipper
Dipper, draw an Cross to find
imaginary line approximate south.
between the two stars Draw an imaginary
that form the front of line from the cross¬
the dipper, and piece, about 4 '/,
continue it about times its length.
four times the South should be on
distance between the horizon below
those stars to find the this point. Two
North Star. This star bright stars below
lies over north on the cross help you to
the horizon. find the right point.

Natural Direction Indicators

The natural world is far

Weaverbirds
better attuned to the
Some birds can be
Earth’s magnetic field used as basic
and to direction than direction finders.
humans. Plants always For example, some
grow toward the sun — species of weaver
build their nests
facing south in the
only on the west
northern hemisphere and sides of trees. If
north in the southern you are in an
hemisphere. Sunflowers area where these
follow the movement of birds live-for
the sun across the sky. example, South
Africa - they are
The North Pole plant of
reliable guides
South Africa leans Termite Mounds to direction.
towards the north. Tree Some termite nests are built along a north-south
rings are often wider on axis. They thus receive maximum warmth in the
the side facing the sun. mornings and evenings, yet are shaded at noon.
 ON THE MOVE
126

USING MAPS
M ANY TYPES of map exist, each designed for
different purposes. Choosing the right map is
measurement on the map, the real distance over the
ground is 50,000 times greater). They have evenly
vital if you are entering unfamiliar territory. You will spaced grid lines, which may correspond to units of
need large-scale maps of the whole area you intend latitude and longitude. The lines divide the map into
to visit, as well as for the parts you intend to walk squares, each of which is identified by the
over. Maps on a scale of 1:50,000 are ideal for coordinates of the vertical and horizontal grids.
walkers (this scale means that, for every Learn to allow for inaccuracies on some maps.

COMPARING MAP AND GROUND UNDERSTANDING A MAP

The scale of a map is given in the key at its foot, usually as Landscape is shaped by water, which runs across it in
a ratio of one unit of measurement on the map for a given streams and rivers, creating ridges, hills, and valleys. Man¬
number of such units on the ground. A good map scale for made features, such as roads, can change very quickly. To
backpackers is 1:50,000, which is the metric counterpart of understand the lie of the land using a map, first identify the
maps of one inch to one mile. Much map information rivers, then the valleys and ridges in between, which
remains invisible at ground level especially in low-lying change very little during the life of a map.
areas that are concealed behind ridges (see below). Holding
the map, you can use compass bearings to identify the
landmarks visible in front of you and work out where your
route lies on the ground.

Houses, House

Saddle
A valley, and the river that A saddle is a depression in a
created it, appears on a map as a ridge between two hills or
House Barn
swirl of lines of equal height, mountain peaks. On the ground,
showing its shape exactly- if you are looking from one end,
Intervisibility
particularly the parts not visible you can see only one hill. A
From the ground you
from the ground. Height above saddle is generally shown on a
will only be able to
see some of the sea level is marked as numbers map as two circles, joined with
along the lines. curved contour lines.
countryside ahead of
you. The areas of
ground you can see
between your
position and the
point you are
heading for are said
to be “intervisible
Comparison of the
photograph (above!
and the map of the
same area deft!
shows bow limited
the view might be. It
can be difficult to
estimate the distance
of objects visible on Hill Ridge
the horizon. A map shows a complete ground Rivers are always separated by
plan of a hill most of which is ridges. These are drawn on a
House
not visible from any one position map tike the fingers of a hand. It
Bam on the ground. You have to is often easier to walk along the
Areas out of Distant Distant imagine what you are unable to top of a ridge than in a valley,
11 kilometre
photograph items are items are see. Height is marked as if particularly in a dense jungle.
concealed t isible ~1 7 mile
painted on the hillside.
 USING MAPS
127

Gradients
Map contour lines join together areas of the
same height. The heights of some contour
lines are also marked. They are usually Grid References
written facing down the slope, as if painted I / ;/ / /V^—- A grid allows you to find a position on a map
on the side of the hill.

cuff
(((((£St!
■riff
exactly. The vertical lines are called eastings, while
the horizontal lines are known as northings.
Eastings are always quoted first when
It is important to know the heights 1 \ V^--—
of the steps between contour a grid reference is given. Reference letters may also
lines. Laige contour he given for the section of the map in which the
intervals may Steep Slope position lies. When determining a grid reference,
conceal cliffs. Lines very close follow the vertical line just left of the position to
together indicate the foot of the map to find its coordinate, or
, i >ery • steep slopes. eastings - for example, 04. Estimate the number of
tenths from the grid line to the position - in this
case, 5. Repeat with the horizontal grid line just
below the position
(410). Add the
reference letters,
if necessary.

-Position lies
on northing

OO O O o
—cn CD -sr 10

_Position lies in
between two eastings
Convex Slope Concave Slope
Accurate Position
You cannot see the top of a convex 1 ou can see the summit of a
The above method provides a six-figure grid reference
slope while you are standing at the concave slope from the bottom, and
(045410). If your map includes grid reference letters,
bottom. The contour lines are dose it has a gentle gradient at the
you can insert the ones relevant to your position
together at the foot of the slope, and bottom. On a map. its contour lines
before the reference numbers.
spread out toward the top. bunch up together toward the top.

Measuring Map Distances

ESTIMATING
It is vital to be able to measure the distance must be flexible. A map is reasonably
Journey Time
you have to travel and your approximate accurate for horizontal distance only.
position at any time. Routes rarely follow a Calculating the effect of the gradients Naismith’s Rule is used
straight course, so your estimating technique requires use of Naismith’s Rule (see right) to estimate journey time,
taking account of both
distance and topography.
Generally, you lose time
climbing hills, but gain it
on the way back down,
although steep descents
may slow you down.
Naismith suggests that you
should allow 60 minutes
for every 5 km (3 miles)
traveled according to the
map, adding 30 minutes to
that total for every 985 ft
(300 m) that you climb.
T Starting at a corner of a sheet 2 When you reach the corner 3 Work out the total number
For descent of moderate
of paper, align the edge with of the paper, rotate it, of kilometers or miles. Marking
slopes, subtract 10 minutes
the route. Using a sharp pencil, continuing along the edge of steep gradients will help you
for every 985 ft (300 m) of
mark the first turn of the route. the sheet. Use symbols for any when you estimate how long
height that you lose, but
Rotate the paper around the features that you pass. When the walk will take. You can
for very steep slopes add
pencil until it aligns with the the complete route has been then mark your predicted
marked, use the key at the foot journey times, and changes of 10 minutes for every 985 ft
route again. Mark the next turn
in the route, noting landmarks of the map to mark each compass bearing, to provide a (300 km) that you lose.
on the paper as you go. kilometer or mile on the sheet. detailed route card.
 ON THE MOVE
128

Finding your location

I T IS IMPOSSIBLE to be totally lost. Even air-crash
victims know the country or area in which they
determining the lay of the land and finding
prominent features, then relating them to your map,
have come down. Finding your location is a process the narrowing-down process will not take long. You
of narrowing down the options until you can may need to make your own map for a variety of
determine a point on a map. Being able to give an reasons - for example, you may not have a map, or
accurate grid reference by radio ensures your early the one you have is inaccurate. Making your own
rescue. If you know that your location is on a map ensures that your campsite, and water and
particular map sheet, then you are hardly lost. By food locations can be found again.

LOCATING YOUR POSITION

To find out where you are using a see and can identify on the map. point. Taking back bearings from one
map and compass, you must relate A back bearing gives the direction or more features will give you a fairly
your position to the features you can from a feature to your observation accurate idea of your position.

2 Take a bearing to the first house. Add

or subtract the magnetic variation (see
opposite) if it is large in
your area; otherwise you
can usually ignore that
procedure. Identify the
feature on your map. Find
the back bearing by adding
or subtracting 180 degrees
1 Survey the terrain and pick out two from your original bearing,
landmarks that are likely to feature on or by reading 180 degrees
your map. These landmarks (two houses opposite the bearing on
are selected here) should lie at least 20 your compass.
degrees apart from your vantage point.
In jungle, moorland, desert, or snow, there
may be only hilltops, so use map contours
to determine the location of each one.

3 Place the compass 4 Take a bearing

on top of the first to the second
house on your map nou.se (which must
and make sure the be 20 degrees away from
needle points north. the first and easily identifiable
Draw a line from the on the map).
house along the back
bearing you found in
step 2.

USING GPS

5 Mark the second The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses satellites
back hearing on the in low earth orbit to calculate where you are on the
map as in steps 2 ground. Handheld devices usually incorporate an
and 3- Your position altimeter to indicate your height above sea level,
lies where the two and also an electronic compass. This system
back bearings 9. can be very accurate, but requires practice
intersect. A third i before serious use. However, GPS must not be
back bearing will I relied upon as it can provide misleading and
form a triangle - I wrong solutions - always use a map and
inside which you are Si compass too.
located.
 FINDING YOUR LOCATION
129

Making Your Own map

Bearing
▲
N

1 Draw a grid of squares, each 2 Move to a good vantage 3 Draw that bearing on your 4 Take hearings to two other
one representing 1 sq. mile point. Take a hearing to a map, lining tip the grid in a features and mark them on the
(0.6 sq. km). Place an X in the feature and estimate its north-south direction. Add the map. The point at which they
centre to represent yourself. distance (see below). hill at the estimated distance. intersect is your position.

Measuring the Distance

To position a feature on your map, from “X" to another position, which with the first bearing - and the feature
you must first determine its distance can be marked exactly on your map. can then be marked on your map. Its
from you. You can use back bearings The bearing from your new position to distance away from you can then be
to do this, but you must first move the feature gives you an intersection calculated fairly accurately.
A
1 You can measure the A 2 Walk on a bearing of
N N
distance to a feature 90 degrees from north
from your position > r for a known distance
!/
/ either on a printed map (seepage 131) until
/
or on a map that you your next bearing to

/Yh
/
/

/
/
/
/ have made yourself. If
you have drawn a grid, / the hill is at least 30
degrees different to the

/
/
the squares must all be
accurate. First take a /
i first one. Plot your new
position, and the new
/ . -X bearing to a feature, bearing. Where the two
/ /) -
/ •' -;v such as a hill. Draw the bearings intersect is the
/ y
/ bearing on your grid position of the hill. You
' '/
from the cross (your / can work out the
position) in the distance to the hill by
X direction of the feature.
X--/ counting grid squares.

Magnetic Variation

Direction-finding is confused by there Grid

being three slightly different norths. In Magnetic North Tips of location finding
North True
most parts of the Earth, this magnetic North ■ The golden rule is “Trust Your
variation is small enough that most
Compass”. Most people get lost
walkers do not to have to worry about
through believing their own confused
it. However, in other areas, such as the senses instead of their compasses.
Three Norths
high northern latitudes, magnetic ■ Always measure your own bearings
Magnetic north is
variation increases significantly, and where a compass and distances.
may, in some areas, make compasses points; grid north is ■ Make sure you understand how the
useless. It is therefore vital to know the north marked on terrain works, and where the valleys,
the magnetic variation for your area maps; and true hills, and ridges run.
when you are navigating. This must north is the actual ■ Set your map using your compass
geographic pole.
then be subtracted from or added on (seepage 130), then spot the main
Magnetic variation
to your bearing, depending on your features by eye and identify where
is the difference
location. Magnetic variation for the you are going on the ground before
between grid north
area covered is marked at the foot oi and magnetic north. setting off on a bearing.
most maps, using three arrows.
 ON THE MOVE
130

NAVIGATION BASICS
O VERLAND NAVIGATION consists
of a combination of map and
weather, climate, and vegetation.
Navigation across land requires a
compass work, with the aim of constant reassessment of route,
moving across varied terrain in not only to avoid danger, but
the safest and easiest fashion. It also to avoid getting lost.
is nowhere near as precise as
navigation at sea, where the only
Migration
variations offshore are tides and Many birds have built-in navigational abilities,
wind. Speed of movement is greatly which enable them to return to the same breeding
grounds every year from the other side of the globe.
affected by terrain, rock and soil type,

SETTING YOUR MAP

Before you begin a journey, you Apart from the bearing of your along the edge of your compass, or the
should set your map with your destination, you will also need to scale at the bottom of your map. While
compass, so that you know where you know its distance from you, which you walking on a bearing, check your map
and your destination are on the map. can measure using either the scale against the terrain you are crossing.

1 To find the 2 Without moving

bearing from point the compass, turn
A to point B, lay the central dial until
the compass on the parallel north-
the map between south lines align
A and B, with the with the grid lines
direction arrow at on the map. The
the compass end north (red) arrow
pointing the way on the dial should
you wish to go. point to grid north
Read the distance (seepage 129). This
between A and B sets the bearing (the
on the scale on the angle between the
compass edge and line A-B and
compare it with magnetic north) into
the map scale. the compass.

Arrow points to
bearing you
should follow 3 Turn the map until the 4 You can now hold the compass in your hand and
north arrow on the dial follow the direction arrow. Make sure you
aligns with magnetic keep the north arrow on the dial and
north, as indicated by the magnetic needle aligned. When
the needle. The following a bearing,
arrow at the end of always keen the
the compass will compass
now point to the level.
bearing you
have set.

Keep dial
aligned, with
magnetic needle
 NAVIGATION BASICS
131

Navigational Techniques
On land, it is not always possible or yon how to use a compass bearing to important to emphasize that you must
sensible to walk in a straight line negotiate difficult terrain by the easiest always have a bearing set on your
along a compass bearing. The route, without wasting time checking compass (see opposite), even if you
following "tricks of the trade” show your location or getting lost. It is only use it as a reference.

Direct
mute Tu rn to side to
Aim to one side reach destination
of cou rse

Handrail
Navigation can be
difficult if your
Aiming Off
destination is bidden behind a
Following a compass bearing is out)'
large feature, such as a hill, which
possible to an accuracy of about 10 or 20
makes it impossible to take a direct bearing
degrees, less in rough country. If you attempted to
onto it. Rather than attempt exact orientation with
walk, directly to the fork in the river, you could end up at either side
map and compass, you can aim for a linear feature on the
and not know whether to continue walking left or right to reach the
map that will lead you Hike a handrail) to your destination.
fork. By aiming well off to one side of your compass bearing, you
Features commonly used as handrails include rivers, ridges. aii(l
will have no clouht, when you reach the river, of which is the correct
roads. First take a bearing to the handrail feature (in this case a-
direction you need to take to get to the fork.
river), and then walk to it. Follow the river around until the hill
appears, then turn left towards your objective. If as in this case,
Follow contours of the handrail does not lead directly to your destination, take a
hill to keep to the handrail that leads somewhere close, then "jump off" on a compass
same height bearing for the remaining distance.

Detouring
/4s with contouring, detouring takes you off your direct compass
bearing, this time to avoid a large obstacle, such as a bog, that
may not be accurately marked on your map. When detouring,
keep the direct bearing to your objective set on your compass, and.
as you skirt around the obstacle, measure the distance you have
taken away from the bearing. Once past the obstacle, return to
your bearing, traversing the same distance to return to the
original line.

Detour around
Contouring v obstacle, then return
You can waste a lot of to original course
energy when following a compass
bearing that involves repeatedly climbing
up and down hills. The technique of contouring
uses the compass only as a general direction reference point, while
you follow a contour line on the map, staying at the same height as
you negotiate the hills and ridges between you and your objective.
Contouring is particularly effective in a jungle, where following a
bearing is impractical.
 ON THE MOVE
132

ASSESSING THE WEATHER

W EATHER IS THE day-to-day action of
climate. Local changes are caused
of continents, have quite stable weather,
while others have complicated and
by differences in air pressure and changeable weather. True equatorial
temperature. As they pass over climates have no distinct seasons, but a
different types of terrain, localized air daily routine of rain and sunshine.
movements create winds and rain.
Worldwide Weather
Coastal areas usually have onshore
Weather can either he localized in specific areas, or it
winds by day and offshore winds at can move right around the world, affecting places that are
night. Some places, such as the interiors many miles apart - as in the case of a hurricane.

READING THE CLOUDS

Clouds are large masses of condensing prediction of approaching weather. black, low, and massed in large
water vapor. Their presence, type, and The higher the clouds are, the better clusters, while fair-weather clouds are
size indicate the temperature and and more stable the weather is likely high and white. Very low clouds may
pressure of air masses, enabling the to be. Storm clouds are generally cover high ground with mist.

Anvil of Cumulonimbus Cirrus

Tall cumulus formations develop a High, wispy cirrus clouds generally
characteristic dark, flat-topped, anvil- indicate fair weather, but if a steady wind
shaped head that is associated with is blowing, they may portend blizzards or
thunderstorms and heavy rain. ._ snowfall in winter.

Cumulonimbus
Cirrocumulus
When cumulus darkens and begins to
Some cumulus formations do not grow.
grow vertically, cool air is condensing
Drey rise and break up into tiny, high
moisture into droplets, making rain likely.
clumps resembling fish scales and known
as a "mackerel sky."--

Altostratus
Cirrostratus Cirrus clouds can develop into
High, dark., streaks of ice clouds may cirrostratus. and then into thicker, lower,
herald rain or snow within 15 hours gray altostratus that may give rise to the
if accompanied by strong winds.- first drops of rain.

Altocumulus Cumulus
Puff's and rolls of cloud visible at Drifting, billowing puffs of white cumulus
medium heights warn of rain or clouds and a blue sky forecast fair weather
snow within the next 15 hours.—- as long as they maintain their form.

Stratocumulus Stratus
Lo w, irregular layers of dense, gray, or Low, shallow, gray clouds produce long
white cloud rarely produce more than periods of drizzle. Cold winds can
slight drizzle or a sprinkling of snow. increase precipitation.

How landscape affects Weather Forcing Rain

Moist winds are forced
When forced by mountain ranges or hills to rise, moisture-laden winds,
upward by hills and lose
particularly from over the sea, form clouds and lose their moisture as their moisture as rain.
rain. This rain runs back down the forward edge of the mountains into
the sea, causing the coastal strip to have very high rainfall. On the
other side of the mountains, the now-dry winds descend and move
inland. Because they contain no more rain, this creates a “rain shadow’
that leaves the interior very dry (as on the east coast of Australia).
 ASSESSING THE WEATHER
133

Masses and Fronts Weather maps

Air masses are huge bodies of warm, cold, brings characteristic weather changes. Meteorologists compile daily
moist, or dry air at different pressures that Meteorologists use red semicircles to charts that plot changes in
bring different kinds of weather. A front is indicate warm fronts, and blue triangles to air pressure. Forecasts are
formed when two air masses meet, and indicate cold air masses. made by predicting where
Warm air
air masses will move, with
Cold air
mass reference to regional trends.

Warm Front
Cold air is denser than warm air, Because of the difference in If three fronts meet then a cold
so when a warm air mass meets density, when a cold air mass front can overtake a warm front Reading weather maps
a cold air mass it climbs over the moves in toward a warm air that has been hemmed in by The movements of air masses are
heavier cold air. Warm air can mass, it pushes under the warm another cold, dense air mass. The plotted by joining areas of equal
also cany more moisture, and as air. forcing it up where it cools overtaking cold front lifts the pressure with lines called isobars.
it rises and cools the water vapor and condenses into clouds- warm, moist air so it cools and LOW indicates regions of lowest
condenses, bringing heavy rain banging heavy rain followed by condenses into clouds. Rain also air pressure, and HIGH indicates
and then showeis. intermittent showers. falls along an occluded front. regions of highest air pressure.

Natltral Weather Forecasters

Many so-called “old wives' tales" are at night - sailor's delight; red sky at Animal behavior can also indicate
based soundly upon observation. For morning - sailor’s warning” can often weather changes, as can a natural
example, the ancient rhyme, “Red sky' be an accurate prediction of weather. phenomenon such as a rainbow.

Rainbow
When sun shines Using Every Natural Sign
through droplets of
water vapor in the A change in the weather can be
air the drops act as indicated by a change in the wind, or
a prism, splitting the by changes in cloud formation. A dry,
light of the sun into steady wind changing direction or
its component colors.
slacking usually precedes rain.
A rainbow usually
Morning mist or fog indicates stable
indicates good
weather, but wind - especially with
weather, especially
if it is seen in low hill fog - may herald rain. A clear
the afternoon. sky at nightfall indicates a cold,
possibly frosty night, with no clouds to
retain heat. Before rain, people’s
rheumatism can be more painful,
plants may open their pores (and thus
smell stronger), and wooden objects
swell. Sounds seem to travel further,
and there is an air of expectation.

Pine Cones
If wet weather is approaching pine cone
scales absorb moisture and close up.
In dry air, the scales open again.

Migrating Animals Red Sunrise

Animals sense the movements in air pressure A red sky at dawn often means that there is a
that precede cdl weather changes. As a storm lot of moisture in the air, since the sun is
or snow approaches, man y herd animals that refecting off clouds. This sign usually means
usually live at high altitudes will gather that a storm is approaching, and is ref ected WET WEATHER DRY WEATHER
together and move to lower, safer ground. in an old rhyme (see above).
 ON THE MOVE
134

Preparing to Move
O NCE YOU HAVE decided to travel, it is vital to
get eveiything prepared well in advance. Get
that might be useful to you on the trail or in your
next camp, such as shelter materials. In a survival
your kit washed, repaired, and packed. Assess the situation, if you move camp, make sure that you
terrain you will have to cross (seepage 122), and and your companions are fit enough to undertake a
plan your route as accurately as you can. Build up journey. It may be necessary to make equipment
reserves of food and water, and pack eveiything before traveling (see opposite).

USING A BACKPACK

Your backpack should be packed to Sunglasses Personal hygiene items

supply you with food and clothing
Paperback book
while on the move, and also to carry Notebook, map,
and pencils in
the rest of your camping gear in Lip balm
plastic bag
comfort. Do not strap items on the Water bottles
outside - they will get damaged or lost. Gloves Hat
Put everything you will need to get at
Toilet papei
quickly in the outside pouches. Inside, First-aid kit

within a large, strong, waterproof bag, Radio

Plate and
you should pack the lightest, bulkiest Food
utensils
items at the bottom, and the heaviest
ones at the top, to keep the backpack’s Warm Water bottle
sweater in
center of gravity as high as possible. Waterproofponcho
plastic bag
Within your backpack, clothing, food,
washing gear, a first-aid kit, and other Tea bags, Tent poles and pegs

batches of equipment must be secured sugar, and

dried milk, Waterproofpants
inside separate waterproof bags. While
plastic bag
in camp, keep the things you do not
immediately need in your backpack to Billycans
Tent
minimize clutter, and in case you need Mug
to leave your camp quickly. Stove Large, waterproof
bag lines backpack.

Clothes in
plastic bag
Being Organized
Weight should be
Bivy sack If you keep your gear in
carried high on
shoulders
the same, most sensible
place all the time, you will
Sleeping bag
never lose things, and
every item will be readily
accessible when needed.

Bags and Day packs

Carrying a Backpack For short trips, a small pack

Keep a backpack’s center of containing food, clothing,
gravity as high as possible, to and emergency supplies
prevent it from pulling you for 24 hours is much
back. Your legs should do all easier to carry than
the work of carrying the a large backpack.
backpack. A padded hip belt Personal hygiene
alloivs some of the iveight to be Wash kit
items can be kept
transferred from the shoulders
in a wash kit, while
to the pelvis, easing pressure on
the spine and shoulders. Chest travel documents,
straps spread some weight wallets, and travelers’
across the chest. Adjustable checks can be kept in
straps allow backpacks to be waterproof document cases. Day pack Document case
carried high on the back.
 PREPARING TO MOVE
135

Making a Simple Pack frame

1 Cut a light bough 2 Cut notches on all three

about 1 ft (30 cm) arms of the bough. Tie
below where rope or double-thickness
it branches, cord around the Clear tied securely
leaving about notches to onto frame
3 ft (1 m) serve as
above the straps to go
1 fork lYim over your \ Straps held away
f HB off am shoulders. A from shoulders to
knobs. prevent chafing

5 Do not
overload your
improvised
4 Wrap your gear in backpack -
3 Tie the other end; a groundsheet or although this one
of the cords around wateiproof poncho will carry a good
the notch on the and tie it as high as weight. Tie the
central post. Make possible onto the two shoulder
sure that the straps frame on the side straps together in
will fit over your opposite the straps. front to prevent
shoulders snugly, the thin cords
but will not *v from cutting into
be too tight, your shoulders.

Making a Travois

3 Do not lash the last

strut too close to
2 Lash sticks
the ends of the
between the two
main poles about
(poles, since the
poles will wear
4 in (10 cm) apart
B down with use.
k as struts.
■ Leave about
Leave enough pole “ 2 in (5 cm) of
to allow for it to pole below the
wear down —
*<a»te.-w last strut.

Trim /
branches to
make flat Lash struts '
surfaces securely to poles

4 Make sure you tie all

your gear securely to
the travois. You can
Poles should - k drag the travois
be as straight
| yourself, or hitch it
as possible
g to an animal such
* as a horse or dog.
1 Cut two strong, straight poles at least 6 ft Ensure that the load
(2 m) long. Smooth the insides of the poles does not catch your
with a knife so that the load-bearing struts will heels or those of your
fit securely when lashed to them. animal, or get jolted off.
 ON THE MOVE
136
’-=#=---=

WALKING
W ALKING AS A means
of transportation,
organization, and foresight. At
the beginning of a journey, stop
particularly when carrying after 10 minutes to adjust your
equipment, is very different socks, boots, clothing, and
to everyday urban walking. equipment, checking that you
Walking as a group must be are maintaining the right direction.
at the pace of the slowest member, Thereafter, stop every 50 minutes for
and requires detailed planning, a ten-minute break.

PLANNING A ROUTE

Like any team, a walking group must should be flexible in you choice of experienced walkers sometimes feel
have a leader who takes responsibility route, being ready to extend or shorten weak and uncertain, so monitor each
and can assess realistically what the the distance, or take an easier course if member and tactfully propose extra
group can achieve. As the leader, you some members are struggling. Even rest stops if you see the need.

1 Identify your main Long ridge promises

objectives. Marked in yellow satisfying views to
on the map is a two-day either side while
walking
walking route. Before
confirming the route, measure
it roughly for distance and
height, and estimate how long Roadside (C) is
it might take overall (see page convenient
127), taking into account rest rendezvous point with
periods and possible delays group's transport
caused by poor weather.
You also need water for the
overnight stay, so you
nominate the north end of
ing to high
the lake as the campsite (X). convenient drop-off (X) offers water for evacuation if someone summit (B) provides
A revised route, incorporating point for group’s camp with minimum is injured ultimate motivation
the campsite, is-marked transport of deviation from for trip
in blue. original route

2 The direct route between

the starting point, the
campsite, the final peak, and
the finishing point can now be
adjusted to take account of the
features and obstacles that
occur along the w'ay. On the
first day, the group climbs a
hill then descends to the south
of the lake to cross the dam.
The ridge is followed for a
gradual ascent to the next
summit, which is the day’s
main objective. Finally, the
group drops down into the
campsite (X), taking a safe
path to the north of the line
of cliffs, using the ridgeline.
 WALKING
137

3 The second day starts with a

diversion north to use a
footpath to the initial summit, CUfJs
and then to the second
summit (B). The group follows
the high ridgeline, enjoying
the views, and then follows
the ridge down to the road.
"V.
There should, however, he a I f igh ridge g u ides
plan for bad weather while down to road (C)

high on the ridge, because the

cliffs pose a risk in poor
visibility. A safety' route
(hatched line) is devised,
contouring.j(down from the
ridge to the treeline.

Climbing directly to I Safety route descends

the summit may be requires good risibility quickly and directly to
easier in the absence to avoid cliffs road (C) and is suitable
of a nearby ridge for carrying a casualty

hazards of walking
WALKING AT NIGHT
When walking in the wilderness,
hazards include insect and snake bites Walk slowly at night, testing the ground with your foot at each step before putting any
weight on it. Make the best use of the light of the moon and stars by keeping to open
Csee page 180). You will have to adapt
country, away from trees. Crouch down and look upwards, silhouetting the way ahead
your walking style to the type of terrain
against the sky. Look to the sides of objects, rather than directly at them. Stop regularly,
you are crossing in order to avoid
remaining completely still, to listen ahead. Use your map and compass at all times.
injuries (seepage 145). To prevent heat
Night vision takes 30 minutes or more to establish and must be carefully guarded. In
exhaustion, make sure you can adjust
order to look at your map or compass using your flashlight, close one eye. You will
your clothing to cool down without
regain your night vision fairly quickly. But if possible, try not to use a flashlight at
getting cold (see page 23). night, even though you will see other people wearing head-mounted flashlights. If you
are unable to walk in darkness without a flashlight, consider stopping until dawn.

MAKING A HUDSON BAY PACK

1 If you do not have a 2 Spread your gear

rucksack, you can carry your inside the poncho
gear in this improvised in a line to form a Bundle lies
across back
pack. First wrap a sausage. Wrap the
like rucksack
stone in each corner poncho around the
of a groundsheet or bundle of clothing,
poncho to give a tucking in the ends.
secure tying point.

3 Tie up the bundle 4 Sling the

securely with string, pack across your
making sure that all back, with the
your gear is tucked up strap across your
inside and cannot fall chest. You can pad
out. Attach a length of your shoulder
Tie corner of cord from one end to with vegetation to
sheet around the other as a strap. prevent the strap
stone from cutting into
your skin.
 ON THE MOVE
138

WALKING IN SNOW and ice

T he dangers of walking in snow and ice stem
from both the nature of the terrain and the effect
You must be very fit to negotiate polar terrain, and
have the right equipment - without it you would
of cold on the human body. Keeping warm is less not survive very long. Traveling in snow and ice
of a problem in polar regions than overheating, can even be dangerous in temperate areas, and
following by sweating, while working or traveling. should not be attempted without proper planning.

Dressing for Cold Climates

The intense cold of polar regions requires special clothing. To walk in

Hood
such areas you need aids such as snowshoes, crampons, or skis, while A hood should extend well forward
dangerous areas of ice, such as glaciers, require ice axes for safe to cover the face. A warm hat
crossing. To prevent overheating, you must be able to vent your should be worn underneath.

clothing, either by undoing zippers, or by removing layers.

It is vital to adhere to the layering system (see page 22), and
to wear windproof clothing on the outside. Very low Jacket
temperatures and chilling winds make it essential to A jacket should be
be able to cover even the smallest area of exposed windproof and easy
to vent, with plenty
skin in order to prevent frostbite (see page 141). of room for several
Goggles are vital to prevent snow blindess. layers of cloth ing
underneath. It
should also have a
Sunglasses
layer of lightweight
vital equipment These will protect your
insulation inside.
eyes from snow blindness
Some items are essential in polar and U\T damage.

regions. Goggles can prevent snow

blindness. Crampons can prevent you Gloves
from sliding on ice, while snowshoes Three layers should
be worn - thin
help you to walk on the surface of
Ice Spike contact gloves to
deep snow. An ice axe is essential for
A n ice spike can prei >ent skin from
support on icy slopes, while ski poles sticking to metal,
be used as a
help you to keep your balance. braking device if woolen inners, and
you slip and fail. outer mittens that are
both windproof and
waterproof. Gloves
must be secured to
the body and each
GOGGLES
other by lengths of
cord going up the
arms and over the
Pants shoulders so that you
Mountain bibsChigh- do not lose them.
waistedpants with
braces) should have a
it 7ndproof outer layer
with insulation
11 nderneath. Pants

should have rear

zippers to permit Ice Hammer
natural Junctions This is used for
without removitig hammering ice
SNOWS! IOE
the jacket or screws into solid
exposing too much ice when climbing
ICE AXE skin to the open air. (see page 146).

Keeping Warm
Boots
Clothing for cold
These should consist of
regions should
plastic insulated outer shells
consist of several and thick inner boots soled
layers that trap for use in tents and around
warm air between camp. They should be worn
Ski pole them and. so over several layers of thin
Crampon insulate the body and thick socks.
(see page 23).
 WALKING IN SNOW AND ICE
139

IMPROVISED SNOWSHOES

1 Bend a green sapling

over your knee and
flex it gradually
k along its length
until it is pliable.

3 Cut one side of 4 Fit the

both ends of the ends of the
2 Using your branch until they finished hoop j
knife, carefully will rest flush neatly together. 1
scrape away the against each other Bind the ends
inside of the curve. together with string.
This will further
aid the bending
of the wood.
8 Tie the finished
snowshoes to your
6 Lash the three
walking boots with
k pairs of sticks
string. Snowshoes
A acix)ss the
spread the weight
I hoop. These
of the body over
■ will support
a larger area of
f the foot.
snow than do the
feet alone.
5 Bind two short sticks Lash each pair of 7 Weave string in and around
together at their centers sticks across hoop the supporting sticks to form
with string. Repeat with the base of the snowshoe.
two more pairs of sticks.

Techniques for Crossing Snow and ice

Deep Snow
For crossing large expanses of CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING
snowy ground in a group,
it is best to walk in single Cross-country skis are long and thin. They
file, within touching are waxed to enable them to both glide and
distance of each other. grip, allowing forward movement without
Tins prevents anyone sliding backward. Propulsion comes from
from getting lost in a the rear leg pushing backward, while the
blizzard, and if you other leg glides forward. Cross-country skis
fall, the others can are most efficient on deep powder snow
quickly help you up.
where walking is not possible.
An ice cnist above
deep snow will often
bear your weight, but Silent Gliding
take great care. Use your Cross-country skis allow efficient, yet almost
ice ax as a walking aid. silent, travel in wilderness areas where a walker
may not be able to venture.
Negotiating Slopes
Crossing icy slopes or frozen lakes requires
the greatest of care. You should rope
yourself to your companions and use your
ice ax to probe your path for hidden
crevasses, as well as to support you if you
slip. If the ice cracks, spread your weight
over the largest possible sutface area, and
use your ice ax to pull yourself out. Never
walk across a frozen reservoir. If water is
being drained off, there will be an air gap
of perhaps several yards beneath the ice
a nd, if the ice breaks, you will not be able
to pull yourself out. If you slip over on an
icy slope, stab the pointed end of your ice
ax into the ground and lean your weight
on it. It may act as a brake to stop you
from sliding down the slope.
 ON THE MOVE
140

Traveling over Snow

U SING SPECIAL RUNNERS or skis, fast
and efficient movement can easily
can dull all thought, almost endless
winter nights make even the most
he accomplished across ice and deep cheerful person depressed, and
snow. However, ice and even the even moderate winds can
shallowest of snow can be totally drastically increase the
exhausting to cross. Only veiy fit, risk of frostbite.
experienced people with the right
Snow Vehicles
equipment should attempt journeys in Snowmobiles bare largely replaced dog sleds for
polar regions, where cold temperatures both sport and everyday arctic living.

USING HUMAN POWER

On ice and crusted snow, pulks (sleds pulled by

Pulling a Pulk
humans) are very efficient, especially if you are wearing
Pulks save actually having to cany weight, and slide well
skis. In soft snow, skiing requires more effort, and
across ice and crusted snow. They do. however, pick, tip
snowshoes are the easier option, but even those are hard momentum when going downhill, and can be difficult
work. Care must be taken not to overheat and perspire, to slow down and impossible to turn. Ensure that
since your sweat will get your clothing wet. Make sure you can get quickly out of the harness, but
you can vent your clothing to release excess heat. always keep your pulk under control, stopping
at the end of each doivnhill traverse- although
this is not always easy.

WARNING
Watch carefully for signs of frostbite.
Fingers, nose, feet, ears, and face are
affected first, since they have the least
blood circulation. As skin begins to
freeze it feels prickly. Then numb,
waxy-looking patches appear. If not
re-warmed, these patches become
lumpy, then redden, blister, and die,
before eventually dropping off.
pulk underneath
waterproof cover

Using man’s Best friend

Sled runners are coated

with hard plastic to
provide friction

achieved by The sled Traditional Transport

the driver is lashed Sled dogs were traditionally used for winter transport, and are still
shifting his together for considered by explorers to be the best method of pulling supplies Working in Unison
weight from flexibility across snow and ice. Incredibly hardy, able to sleep out in blizzards The team works together as a
one side to and strength
and move quickly over all bin very icy ground (which cuts their feet), pack, with the lead dog acting
the other
dogs are much easier to maintain and far better company than the as the pack leader. He regards
snowmobiles that have largely taken over in day-to-day polar living. the driver as his own pack leader.
 TRAVELLING OVER SNOW
141

Wind Chill
THE COOLING EFFECT OF WIND 0
'We wind can be a
Speed Temperature (°C)SpeedSpeed killer in northern
Calm -4 -7 -9 -12 -15 -18 -20 -23 -26 -29 -31 -34 -37 -40 -43 regions, where it
Equivalent Chill Temperature (°C) can make the air
several times colder
5mph -7 -9 -12 -15 -18 -20 -23 -26 -29 -32 -34 -37 -40 -43 -45
than the actual
1 Omph -12 -15 -18 -23 -26 -29 -32 -37 -40 -43 -45 -51 -54 -57 -59 temperature. As the
1 5mph -18 -20 -23 -29 -32 -34 -40 -43 -45 -51 -54 -57 -62 -65 -68 speed of the wind
20mph -18 -23 -26 -32 -34 -37 -43 -45 -51 -54 -59 -62 -65
increases, its effect
-70 -73
on the temperature
25mph -20 -26 -29 -34 -37 -43 -45 -51 -54 -59 -62 -68 -70 -76 -79
is multiplied.
30mph -23 -29 -32 -34 -40 -45 -48 -54 -57 -62 -65 -70 -73 -79 -82
3 5mph -23 -29 -34 -37 -40 -45 -51 -54 -59 -62 -68 -73 -76 -82 -84
40mph -26 -29 -34 -37 -43 -48 -51 -57 -59 -65 -70 -73 -79 -82 -87
-*•
I I Conditions fairly Cj Conditions very Q Skin begins to freeze I I Outdoor travel can be Extremely dangerous
comfortable with unpleasant; thermal if exposed to open air dangerous; exposed skin can conditions; exposed skin can
normal precautions outer clothing necessary for a prolonged period freeze in one minute freeze in 30 seconds

Making a Sled

1 A sled or pulk can be 2 Any cord touching the ground will

made from a forked rapidly wear through, so lash
tree bough. Tie the bracing pieces along the
ends of tire branches A Make a handle
from a branch
to the main part of
and cord .
the lii>ugh ni JB
tense 'ii the cun e' 'V

Loaded Sled
Wrap equipment in a poncho
and lash it securely to the sled.

3 Lash sticks between the

bracing pieces in order
to form the main carrying
platform of the sled.

4 Lash as many crosspieces

as possible to the braces to
form a secure platform on
which to attach your gear.

Reliable Transport
 ON THE MOVE
142

Crossing deserts
D eserts are usually unpeopled because they
have neither enough water nor sufficient
heat, extremely cold by night. Conditions can also
change rapidly, due to violent sandstorms and
vegetation to sustain permanent communities. They torrential downpours. The desert is a very alien
are places of extreme climate; often very hot by day environment, in which water is a vital commodity
and, where there is no cloud cover to retain the and only the toughest creatures survive.

Dressing for the Desert

The main objective of desert

clothing is to keep body heat Hat
constant. Clothes must protect the A light-colored, brimmed hat reflects
hot sunlight and insulates
body from the heat of the sun the head from the cold at night.
during the day, and retain body Sunglasses -
High-filter
heat at night when temperatures sunglasses prevent
suddenly drop. All body parts must sun blindness.
be covered as a protection both
from the sun, and from the severe
discomfort of sandstorms. Deserts
have virtually no humidity, which Cotton Shirt
A light, cotton shirt should
makes their extreme heat more have long sleeves to protect the
Jacket
bearable than that of other hot A windproof arms from the sun. A T-shirt
regions. Because desert clothing jacket protects worn underneath controls
from thorny sweat evaporation and helps
does not have to protect you from
vegetation, sun. keep you cool.
rain, it can be comfortably porous,
wind, and
allowing for ventilation between nighttime cold.
the layers, and providing insulation
at night (see page 23).

IMPROVISED EQUIPMENT Belt —

A woven or canvas
Because the desert can be such a belt not only
dangerous place, it is important to prevents sand from
Hands
have all the right equipment, especially getting beneath
Protect your hands
your clothes, but
clothes to protect yourself from the from sunburn by
can also be used as
heat and from the ultraviolet rays of covering them with
a first-aid sling
sunscreen.
the sun. You can improvise sunglasses (see page 179 ).
from film, a scarf from a towel or
bandanna to protect your neck, and
boots from cloth.

Goggles
Eves must be protected from the sun at Cotton Pants
all times. Improvise goggles by cutting Tightly woven cotton pants
are windproof and protect
pinholes or slits in a strip of camera film
the legs from sun, sand,
tied around your head with string.
and thorny scrub.
Desert Clothing
Clothing for the desert
must be lightweight and
made of a porous but
strong material. It should
protect you from the
strong, ultraviolet rays
Boots
and heat of the sun Desert boots have
during the day, and also thick, insulated soles,
from the cold at night. and porous suede
uppers that allow
the feet to breathe.
 CROSSING DESERTS
143

Types of desert

An area of land is usually classified

as a desert if it receives less than
10 in (250 mm) of rain a year.
Deserts vary immensely around the
world, depending on their location
and climate (seepage 16). They
can be stony wastes, large areas of
shifting sand dunes, rocky hills and
scrub, or desolate land that can Erg
nevertheless support specialized Large, hot, sandy wastelands with dunes
plants and animals. are known as ergs. They are found in
Australia, North Africa, and Asia.

Stony Desert Cactus Desert Temperate Semi-Desert

Many stony wastelands are ancient sea Some deserts can support specialized plants, such as Although woody shrubs grow here, it is too
beds. These deserts, found worldwide, are cacti, which retain water in their tissues. These dry to support grassland. Temperate semi-
very inhospitable because of a lack of deserts are found in North and South America, deserts are found in North and South
shelter and constant winds. Australia, and Asia. America, central Asia, and Australia.

Protecting Yourself in a Sandstorm

Desert Travel

2 Take whatever shelter you In a desert survival situation, you should not move
can, facing away from the unless you have to. If you must travel, for example to
Wind direction wind. Cover up your body find water, or if there is no hope of rescue where you
completely, keeping your are, you should move only by night when it is cool, if
face and neck protected possible under a good moon. Since it is very difficult to
from the blowing sand. Wait determine exactly where you are in a featureless desert,
until the sandstorm has
finding oases (even assuming you know where they
died down before
are) is far from easy.
you resume
your journey. Improvised Shade
1 Sandstorms are
You can make a patch of shade by hanging a space
unpleasant, and may
blanket or sleeping bag over a length of string tied between
alter the look of a
rock piles or stakes. Scoop a depression in the sand
desert. You should
mark your direction
of travel with sticks
or stones.

DESERT SURVIVAL TIME WITH LIMITED WATER Surviving Without Water

Humans need a minimum of 7-8pts (4-5 liters)
Resting in the Shade
of water per day to be able to travel on foot with
°F NO WATER 3 QUARTS 8 QUARTS °C any degree of safety. In the desert, water
122 2-5 days 2-5 days 3-5 days 50 conservation in your body is imperative, so you
must work only at night, minimize exertion, and
86 7 days 5-8 days 14 days 30
try to avoid perspiring. In temperatures of 122°F
68 1 2 days 14 days 23-25 days 20
(50° C), without drinking water, you will only
Walking at Night last up to five days if you do nothing but rest in
122 1 day 2 days 3-5 days 50 the shade. This time is halved if you walk, even at
night. In a survival situation, therefore, you
86 4 days 5 days 5-7 days 30
should seriously question the need for any sort of
68 9 days 10-15 days 5-15 days 20 movement, unless you have plenty of water.
 ON THE MOVE
144

Traveling Through jungles

D espite being hot, sticky, and full of insects,
the jungle is in many ways a garden of Eden.
jungle, it is humid, dark, and noisy - an intimidating
and uncomfortable place. The humidity and the
Food is plentiful, with no seasons to create intense labor of jungle travel make heat exhaustion
shortages, and fresh water falls from the sky in large a constant danger, so you must carry large quantities
quantities. However, for those unfamiliar with the of water to help prevent this.

PREPARING FOR THE JUNGLE

Hat
You must cover up completely when
A cotton hat should have
traveling through jungle, wearing a brim wide enough to
lightweight, strong clothing that will deflect vegetation away
from the eyes.
dry quickly. You are likely to he wet Important Items
all the time, and must wash your We most valuable items
of your kit should be Mosquito Net
clothing in fresh water daily to keep it The mosquito head-net should
secured with a cord
from rotting. There is no point in around your neck to only be worn at dusk, when
having waterproof clothing, since it ensure that you do not mosquitoes are particularly
lose them (see page 28). active. It is not for use while
will make you sweat. A light pullover
When you are traveling, traveling, since the mesh is too
is useful for cold nights. Keep one set fine for clear vision.
tuck them inside
of clothes clean and dry for sleeping your shirt.
in. Pack all your kit away unless you
are using it. Loosely attached items can
Shirt
be torn away by vegetation, so keep
Your shirt should be
your most valuable items on strong Water Bottle
made of cotton and have
A water bottle is a
cords around your neck. long sleeves. It should
necessity. Wear it
also have a collar that
attached to a belt
can be raised and
to avoid losing it.
buttoned up tightly to
Jungle Medical Kit Make sure that
protect your neck.
you filter and
You must not allow small cuts to purify all the
become infected. Pushing through water you collect First-aid Kit
before drinking it Always carry some sort
spiky or razor-sharp undergrowth
(see page 74). of first-aid kit, either on
inevitably cuts hands. Antibiotic a belt or in a pocket.
powder is very good for preventing
infection. When hacking through thick
jungle, take great care to avoid
machete injuries, which can disable
you and are very difficult to keep from Insect Repellent Bands
becoming infected. You will need lots Wrist and ankle bands
of adhesive bandages for keeping impregnated with insect
Knife - repellent help to fend off
small punctures and cuts covered. Your kukri (large knife)
mosquitoes and other pests.
or machete must be well
protected and secured
in a sheath on your
belt. Carry it in your
hand only when using Pants
it. Check constantly that
Pants must be loose, made
you have not lost it.
of tough, lightweight
material and gathered at
the ankles, either by built-in
Jungle Gear cords or by elastic bands.
When hacking tbn
vegetation, sleeves must
he rolled down. Smear
Boots
the backs of your hands, Boots should have tough soles
your neck, and face with with protection for the toes and
Tropical Medication insect repellent. Do not instep (see page 25). Uppers
Special medical kits are available for put any repellent on should be made of canvas,
your forehead - if you which dries out quickly, and
tropical areas. They contain common
do, the sweat dripping should have one-way valves to
first-aid items, as well as medication
into your eyes will pump out water as you walk.
for countering jungle ailments.
contain repellent.
 TRAVELLING THROUGH JUNGLES
145

Features of the Jungle

Green Canopy
In primary jungle, trees can
grow up to 61 m (200ft) high,
creating a dense canopy that
blots out the sun. The canopy
follows the shape of the
underlying ground, but from
the air, all that can be seen is
the dense vegetative roof. Most
of the animals that live here
inhabit the canopy.

Lush Vegetation
Secondary’ jungle grows where
humans have burned the trees
to make fields. After the
harvest, they abandon these
clearings, allowing sunshine
to get down to ground level,
where it stimulates Shady Forest
tremendous growth. This kind Underneath the canopy, the jungle floor
of jungle is very difficult to remains relatively free of vegetation. Giant
negotiate. A path must be cut lianas grow downwards, and a host of flora
through the vegetation, and and fauna inhabits different levels of the
this is very exhausting work. humid, shaded environment.

moving Through the Jungle

Although primary jungle is easy to

move through, secondary jungle is Rainforest routine
dense, choked, and unpleasant to
The closer you get to the equator, the
negotiate. Cutting the vegetation is more regular the days become. In
hard work, making progress very equatorial areas, dawn and nightfall
slow. Biting insects and sharp, are at the same time each day, and it
cutting vines abound, many of often rains at exactly the same times -
which have dangerous spikes. If usually just as it gets dark. There is no
you get entangled, the best way of gradual dusk, as in higher latitudes,
freeing yourself is to move but sudden and complete darkness.
backwards, reversing the process The daily routine is to get up at dawn;
by which you became caught. work until noon, and take a break
during the heat of the day. If you are
Wait-a-while on the move, you should start looking
Some species of rattan, known as "wait- for a campsite no later than 3 pm.
a-while vine”, can rip clothing to shreds.
If caught, you should wait patiently Removing Leeches
while a companion untangles you. Do not just pull leeches off, since the
mouthparts may remain and cause
The hazards of jungle Travel infection. Dab them with a burning
stick or insect repellent to make them
spiders. Make sure you get an anti¬ relax their grip, then remove them.
The jungle has many hazards, ranging
from wild animals to diseases such as malaria vaccination, and take the
malaria. The constant dampness appropriate anti-malaria medication
may cause fungal infections before entering jungle areas.
of your feet, so powder Use plenty of insect
them regularly (see repellent and hang
page 24). Always up a mosquito net
shake out clothing at night to avoid
and boots before being bitten.
putting them on, in Deadly Enemy
case they have The female Anopheles burning stick
become refuges for mosquito can carry the
poisonous snakes and deadly malaria virus.
 ON THE MOVE
146

Safe Climbing
Y OU SHOULD CLIMB only if there is no other way
of getting around an obstacle - and never climb
through every move, trying to keep three parts of
your body (the toes, fingers, feet, or hands - never
on your own. If you fall or get stuck, no one will the knees) in contact with the rock at all times. Take
know to summon help. The golden rule of all great care to assess the condition of the rock and
climbing is to maintain three points of contact with the stability of handholds and footholds. You should
the rock, emulating the stability of the tripod. Think always use a rope, if you have one.

HANDHOLDS AND FOOTHOLDS

Handholds and footholds are the basis a kick, or with a blow from the hand. your legs, rather than your arms, to
of rock climbing. Before relying on Do not reach too far for holds, or support your weight, and push
handholds or footholds, test them with stand on tiptoe to reach upward. Use yourself upward.

Side Pull HandJam Large Pinch

There may he You can often Grip
holds to the side jam your hand When you are
that you can use or fist into a unable to get a
for balance. Side small crack, good grip on a
pulls are best if pulling yourself protrusion, clasp
you can also use up on a hand it like a brick.
your thumb to lam when there Try to pinch
push inward. is no actual hold. through the rock.

Edging Large Pocket Medium Block.

Use a crack by Holes, or Try to place your
placing the inside 'pockets. ” make entire sole on a
of your foot in it. good footholds. block foothold. If
Run your sole Bala nee yoi i rself the protrusion
along the crack, so that your will only take the
with your ankle arms and legs hall of your foot,
at 90 degrees to take you r weight however, keep
the rockface. evenly. your heels low.

Basic Climbing

If you are a novice, you should not However, in a survival situation, you continue to look as you feel for holds.
climb without the support of a rope may have no choice. Before climbing, If you are in any doubt about your
belayed by an experienced climber. look for the easiest, safest route, and route, retreat and start again.

Keep your Look around

Descending
bauds fairly as wet! as up
high for the Going down feels unnatural,
best balance and holds can be difficult
Ascending to see. Start off on a
Plan several moves gentle slope facing
ahead of your steps, outward. Then turn
and be prepared to sideways as it steepens,
traverse sideways as until you are facing the
well as to go up. Use rock. Look for holds-
your leg muscles to do nut scrabble with
push yourself upward, your feet.
and do not rely on
your arms.

Always look for

Move smoothly and do not Lower yourself
handholds and
dither, retreating to your carefully into
footholds above and to
original position if the footholds - if they do
Use smalt your sides, in case you
moves do not work not support your
movements get stuck going down
weight, you must be
rather than tong After finding a foothold, do
able to come back up
ones that risk not stand on tiptoe, but
overstretching keep your heels low

CAUTION THESE ARE VERY BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR USE ONLY IN A SURVIVAL EMERGENCY. DO NOT USE THEM UNLESS THERE IS NO OTHER ALTERNATIVE
 SAFE CLIMBING
147

Belaying
Belaying is a method of supporting should secure yourself to the rockface or if your partner needs more rope to
someone with a rope to prevent him (“belay point”) before you begin. To ascend, pay out the rope to him in the
from hitting the ground if he falls. You support someone who is descending, reverse of pulling it in.
Pulling In Paying Out
Pass the "lire " rope (L) from your To belay someone who is holding a Fall
partner through your right hand descending, reverse the process
and around your hack, and twist Keep the rope twisted around Always Ire ready to
it around your left wrist, ,4s your your left arm, but do not allow support your partner if he
partner ascends, take up the slack a twist to form in the live end falls. To jam the rope, cross
in the rope and pass it around (L), since this could your left arm over the front
your body, through the break your arm if
of your body, locking
forearm twist, and into S your partner
your forearm against
your right hctpd again. falls. Grip the
Let the slack end of your chest. Lean
rope correctly
the rope t St form a with both back into the
pile at your feet. hands at rope and
all times. your belay
point, and
brace yourself.

Bracing
Be ready to
support your
partner if he falls.

MULTIPITCH ASCENTS
RAPPELING
In order to climb rockfaces higher suitable ledges to belay the other
Rappeling is a quick and easy method
than the length of your rope, you must members of your team before
of descent using a rope. Pass your rope
use multipitch techniques, .stopping at continuing up the rockface.
around a secure anchor point, then
throw the rope over the edge. Stand 2 Upon reaching a ledge, the lead
1 The lead climber ascends, finding the
astride the rope and reach behind with climber secures himself to the rockface,
easiest and safest route up the rockface.
your right hand to pull both sides of If the first segment of the then belays the second climber,
the rope around your hip, over your rockface is very steep and who ascends to join him. If
left shoulder, and across your back. dangerous, the leader may the leader has used
Grip the downside of the rope with insert pegs into the rock as safety slings, the
your right hand, and the upside of he climbs, into which he second climber
the rope with your left. Keeping loops safety slings to take removes them as he
upright, walk backward down the rope. The second ascends the rockface.
the cliff, letting the rope slip climber pays out the rope
through your hands and while being securely
around your body. attached to

Second climber
is belayed by
Rappeling the leader

Control
your speed
with your
right hand.

CAUTION THESE ARE VERY BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR USE ONLY IN A SURVIVAL EMERGENCY DO NOT USE THEM UNLESS THERE IS NO OTHER ALTERNATIVE.
 ON THE MOVE
148

Emergency Climbing
can turn difficult. Even
HE EASIEST CLIMBS you must overcome serious problems using the
experienced climbers get stuck, falling or having resources available. You should therefore
to be rescued. These more advanced techniques are understand these techniques in case you ever have
used by experts to get out of trouble. They are to use them. If, however, you intend to try out some
dangerous and not nearly as easy as they might of these techniques, consult a climbing manual and
appear from these drawings. In a survival situation, take an experienced climber writh you.
CHIMNEYING

Chimneying is a method of climbing ahead and work out exactly how you
inside rock clefts wide enough for the will extricate yourself at the top. You Taking a Rest
whole body. You must, however, look could get stuck at this point.
Chimneying puts strain on muscles
and must be taken steadily. Rest
regularly, leaning back against the
wall with your legs and arms straight.

RESTING

1 Check for other routes before entering a 2 Press one foot against the back wall and
rock cleft. Keep near the outside of the the hand on that same side against the
cleft on dry rock. Brace yourself with both front wall. Move your buttocks and back
legs and hands pushing outward. up the wall, pushing with your legs.

MANTELING

From below, bulges in the rock face holds. The technique that is used to only if there is no way around an
may seem daunting, particularly when overcome such an overhang is known obstacle. It is a difficult technique,
you cannot see beyond to look for as manteling. You should attempt this which requires you to be very fit.

Lift ankle
unto overhang
while leaning
on elbows

Move knee
onto shelf while
pushing down
with bands

1 Pull yourself up to the overhang until you 2 Lean on one elbow, keeping your chest 3 Pushing down with both hands, move
are able to get both elbows onto it, and head as close to the rock as possible. your knee onto the shelf. Push yourself
supporting your weight on your feet. Hook one ankle onto the overhang. smoothly upward and onto the overhang.

CAUTION THESE ARE VERY BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR USE ONLY IN A SURVIVAL EMERGENCY. DO NOT USE THEM UNLESS THERE IS NO OTHER ALTERNATIVE.
 EMERGENCY CLIMBING TECHNIQUES
149

Tying a prussik loop

A prussik loop is a type of slip knot way to attach yourself to a rope, and can
that tightens under load, but can easily be used for climbing up a rope, perhaps
Carabiner
be loosened. Prussik loops are a safe after a fall, or up over an overhang.
A carabiner is a clip that is
1 Make a loop in your 2 Loosely wrap the useful for joining ropes or
hand with one rope gold rope around equipment (see page 152).
(here, colored gold) the red rope again Carabiners with a spring-clip
and bend it over the as in Step 1, to make opening are quicker and
other rope (colored four loops. easier to connect than those
red). Feed the ends
with a screw-in gate, but
of the gold rope
screwgate ones are the safest
back through the
for belaying, rappeling, and
gold loop.
other perilous situations
(see page 147).

Screwgate
ull on the gold rope and 4 For extra friction, repeat Carabiner
e up the loops to tighten steps 2 and 3 until you Always use this
m around tire red rope have made four tight for techniques
j that they are all even. loops around the red that rely on
Take care not to cross rope. Adjust the knot t’eiy secure
any of them. until the turns are connections,
level and tight. such as when
belaying or
rappeling.

PRUSSIKING

With two short ropes and a climbing emergency, if you do not have a to sit in, and secure it to a rope
harness, you can climb a fixed rope proper climbing harness, one may be around your waist with a figure-eight
and escape from serious trouble. In an improvised from a rope. Make a loop knot (.see page 35).

Twist the knot before

The upper knot
pushing it up
must never he 1 Secure your 2 To climb, push
out of reach harness rope upward with your
(here, colored leg muscles until
green) to a fixed you are standing
line with a upright, with your
prussik knot (A). leg straight. To
Attach a second move the upper
short rope (here, knot (A), pull on
colored blue) to the fixed rope
the fixed line below the knot.
Brace yourself
with a prussik Then twist the knot against the
knot (B). Make a to loosen it, and rockface to
loop in the lower slide it up as far as keep your
end of the you can reach.
second rope and
put your foot
3 Slowly move
through it.
to a sitting
position and let
figure-eight knot on
your harness take
Sling made your weight.
with figtt By tightening
eight knot the fixed rope
under the lower
Your weight is
knot (B), you can
supported by
move that knot upward,
a loop of rope
ready for standing upright and
ascending further.
 ON THE MOVE
150

Crossing water
R ivers and streams are always dangerous - from
their headwaters, or source, where they are fast
the surface. Headwaters are easier to cross than
deep water, but take care when crossing fast water.
flowing, narrow, and shallow, to the slow-moving Slower waters are generally deeper than fast ones,
deeps of their lower reaches. Even if water appears and may contain treacherous weeds, mud banks,
to be calm and slow moving, shallow and safe, and dangerous hidden obstacles. Never wade or
assume there are hidden dangers. In even the swim across water if there are safer options
clearest waters you can never see everything below available - do you actually need to cross?

where to Cross

The best place to cross any kind of getting wet, scout upstream and bed is firm, and where a wet crossing
water is where there is a bridge, downstream. You may find a bridge or can be made in safety. Check that the
pontoon, or ferry. Therefore, before a wide, even section where the river far bank is not too steep.

Exposed Rocks S-betid

It is easy to fall off Cross between Deflected V-shape
exposed rocks, bends rather indicates direction
and the river bed than on the r of current
may be deep outside. Water
around them. flows fastest on

Debris
Avoid debris, vegetation, or
fallen trees, which may
ensnare you and drag you
under the water.

Undercut Bank
A high or undercut bank
makes climbing out of
the water very difficult.

Still Waves
Waves that stand
still are caused by
strong current flow
or rocks under the
surface deflecting
water upward.

Rock defects
water upward
Gravel Shoal
This is a good place Crossing Dangers
to bead for when
It is impossible to assess the depth of
crossing - but bear
most rivers without getting wet.
in mind that the
water may flow fast Underwater obstacles are not always
on the other side. visible from the bank, and it is not
easy to determine the strength of the
current and the force of the water.
 CROSSING WATER
151

WADING

Wear some kind of footwear to protect vegetation, or sudden changes in river waves do, and whether there are signs
your feet and to give yourself firm depth. Study the water before you of any underwater obstructions (see
footing. Be ready for deep mud, enter it. watching to see what the opposite). Always cross very slowly.

Loosen the straps of Use a stout, Crossing in a Huddle

your backpack so strong pole Three people can form a
that if you fall it can for support tripod shape to cross a river.
easily be discarded Link arms closely, and
lean in toward the center,
bending forward slightly
at the waist. The strongest
Direction person should be
ofJourney upstream, and he should
Direction
of Flow
make the first moves. The
others should support him
in case he falls. This is a
stable formation, and is very
Direction effective in shallow, fast water.
7 of Journey

Direction
of Flow

. * srw- -

Crossing Alone Crossing in a Line

Use a pole as your probe, then, in the water, as a third leg, maintaining Several people can cross in a line, with the strongest person
an extended “T" shape - like a tripod. Place the pole upstream of you upstream, and the others providing stability, supporting anyone
and lean on it as you lift your leading foot, moving your foot sideways who might fall. The leader will decide where to cross, and should
across the current and replacing it firmly on the riverbed. Take short, take the first steps. Everyone should link arms, with the weakest ancl
shuffling paces, to ensure that the current does not force your leg lightest person in the middle. Cross slowly and carefully. Keep well
backward and cause you to fall over. balanced, putting each foot down deliberately.

SWIMMING Hypothermia

If the water is too deep to wade, Before entering the water, look Strip off (except for footwear) before entering the
you may have to swim. Make a for a suitable landing place on water. Consider wearing waterproof or windproof
clothes to give some protection. The cold makes you
float to help you get across. the opposite bank.
feel lethargic. Immediately after crossing, dry off and
dress in warm, dry clothing, if possible making a
Twist top of bag
tightly, then bend hot, sugary drink. Help anybody who dithers. Work-
neck over and tie in pairs. The leader should check the group carefully
it securely for the symptoms of hypothermia, and be prepared
to give treatment. If sufferers are not warmed
1 Take off your clothes so that they
immediately, they may become so chilled that they
remain dry, and bundle them with your
will die (seepage 163). Wrap them in dry insulation,
gear in a waterproof survival bag.
followed by a plastic or toil blanket. Feed them
foods and hot drinks that are high in sugar, because
this energy is absorbed quickly. The signs of
approaching hypothermia usually appear in the
following order:
■ Shivering, goose pimples, and pale, numb skin.
■ Apathy, confusion, irrational behaviour, amnesia,
incoherence, and belligerence.
■ Lethargy, then bursts of sometimes frenetic energy.
■ Lapses of consciousness, along with slow and
2 Enter the water with care. Cross upstream of shallow breathing and an erratic heartbeat.
your landing place, to allow for the current. Keep your ■ A slow and weakening pulse. This can eventually
body weight off the bundle, but hang onto it with your lead to cardiac arrest (see page 176).
arms. Kick your legs to propel you along.
 ON THE MOVE
152

Dangerous water
A ll water crossings should be considered
.dangerous. Fluctuations in rainfall can radically
bank and controlled by a member of the team. If
forced to swim, always use a reliable float, and
change the safety of any crossing point. The only particularly in rapids, rocks, or fast-moving waters,
way to ascertain depth and current is to send one wear a brightly coloured safety helmet. (Lightweight
man across first, attached to a lifeline secured to the climbing or cycling helmets are perfect.)

USING ROPES TO STAY SAFE

If crossing dangerous rivers on your tree, tying off with quick-release knots. lessening the danger. Always use safety
own, a safety rope can only be used With two or more people, controlled ropes, but ensure that the slack rope
by looping the rope around a rock or safety ropes can be used, very greatly does not entangle those in the water.

If you fall the current will sweep Clip yourself on to the safety
you closer to the opposite bank rope using a karabiner for
additional security

Safety line
secured between
two rocks_
by team members

1 The end of one 2 When Person A

long rope (the “safety line”) reaches the far bank, he
is secured around a rock, and ties the end of the safety line to a
paid out by one man (B). The rock. He clips the karabiner to the safety line and
strongest person (A) takes the other end of that rope and crosses wraps the end of the crossing line around himself to support the
the river. He also carries one end of a second rope (the “crossing person who crosses next. The karabiner is pulled back, and
line”), whose other end is held by another person (C). This rope Person B clips it to his belt. Holding on to the safety line, he
has a karabiner knotted in its centre (see page 147). Person A crosses slowly on the upstream side of it, using a pole. Person C
wears a helmet and boots and uses a pole to probe his way. pays out the crossing line, while Person A pulls in the other end.

3 As each person reaches the far bank, 4 The last man across the
he unclips the karabiner from his belt and attaches it to river (C) unties the safety line from
the safety line. It is then pulled back to the near bank. The the rock. He loops the end of the safety
rucksacks can be hauled across in the same way, their strong line around himself and crosses the river, probing his path with a
carrying straps clipped securely to the karabiner. The safety line pole. The other team members pull in the slack in the crossing
may need tightening to keep the rucksacks out of the water. line, ready to support him if he falls.
 DANGEROUS WATER
153

Building a Bridge

Guide first log with ropes

so that it falls straight

1 To build a bridge, first lower a long log across the river with 2 With the first log in place, slide a second log along it until the
ropes. The end of the log that remains on the first bank should be end reaches the opposite bank. Roll the second log off the first
braced against a short log, which is held in place with pegs. one on to the bank. Try to keep the logs close together.

3 Shinny along 4 Slide a third

the logs to the log along the
other bank and other two.
put a short log Place a short
under their ends log under their
to prevent them ends on the
from sinking into first bank and
the ground. Peg peg them
the logs in place together, as in
so that they do Step 3. You can
not spread apart. make the
bridge as wide
as you like, but
three logs are
usually enough.

Crossing waterlogged Ground

Spread arms and legs

to help you float

mi**"

Lean on
rucksack to
help spread
your weight

By Yourself With Help

Quicksand and bog are merely waterlogged ground, so if you fall in, If you are not alone when you begin sinking in quicksand or boggy
you should be able to float or swim across, providing you can spread ground, another person can lie at the edge of the quicksand, pass you
your weight over as large an area as possible to avoid sinking. First try the end of a long branch, and pull you out. Again, it is important not
running across, stepping on tussocks of grass. If you begin to sink, to struggle or panic, since quick movements will stir up the surface and
discard your rucksack and fall on to your back. Spread out your arms cause you to sink faster than if you just float or move slowly. You may
and legs and swim slowly to the bank on your back by sculling (see find that, if you lean on your rucksack, it will help spread your weight
page 163). Do not panic, and do not struggle. and prevent you from sinking further.
 ON THE MOVE
154

Building a Raft
I f YOU have a lot of supplies and equipment to
transport across a river, or if you want to travel
will remain buoyant, and so that the raft will be as
stable as possible when floating. A raft should not
downstream but do not have a boat, a raft is the be used on a river where there are likely to be
simplest form of craft to build. The traditional rapids, since it may break up and you may be
materials used in raft building are logs, but you can injured. If you use logs to build your raft, it is best
also use bamboo or oil drums, if they are available. to cut leaning trees, since you can accurately gauge
The basic principle of construction is to make as where they will fall. If possible, test your raft in
few cuts as possible in the logs of the raft so that it shallow water before launching it on a deep river.

1 To form the deck, cut 12 to 14 thick, sturdy logs to the same length. Cut six 2 Using a large knife, cut a notch along the whole
more logs, each about 1 ft (30 cm) longer than the intended width of your raft. length of each of the retaining logs, leaving 1 ft
They will act as retainers, holding the raft together. Before fixing the deck logs (30 cm) at each end. The notches should be about
together, lay two long logs across two of the shorter poles to act as a launching half the depth of each log. Take care not to cut too
bed (see page 156). deeply and weaken the retaining logs.

3 Make sure that 4 Lay two notched

each notch is of the logs, carved face
same length and upward, at opposite
reasonably level. ends of the launching
The long logs that bed. These will
will make up the form the base
deck will need to supports. Begin
lie flat on these laying long logs
retaining logs, to between these two
make the deck as supports to form the
level as possible. deck of the raft.

5 Lay each end of the long poles in the notches of the 6 The last log should be a nice, tight fit, bracing all the other
support logs, working from the outside toward the middle of logs against each other to keep the raft together. Even in the
the raft. Alternate the thickness of the logs so that their weight water, however, you may have to take steps to keep the logs
is even from one end of the raft to the other, turning them so in position, adding extra lashings as necessary. You should
that they fit neatly into one another. expect some water to seep between the logs.
 155

8 The two
retaining logs on
each end, above
and below the
deck, must be
firmly bound
together, tensioned
as tightly as
possible. Keep the
knots uppermost,
so that once the
raft is in the water
they can easily be
7 Place the last two notched logs, carved face down, across the raft, on checked and
top of all *he deck logs. These will act as the cross retainers. Remember tightened if
that, in the water, the logs will be floating up into these retainers, which necessary.
serve to hold all the pieces of the raft together.

10 Make sure that

the lashings are
secure, and knotted
well. If you have
time, you can also
lash between each
lengthways log.

9 Lash the retaining logs on

both sides of the deck, using
square knots (see page 35).
11 Lash two pieces
of wood together to
form a cross. It should
12 Wedge the 13 Make a paddle
be strong enough to
crosspiece into the (see page 157).
carry the weight of
rear of the raft, This will act as a
the rudder.
between two deck rudder, and enable
Lash
logs, to make sure you to steer the
crosspiece of
that it will fit. raft. If you want to rudder securely
Adjust the lashing stand up while you
if necessary. Do are steering, you
not lash it in place may have to
at this stage. extend the tiller Rafts and Rafting
(the paddle
handle) by lashing ■ Instead of logs, you could use thick
a long branch to it. stems of bamboo for the deck of your
raft. Lash two layers of bamboo
together, since a single layer would
probably not support your weight.
Instead of lashing retainers above and
below the raft, you can cut holes in
the sides of the stems and thread thin
' branches or rope through them to link
the bamboo stems together to make a
deck. Lash between each of the stems
.■uLi.+Lm foi added security.
■ You will not know how your raft
floats until it is launched. With certain
types of wood, a loaded raft may float
slightly below the water’s surface,
although this is not a serious problem.
■ A raft will turn relatively slowly, so
take this into account when steering.
14 Make sure that the rudder will fit on them in place once the raft is in the
the crosspiece, and then lash it securely water. The raft should be big enough to ■ Try to avoid collisions with the bank
In order to prevent the crosspiece and carry you and your gear safely across or or large objects, since they are likely
rudder from breaking when the raft is down the river. Try to make sure the to distort the raft and break lashings.
launched, take them off the raft. Secure raft will float before loading it up.
 ON THE MOVE
156

Using rafts and boats

I N MANY WILDERNESS areas, dense vegetation and
tough terrain make river, lake, or coastal travel
waters you intend crossing, whether it is improvised
or not. Water conditions can change very rapidly,
the best option. However, you should bear in mind turning a relatively safe journey into a hazardous
that venturing on to water is dangerous, especially one. For this reason, you should not venture on to
when using improvised boats. You must therefore water unless you are experienced or have no other
ensure that your boat is suitable for the particular option. Always wear some form of lifejacket.

LAUNCHING A RAFT

A raft must only be used on slow-flowing waters.

Build it close to the water, since it may be too
heavy to carry to the bank. Before putting the raft
in the water, tie it to an immoveable object,
leaving enough slack in the rope to enable
the raft to be launched.

Floating
Using Levers Once you are satisfied that the
Launch the raft by levering raft will not fall apart in the
up one side with poles, water, you can lash the rudder
so that it slides into on to it, and begin loading your
the water. equipment in the centre.

SAILING A RAFT

For long journeys down a straight river, rig up a mast

Rope attached to boom enables
and sail to take advantage of the wind - as long as
sail to be raised and lowered,
the wind is blowing in the direction you want to according to wind conditions
go. Without a keel, the rudder will only control
direction in a light wind, but it will enable you to
keep the raft straight. If the bow digs into the
water, reduce the area of sail. You will only be
able to move downstream with the current.
Top boom is notched so
that it can be raised and
lowered by the line going
over the top of the mast
in order to reduce sail
Ropes keep lower Use a poncho
boom from or groundsheet
swinging about as a sail

Poles keep
mast upright
Short lengths of wood on
all four sides of the raft Rigging a Mast
provide mounting slots for and Sail
the bracing posts Step a log mast into
four short pieces of
wood and lash it
securely. Brace the
mast with four
poles, each lashed
Paddle lashed to to the deck and
Mast supports a re
stem acts as rudder mast. Use a
stepped in notches
and lashed securely
waterproofponcho
or sheet as a sail.
 USING RAFTS AND BOATS
157

Choosing a boat

Every small boat has its strengths and beyond its capabilities. Some designs, such as the modern inflatable, can be
weaknesses, and must never be used such as the coracle, are only suited to used in conditions in which other
for the wrong purpose, in conditions mild, fairly slow waters, while others, boats would be totally unsuitable.

Inflatable
An inflatable can be used in relatively adverse
sea conditions, and is a favourite craft among
scientists and explorers. It can still be steered
even when swamped by heavy seas. However,
surface ice and other obstacles can puncture
the floating compartments. When using an
inflatable, you should keep the weight fowards
to prevent the boat from being lifted from the
surface and blown backivards.

Outboard Motor
A flat-bottomed boat with an outboard
motor is best for use in wide, steadily
flowing rivers. It is capable of
covering long distances. An Coracle
outboard motor weighs down the A coracle requires skill in construction and
stem of a narrow boat, use. It consists of a framework of pliable
particularly when the propeller branches lashed into a half-sphere shape, and
digs in, and must be counter covered with an animal hide or tarpaulin
balanced by weight in the bows. The shell. A coracle is suitable only for the most
length of its propeller shaft will reduce sheltered and slow-flowing waters.
the draft of the boat to a certain extent.

Boating Tips

Kayak ■ Always wear a lifejacket, or

The traditional Eskimo kayak is the improvise with empty water bottles in
basic design for the toughest modem your pocket.
canoes capable of negotiating rough ■ Secure every item of equipment by
waters. Craft with skin or fabric shells rope to your vessel.
are not as robust as fibreglass versions, ■ Do not overload the craft.
but they are lightweight, and can easily
■ Research the river you intend to use
be carried around rapids too difficult
before launching your vessel.
to negotiate by boat. Skill is required
■ If you are using an outboard motor,
when paddling a kayak, particularly
when it is loaded with equipment, or accelerate to get the boat planing, then
when it is being used in rough water. throttle back to keep it on the plane.
With no keel, kayaks capsize easily.

1 To make a paddle, strip a 2 Bind two shorter, straight 3 Lash a third piece of wood to Finished Paddle
strong, green branch of stems pieces of wood at the end on the centre, forcing it into the The finished paddle may require
using a knife. Cut a smooth the sides of the wedge to act as gap, and against the wedge relashing when it gets wet, since
wedge shape at one end. the blade of your paddle. shape at the end of the handle. the string may stretch.
 ON THE MOVE
158

USING VEHICLES
T he basic requirements for off-road vehicle
travel are well-distributed weight, the correct
take three so that one can be towed by the other
two without either of them straining. A large¬
tires inflated to the right pressures, and good wheeled truck with high axle clearance can carry
driving. Four-wheel drive, a high power-to-weight your heavy equipment, with two four-wheel-drive,
ratio, and other modifications help, but they short-wheel-base vehicles to carry passengers and
increase fuel consumption and tire wear. Never take give tows. You should complete a vehicle
less than two vehicles on an expedition; if possible, maintenance course before driving into wild areas.

CHOOSING AN EXPEDITION VEHICLE

The most powerful four-wheel-drive vehicles Ideal Vehicle

available can go almost anywhere, but use up Roof rack There are a great many
A roofrack should have Access Ladder
too much fuel to be viable for an expedition. different kinds of sturdy
high, strong sides, and he Having a ladder leading
Gasoline engines are lighter and cheaper than vehicle that can be used
able to carry bulky up to the roof allows
equipment that will not fit
for expeditions. The easy daily loading and
diesel engines, and provide more power.
inside the vehicle. Ideally, vehicle that you choose unloading, plus access
However, large diesel engines can provide a lot should ideally have
the roofrack should be for using the roof of your
of power in very low gear, for steady movement designed so that the gear most of the features vehicle- for observation,
over rough terrain. In addition, diesel fuel is can he lashed on with shown below. filming, and safety, as
often a quarter of the price of gasoline - and ropes. Cany only solid well as a cool spot fo r
items such as crates on resting off the ground.
diesel engines use less fuel. A long wheel base the roofrack
provides a lot of internal space, but makes it
difficult for the vehicle to negotiate very rough
ground without getting bogged down or stuck
on obstructions.

Engine
Engines that use gasoline are
lighter, more powerful, and
generally cheaper than those that
run on diesel fuel. However, diesel
engines can run powerfully at very
low speeds, and tend to last longer
than gasoline engines. In addition,
diesel is usually much cheaper
than gasoline in many countries.

Tires
Radial tires are best for
off-road driving, hut you re Tire
should take care not to Several spare tires must he
da mage their sidewalls four-wheel Di'ive earned, hut think carefully
on rocks. Deflate tires Good grou nd clearance Four-wheel drive is essential about where on the vehicle
slightly before crossing is necessary for crossing on rough or boggy tracks you keep them. Although
soft sand, then increase rough ground. If your and in sand. If you cannot easily accessible if bolted on
their pressure once you vehicle does not have a get a fou r- wheel-drive to rear doors, hoods, and
are hack on a solid road. high axle, you are more vehicle, you should at least roofracks, they are likely to
likely to get hogged down have a front-wheel-drive get damaged or stolen .
in soft ground, and may one. so that you can get out
even damage the chassis of soft ground if you get
by getting stuck on a rock. stuck (see opposite).
 USING VEHICLES
159

Driving in extreme Conditions

Always drive slowly and carefully, the road. Then proceed at walking Tire pressure can be reduced on soft
particularly in extreme conditions. Stop pace, if necessary. Always use the right ground, but must be increased when
the vehicle and scout ahead on foot if tires for the conditions — for example, you return to the road. Check your
you are in any doubt about the state of snow tires on icy, snow-packed tracks. vehicle before starting out on a drive.
Muddy Tracks
Go slowly along muddy
Daily Checks
tracks, taking care not to
slide, spin the wheels, Before setting off each
ground the chassis on morning, you should
rocks, or bog down the
always make the following
vehicle. Stay in the center
checks to your vehicle:
of the track. Use four-
■ Check the fuel, oil, and
wheel drive unless on
firm roads, when you water, and the brake and
can save fuel and tire hydraulic fluids, as well as
wear in two-wheel drive. the axle oil levels.
■ Start the engine and allow
Crossing Sand it to warm up.
Sandy ground can ■ Walk around the vehicle
vary from a firm, flat and check the tire treads
surface to deep, soft
Crossing Water and sidewalls, wheel nuts,
dunes. There may be
Drive slowly and steadily steering arms, lights, and all
boulders that could
through water, having external fixings.
smash the engine
inserted the wading bungs, ■ Check the brakes. Inspect
sump. When driving on
and stopped up the axle
sandy ground, be alert the engine for oil or water
breathers. Cover the engine's
and do not be tempted leaks, and also for any
electric parts with canvas,
to travel too fast for exhaust problems.
leaving air intakes clear.
the conditions.

Recovery from Soft Ground

1 If your vehicle gets stuck in mud, sand, or snow, and you 2 If pushing fails, or you have no one to help you, dig down in
cannot get out even using four-wheel drive, try backing out, front of the wheels to free them, and build a gradual upward slope
“rocking" between reverse and first gears. If this fails, a passenger in front of the holes. Tiy to drive gently forward and out. Do not
should try pushing the vehicle while you continue to drive rev the engine, since this may cause the wheels to spin and dig in
forward. Admit defeat early, before you get in too deep. even deeper.

Wood in front of
Winching
wheels provides a
solid surface on
If you have a winch, you can use it to get out of soft
which to drive
ground. Attach the cable to a tree or other
strong point. Run the cable over a log to
keep it clear of the ground. Gently drive
and winch at the same time.

3 If you cannot drive out even after digging out the wheels, lay
pieces of wood or sand ladders, if you have them, in front of the
wheels. Even a blanket may help to give the tires more grip. Drive
out carefully. You may have to keep replacing the wood as you
drive over it, until you reach solid ground.
 ON THE MOVE
160

Other Transport
I N AN URBAN environment, we regard travelling by
bicycle, horse, or motorcycle as enjoyable forms
but should be used well within their maximum
capabilities. This may mean that you have to travel
of recreation. In the wilderness, however, they can more slowly than you might on foot. Your choice of
provide serious means of moving ourselves and our pack animal, bicycle, or motorcycle will depend
equipment from one place to another. Animals and upon the terrain you will cross, the duration of your
vehicles must not be overloaded or driven too hard, journey, and the luggage you need to carry.
Using Animals

Elephants
Elephants are
enormously strong, but
they walk quite slowly
and are not the first
choice for carrying
equipment. They have
specialized needs and
work only with one
handler, sometimes
taking several months
Camels to gain trust in a new
Camels can each cany about 272 kg (600 lb) at a steady owner. They need a
rate over rough terrain. They can be used in various terrains large amount of food,
and conditions, from snow to soft sand. However, they can which must be earned.
be wilful and difficult to control.

Dogs
A seven-dog sled
team can pull
272 kg (600 lb)
about 32 km
(20 miles) pet-
day. Very hardy.

fillHERS■MiMM
Huskies can live
out in the snow
and enjoy pulling
sleds. However, Horses
they need a lot of Pack horses must be fed, watered, and rested daily, and need
fresh meat, which regular rest days, but they can cover 80 km (50 miles) per day for
must be added to a Jew days at a time. They can cany 90 kg (200 lb) at 6 km/h
the load. (4 mph). Mountain-bred horses are best for wilderness treks.

looking After Animals

Animals must be looked after very carefully.

Although it is important not to treat them as pets, Brush animal's coal
before loading or
their needs must be met. You must establish a daily
saddling up
routine for watering and feeding them, and always
stick to this routine. Treat any injuries immediately.
Look after your animals before you look after
Grooming
yourself. Pack animals should be groomed before
Groom animals
being saddled or loaded, to ensure that no grit rubs
regularly, checking
their backs under their loads. Elephants need daily for injury, sores, and
bathing to prevent their skin from becoming sore, ticks at the same time.
as well as dust baths to keep fly bites to a Pay particular
minimum. Hooved animals, such as horses and attention to legs and
mules, must have their hooves cleaned eveiy day hooves, watching how
each animal walks.
with a hoof pick. If they will be walking on roads,
Any stiffness or
they will need shoes. Other animals that are
tenderness must be
sometimes used for carrying luggage include treated immediate!)’.
llamas, oxen, yak, donkeys, and even sheep.
 OTHER TRANSPORT
161

Using Motorcycles

Heavy-duty motorcycles can he used Petrol tank panniers

to cross almost any terrain, but must can be added. They
be properly looked after. It is essential should he soft, so that Motorcycling Tips
you can rest your
to load a motorcycle correctly, chest on them Air-cooled motorcycles may
taking into account both overheat at slow speeds in
weight and balance. Spare hot conditions, misfiring and
parts and tools will add running erratically. Park in
appreciably to the load the shade and allow the hike
you have to pack, but to cool down. Drive
daily servicing must carefully, and he aware of
become an absolute other road users who may he
routine. unused to motorcycles. Keep
the hike clean to help keep
Keep the heaviest
it serviceable. Wash it with
weights above
the rear wheel
hot water and soap, rinsing
each part well. Check all the
connections every time you
Do not add too much clean the bike, and on first
weight to the rear, as the
parades (see page 159).
hike will not steer

Side panniers can be

added They should he
Weigh! Distribution
as slender as possible to
Weight must be located evenly.
reduce wind resistance
If well to the rear of the back
and maintain stability
wheel, the front wheel may not
steer, and the bike could tip up.
Too much weight fortvards will
from them
break the front suspension.

Using Bicycles

Mountain bikes can be regarded as an

aid to walking. On rough ground, Cycling Gear
consider wearing a rucksack rather than You can wear almost anything for
cycling, hut trousers should be held
loading the bike with panniers, which
in at the ankle by gaiters so that
make the bike too heavy to carry. Keep they do not catch in the chain.
well separated from other bikes — and Always wear a helmet and goggles.
any other users of the track or road.
Handlebars must be able to support
When wearing a rucksack, keep your
your upper body, and the weight of
speed down, particularly when your loaded rucksack
descending steep hills.

Wear a u’indprooj Improvised Repairs

jacket, and keep a
pullover handy Jot There is a limit to the number
when you stop of spare parts that you can
cany, so do not risk breaking
anything on your bicycle. If
you do need to make repairs,
you should ride very gently
afterwards until you can get
the part fixed permanently.
Wire is useful for replacing
rivets on broken chains,
rejoining snapped cables, and
Footwear can
attaching brake levers. Duct
Wheels can he trainers,
hiking hoots. tape will temporarily seal
he easily buckled,
particularly when the hike or special punctured inner tubes. If you
All-terrain Transport cycling hoots
is carrying heavy gear lose your pump, you can
Mountain bikes can be used in that fit into
stuff a flat tyre with grass and
almost all terrains and conditions. cages
Gaiters keep trouser legs
leaves until you can get it
You should be prepared, however, to out of the chain, and can
get off and carry or push the bike up prevent trousers from being
pumped up again.
steep hills or across streams or mud. ripped by vegetation
 APPENDIX A
162

APPENDIX A

Abandoning Ship
L eaving the safety of a ship at
d sea is a very serious and
given by the captain, the person best
qualified to judge when that moment
dangerous action. Even if it is has arrived. Before leaving a vessel,
very badly damaged, a ship can take with you every piece of
offer you warmth, shelter, water, equipment that might be useful to
and food. It will also contain you, as well as all the food and
radios, flares, and other lifesaving freshwater you can carry.
equipment. You should only leave
Lifer aft
at the last moment, for no other
Most commercial seagoing vessels are equipped with
reason than that it is too dangerous to liferafts or lifeboats. These can range from a basic inflatable boat
remain. The signal to abandon ship is always to one that has a canopy and emergency tools and provisions.

EVACUATION

Ideally, you should never jump

into the water. Instead, climb
down a ladder into a liferaft. 1 Cover your
Getting wet seriously mouth and pinch
reduces your chances of your nose to
survival (see opposite). prevent seawater 2 Keep your C- $..... 3 Pull the
However, you may have no from entering. head up and cord on your
other option but to jump. First Your free arm your spine straight. CnaJaeHr lifejacket to inflate
should grasp your Jump into clear it, or blow in the
ensure that your lifejacket is
other shoulder to water. Keep straight mouthpiece. Keep
securely tied around you but
keep that arm in in the air. Then, just clear of the
not inflated, in case it gets
position, your before entry, cross sinking vessel.
caught on something as you Swim slowly
elbow keeping your legs and ankles
jump. Check for debris in the your lifejacket flat. backward, using
and lock them.
water, then jump from the your legs.
lowest part of the vessel.

Rules to Remember Floating with a lifejacket

■ Do not abandon your vessel

unless it is absolutely certain that it
will sink.
■ Before you jump into the water,
make sure that your lifejacket is
securely tied around you, and that
you have on adequate clothing to
help keep you warm.
■ Never inflate a lifejacket before
entering the water.
■ If you need to attract attention,
use the whistle on your lifejacket,
or splash or wave with one arm.
■ Swim well under any burning
HELP
fuel, or use breaststroke and splash
The Heat-Escape-Lessening Posture (HELP) Huddle
a breathing hole for your head. is designed to reduce the amount of heat If you are in a group, place children in the center
* Even if you are in sight of land, escaping from your body’s core. Draw up and form a huddle, keeping everyone as close
never swim against the tide. your knees and fold your arms to conserve together as possible, ideally with chests touching.
heat in your abdomen. Do not allow anyone to fall asleep.
 Drownproofing
In salty water, humans are very and do not panic. If you cannot float by waves, the following method will
buoyant. This applies even to non¬ on your back and keep your head enable you to float quietly and come
swimmers wearing clothes - so relax above water without getting swamped up for air at regular intervals.

Flotation aids
Gather all the debris
you can find to help
you float. You may find
driftwood or garbage
discarded by ships.

Using Debris
Debris can be used to help
keep yon afloat.

1 If you relax, you will float 2 Exhale in the water, and scull 3 Put your face back in the
naturally just below the surface (scoop water) with your hands water, mouth closed, and bring
of the water. Let your face lie to raise your head just clear of your arms forward to rest at
in the water, and tread water the surface. Make sure your surface level. Allow your legs
with your legs as you come up lungs are completely empty, to float out behind, until you
to the surface to breathe. and then take a deep breath. need to take another breath.

making a Buoyancy Aid

Surviving in Cold Water
You will lose more valuable body Even if you can swim, a buoyancy aid and so that you do not lose body heat
heat land die quicker) if you swim is vital for helping to keep your head from your head. You can improvise a
than if you remain still, so it is best above water so that you can breathe, buoyancy aid from a pair of pants.
to hang quietly in your lifejacket in
the HELP position, or use debris to Catch air by
1 Tie pant legs throwing open
improvise a float. Keep on your
pants over
clothes, including your shoes - they together close to
your head
retain water, which your body the cuffs,
tightening the
warms, like a wetsuit. Keep your
knot with your
head and shoulders out of water, to
teeth while
conserve heat in your body’s core.
treading water
with your legs.
Head

2 Holding the belt or fly, throw

the pants forward over your
head, catching as much air as
possible. Repeat if necessary.

Inflated pants WARNING

will help keep
your head Even if you are floating in the
3 Place your above water water and rescue seems out of
head between the question, keep calm and
the pant legs. do not panic. You must think
Hold the waist clearly to survive. Exposure to
shut below
the cold will make you feel
the water.
Heat-loss Areas sleepy - you must fight this.
Large volumes of blood circulate close Reinflate
Boredom is equally destructive,
to the surface of the skin above these the pants as
required. so start counting the time to
ciitical areas. The HELP position keeps
them covered {see opposite).
keep your brain occupied.
 APPENDIX A
164

Surviving at Sea
I f YOU HAVE to abandon your vessel
at sea, all available liferafts must
equipment in plastic bags or containers
and attach them to the vessel with
be used, loaded to safe capacity cord. Tie everybody on with a
with survivors. Put children, the 1 lifeline. Check food supplies,
infirm, and any injured people ■ estimate the number of days you
in the center. In warm waters, could remain afloat, and begin
if there are too many people to rationing immediately.
fit into the liferaft, some people Shark
There are hundreds of species of sharks around
can hang on to the sides. They
the world, some of which may threaten humans.
should change over regularly with Sharks are attracted to the sounds of distress and the
those in the raft. Put all the food and smell of blood. Take care not to attract them.

Adapting a liferaft

Although you can obtain liferafts basic, designed more for easy storage immediately improvise a shelter from
complete with emergency equipment on the mother ship than for extended rain, wind, or spray, and devise the
and supplies, many liferafts are very use. In a basic liferaft, you must means of putting up a sail.

Keep shelter up Rain collects

for added wind in center
Paddle acts as resistance of sheet
mast to hold
up sail

Tie sheet
securely to
sides of raft

Improvising a Sail Collecting Rainwater

A large poncho or sheet strung between two upright paddles will Obtaining freshwater can be very' difficult at sea. Stretch a plastic
propel the liferaft before the wind, although the craft will be difficult sheet across the liferaft during rain to collect the rainwater. Scoop it
to steer unless you can improvise a rudder. Tie the paddles securely to immediately into containers to prevent it from becoming
the sides of the liferaft. contaminated with salt spray.

Dealing with Sharks

Sharks may approach a liferaft out of curiosity. If they get
too dose to the liferaft and you think they may damage it,
you can discourage them by making loud noises and
deliberate movements. They will often depart if jabbed
firmly on the nose with something hard, such as a paddle.
Making a Sea Anchor The danger increases if a shark is hungry, and has smelled
A bucket streaming along blood or excreta, or sensed weak and uncertain movements;
behind the liferaft on a line will all of which indicate an easy meal. Shark-repellent
keep you facing into the weather so the chemicals should be reserved until a shark circles in toward
raft does not capsize. If distress signals were
the liferaft, making sudden movements that indicate
sent before you abandoned your vessel you
imminent attack. To discourage sharks from rubbing along
should tty to stay in the same place so that
the bottom of the liferaft, float a doth or blanket behind it.
rescuers can find you. A sea anchor will
also limit drift caused by the wind.
 SURVIVING AT SEA
165

Living in a Liferaft
Protection from the sun, rain, and net (see below). However, if you do still as possible to avoid losing even
waves is vital. You should try to catch not have any fresh water, you should more water through perspiration. One
fish with the hook and line in your not eat, since the body uses up person must be on watch at all times,
survival kit (see page 28), or with a precious water for digestion. Keep as collecting water and looking for land.

Mending a
Puncture
A puncture in
your liferaft can
be temporarily
repaired by stuffing
a solid object, such
Catching Food as a screwdriver
Tie a shirt or other garment to a paddle attached to the side of wrapped in cloth and
the liferaft. This will form a trawl net for surface-swimmingfish. string, into the hole. Only
Take great care not to fall in. or lose the paddle. You may also attempt a proper repair if
be able to find shore creatures, such as crabs, clinging to you have the correct repair kit
driftwood and debris. and can keep the site dry.

Signaling from a liferaft

Getting noticed in a liferaft can be difficult, but flares can be

used for signaling to ships or aircraft. Some flares are meant By Day
to be used only at night, offshore, or in fog, while others are
best seen in daylight. Some can be held in the hand, while
rockets must be fired into the air with a special gun. Orange Smoke
This is for daylight only, ivhen
there are light winds and good
By Night vision. Hold it to windward.

Signaling with the Arms

If you can see a ship or plane,
stand up in the liferaft and lift
your arms up and down.

Red
Handheld Flare
Hold this flare as high
Red Parachute Flare as possible, in your hand Anticollision White Flare
This bursts at 300ft (91 ml or tied to the end of a paddle. This is carried on craft to indicate
and is visible for about 7 miles It will be visible for up to 3 miles presence and reduce collision risk. Use this
(11 km). It stays visible for (5 km). Use it in poor visibility, flare once other flares have run out. It is most
longer than other types of flare. darkness, or high winds. visible at night, or at close range.

Signs of land Health Problems

As you grow used to the view from shallow water. Although single Sunburn, windburn, and saltwater boils
from your liferaft, you will soon seabirds may be a long way from land, are the most common health problems
notice anything unusual that might flocks of birds are usually never more at sea. Keep covered and out of the
indicate that land may be than 62 miles (100 km) from the sun. Keep saltwater off your skin, and

nearby. For example, shore. They often return to ensure that the liferaft is as dry as
possible. Wash in freshwater if you
cumulus clouds land in the late afternoon
can, and use oil or barrier cream to
(see page 132) in to roost on beaches
prevent boils. A raw fish diet creates
a clear sky and cliffs and in fields.
little waste, so bowel movements are
generally form
few, and constipation may make them
over land. They
Seal painful. The only solution is to eat less
often have a Seals in the water are a than you normally would, especially if
greenish “lagoon sure sign that land is you are short of fresh water.
glare” caused by nearby, since they never
sunlight reflecting venture very far from the shore.
 APPENDIX A
166

Dangerous Creatures
U nless PROVOKED, INJURED, hungry, or disturbed, most
animals will avoid humans. You can, however, provoke
Grizzly Bear (Ursus)
The grizzly bear is not, by
nature, aggressive, and is
more likely run away than
them by mistake, particularly when they have young, which attack a hiker who encounters
even nonaggressive herbivores will protect fiercely. You are it. However, the dangerous
exception to this rule is a
a visitor to their world, which you must respect. Some female with cubs, which
dangerous species are either lethally poisonous or behave should be avoided at all costs.

naturally in ways that make them dangerous to us.

| North America
Much of North America is still wilderness. The continent is largely
temperate, although it includes mountains, arid plains, and hot
deserts. In remote forests, large predators such as the grizzly bear
and the North American timber wolf (Canis) survive, while small,
venomous creatures such as the diamondback rattlesnake
(Crotalus) and the brown recluse spider (Loxoscees) inhabit
warmer regions. In temperate regions, most creatures dangerous
to humans become torpid or hibernate during the winter.

Coral Snake (Micmms)

There are many species of coral
snake in North America, all of
which have red, black, and
yellow stripes. Other species live
in southeast Asia and South
America. The snakes can be up
to 3 ft (I m) long. Although
they are venomous, they have
short fangs, so most bites are to
the hands and feet.

American Alligator (Alligator)

This lives in swamps in the
southeastern United States. It lies
N South America in wait for its prey, remaining
immobile for hours at a time, but
Much of South America is it can move extremely fast.
tropical rainforest (see page
145). Thousands of species
of animal live here, many of
which are venomous.
Insects and snakes are the
most abundant creatures,
thriving in the lush, tropical
vegetation. There are also
larger animals such as wild
pigs and jaguars, and
Piranha (Serrasalmus)
amphibians that can be
This feared South American fish
dangerous to humans. On has razor-sharp teeth, and schools
the southernmost tip of the of them will attack a wounded Scorpionfish
animal, stripping the bones clean. (Scorpaen idae)
continent, the bull elephant
Scorpionfish live in the
seal (Mirounga) Atlantic, Pacific, and
can be very Indian oceans, and the
aggressive Mediterranean Sea. Their
long spines are venomous
during its Poison Arrow Tree Frog (Sminthillus)
and can cause extremely
rutting The skin of this South American frog Sea Snake (Laticauda) painful stings if stepped on
secretes one of the most toxic substa nces Some Indo-Pacific sea snakes are very
season. known to man, Only a minute amount
(see page 180).
venomous, but they are not aggressive.
on skin can kill.
 DANGEROUS CREATURES
167

U Europe Africa
Europe’s once extensive Many African animals can be dangerous to humans if
forests are now towns and provoked, the large predators requiring particular
suburbs, the odd wild boar respect. There are also deadly snakes, such as the black
surviving only in remote mamba (Dendroaspis) and the boomslang (Dispholidus).
areas. However, the hornet The biggest threat, however, is the malaria-carrying
Black Widow Spider
(Vespa) and the adder (Lactrodectus) mosquito (Anopheles).
(Vipera) can kill, their small Found in hot, dry regions around
amount of poison the Mediterranean, as well as in
□ ASIA
North America, the black widow is
stimulating anaphylactic one of the most feared spiders in the Most of southeast Asia is
shock (seepage 180). world. Its bite is not always fatal, tropical forest, uninhabited
but panic can accelerate the spread
of the poison throughout the body,
by humans except for a
contributing to heart and few primitive tribes.
respiratory failure. Creatures here that can be
dangerous to humans
include the estuarine
crocodile (Crocodylus), the
Puff Adder (Bids) Indian krait snake
Found near water in semi-arid
(Bungarus), and the red-
areas of Africa, as well as the
Arabian Peninsula, the puff adder back spider (Lactrodectus).
is thickset, with a large, flattened
head and short tail. It is usually
straw-colored, with dark brown
markings. The puff adder is a
long-fanged viper, which means
that its fangs can penetrate
clothing. Its bite can be deadly.

Hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus)
This is said to be one of
the most dangerous Tiger (Panthera)
animals in Africa. It lives The tiger lives in southeast Asia,
in rivers, and although it and is generally reclusive, avoiding
is usually harmless, it will humans. Nevertheless, a tiger can
attack if its escape route be a formidable predator if
is blocked or its young provoked, especially if it is a female
are threatened. defending her cubs.

□ Australia
Futmel-iveb Spider < Atrax) Some of the world’s most venomous and
Funnel-web spiders are found in aggressive creatures live in Australia. They
Australia, and their bite can be include the deadly poisonous fierce snake
fatal. They are named for the type of
web they produce, and are most active at
(Parademansia); the aggressive great white
night, especially in relatively cool, damp areas shark; and the lethal stonefish (Synanceidae) and
death puffer fish (Arothron).

DEALING WITH DANGEROUS ANIMALS

It is better to avoid danger than have to pattern, or rush at the predator, waving your
deal with it. Make as much noise as arms and shouting. Learn the habits of the
possible when walking through brush. animals in your area so that you can avoid
Most animals will run away. Avoid them. If you are bitten, do not panic (see
females with young. If you do encounter a page 180). Use a mosquito net at night to
Great tt'hite Shark predator, freeze, then back away slowly. avoid dangerous insects. Shake out your
(Carcharodon) Do not run - you could trigger the clothes and boots before putting them on in
This inhabits both temperate and animal’s instinctive chasing response. If the morning, in case scorpions and spiders
tropica! waters. Some sharks can be have taken refuge in them during the night.
you do incite a charge, run in a zigzag
very aggressive (see page 164).
 APPENDIX A
168

Natural Hazards
E SEE DISASTERS regularly on television, certain kinds of disaster are common in many parts
becoming to an extent inured to them. We of the world - in these areas precautions should be
do not think that disaster could ever happen to taken. You must always take serious heed of
us. It is, however, important to understand that warnings given by locals, particularly local radio.

FOREST FIRE

Causes of Fire
Forest and brush fires Signs and precautions
can easily start when
ground vegetation is dry. You will smell the fire first, and
A campfire may spread, may notice animals becoming
or the sun may ignite dry nervous. If the wind is blowing
vegetation through a toward the fire, move into the
piece of glass. If a fire wind. If the wind is behind the
begins close to you. try to fire, the flames will move very
smother it immediately
fast. Seek a road, a natural break
with a sleeping bag. or
in the trees, or a river, and stay
beat it out with a coat,
before it gets out of band. there until the fire has passed. Do
The importance of not travel uphill. If there is no
supervising and keeping possibility of escape, it may be
campfires under control best to mn through the flames,
cannot be overstated. taking refuge in the area beyond.

Avalanche

Snowslide
Avalanches are hazards in all snow-covered PRECAUTIONS
mountain areas. Always seek local advice
before venturing into any such area. If an avalanche starts above you,
Common sense can minimize the risk, which ski or run downhill away from it
increases throughout the day as snow is as fast as you can. Duck into any
warmed by sunshine on steep, south-facing solid rock overhangs or shelter. If
slopes (north-facing in the southern caught, drop your backpack and
hemisphere■). An avalanche may be caused other gear. Cover your mouth and
by an earthquake, by loud noises, such as
nose with your arms, and lie flat,
shouting, or by skiers.
trying to keep your head above
the rising snow. When the
avalanche has stopped, clear a
Dangerous
space around your head so that
Direction Relatively safe you can breathe. Shout loudly
of wind
Safe when you hear rescuers.

Extremely dangerous

Dangerous

Danger Zones
Snow naturally creeps downhill because of
gravity, so the snow at the bottom of a bill
is denser and more stable than that at the
top. Avalanches thus occur easily toward
the top of a hill, particularly on convex slopes
 The volatile earth

Earthquakes and volcanic activity follow

the edges of the plates of the Earth’s
lithosphere. These plates move against
each other, causing tension to build up.
Earthquakes occur when these tensions
are released, usually along fault lines, as
a sudden movement. The movement may
only be a few inches, or several yards.
Volcanoes also occur in areas of
geologica], weakness, when molten
material from the Earth's upper mantle
forces its way to the surface.

Ring of Fire
Most earthquakes and volcanoes encircle
the Pacific Ocean plate - the "Ring of Fire. ”

A Volcanoes Earthquake zones

Earthquake

Feared Disaster
The most feared
After an Earthquake
natural disaster,
earthquake damage is Even though an earthquake appears
so bizarre as to to have finished, there may still be
he completely further tremors. Keep clear of all
unpredictable. Get to
damaged structures, which may
the top of a hill or a
topple over and fall on you. Watch
beach (away from
cliffs). Keep out of out for live electric cables. Ruptured
buildings, lying flat on sewage and water pipes make
the ground in open disease the biggest hazard of
areas. Stop your car, earthquakes, so boil and filter all
hut remain inside. In a your drinking water (seepage 74).
well-built cellar or Tune in to local radio stations and
ground floor, keep close obey all public service instructions.
to the walls, preferably
under a strong table.

Tsunami VOLCANOES

An earthquake under the sea —~— Eruptions

can cause waves up to 100 ft Live volcanoes are part
PRECAUTIONS
(30 m) high, which may of the tectonic activity
of earthquake areas. If you notice increased
swamp coastal areas. There is
They produce lava, volcanic activity, leave
little you can do in the face
ash, hot gases, mud
of such a wall of water. the area. Once an
/lows, and flying debris
eruption has started, ash
GIANT WAVE
("volcanic bombs").
and mud flows will
Lava flows are rarely
fast enough to catch make roads slippery and
people, but hot gas dangerous, as well as
clouds, ash (actually destroying buildings and
pulverized rock), and cutting off escape
volcanic bombs are routes. Keep dust masks
lethal. Strong sulfur (or wet cloths) ready in
dioxide affects lungs case the air becomes
and skin. You must
contaminated. Wash any
avoid places where
debris from your skin as
lava might flow, such
soon as possible.
as stream beds. Leave
the area immediately.
 APPENDIX A
170

Extreme Weather
EATHER CHANGES ARE the product of certain times daily from all over a region, these
differences in atmospheric temperature and charts can help in the detection or prediction of
pressure. Extreme weather results when these serious storms. Warnings can then be issued, and
differences become larger than usual, and can be steps taken to minimize danger and prevent loss of
deduced from the study of proper weather maps, life. Extreme weather is often seasonal, and may
called synoptic charts. Using data gathered at be confined to certain regions.

WORLD WEATHER

The forecasting of extreme weather is interact with each other. Large land pressure systems, or depressions.
based upon predicting how various masses create stable high-pressure Below is an idealized synoptic chart,
enormous masses of air are likely to systems, which are upset by low- showing extreme weather conditions.

Weather Forecast
A map on which weather is marked is called a
synoptic chad. Once all the available information An occluded
has been gathered from weather stations and Atlantic gales front is indicated
satellites and by spikes and
bumps together;
marked on the
where cold fronts
chart, likely
catch up with
weather
warm ones and
conditions can keep them off
be forecast for the ground
up to a week.

Low-pressure
Good weather with
systems, or
high pressure,
cyclones, bring
trapping pollution
cloudy weather
to create smog

Squall line
along which
High-pressure
tornadoes are
systems, called
likely to run
anticyclones, are
stable, with good
weather, clear
skies, and
cumulus clouds

Spiked lines
show where
fronts of heavy,
cold air are
pushing under
lighter warm air

A hurricane is indicated by an
areas of equal and strength of wind isolated isobar of warm, low-
a ir pressu re pressure air surrounded by
rotating, high-speed winds
 EXTREME WEATHER
171

WINDSTORMS
Severe windstorms can affect any part to prevent or prepare for them. buildings, and block railroads and
of the world, at any time of year, and Extreme storms, such as hurricanes streets. At sea these storms can cause
there is nothing that anybody can do and tornadoes, uproot trees, destroy waves large enough to capsize ships.

Tornado
A tornado develops when warm,
low-pressure air rises to meet high SIGNS AND
irinds descending through storm
clouds. This creates a swirling PRECAUTIONS
vortex of wind that may reach
400 mph (644 km/h). Abnormal rises in
barometric pressure,
followed by a sudden
Signs and precautions drop, may indicate a
hurricane. Evacuate the
You can see and hear a tornado
area when a hurricane has
coming - get out of its way fast.
oeen spotted. If outdoors,
Outdoors, take shelter in a cave,
avoid coasts and rivers,
or lie in a ditch with your arms
and shelter in a cave or
over your head. Indoors, close
deep gully. If indoors,
doors and windows facing the
Hurricane clear up loose objects that
tornado, and open those facing
A hurricane is a tropical storm might cause damage when
away from it. Get out of vehicles
caused by hot air rising from the blown around. Board up
and mobile homes.
sea. creating low pressure and windows. Shelter under
drawing high, spinning winds strong furniture in a cellar.
and thunderstorms together.

Rainstorms

Sudden, very heavy rain can saturate soil and underlying rock. Instead, vegetation, and buildings. It may also
the surface of the land, preventing the most of the water flows over the overwhelm drainage systems and
usual percolation of water through the surface, and may wash away soil, short out power lines.

Flood
Floods can be caused by rivers and PRECAUTIONS
reservoirs breaking their banks,
and by sudden, heavy rainfall. If you can predict a flood, save as much
Ttoey are usually worst in very drinking water as possible. Collect food,
dry areas, where the surface matches, and bedding, and move to
of the ground is saturated high ground, or to the upper floors of
immediately, and the topsoil a building. Unless there is any danger
is washed away. It is fairly to the building in which you are
easy to predict which low-
taking refuge, stay put until the flood
lying areas are likely to flood
waters drop, or until you are rescued.
during heavy rain, so you
should avoid them if you think a Walking or driving through a flood can
flood is imminent. be extremely dangerous.

PRECAUTIONS Electrical Storm

When rising warm air
Wear rubber-soled shoes and sit on
meets colder air, static
something completely dry that will
electricity is created as
not conduct electricity. Keep off the
water droplets are
ground, offering as low and small a violently agitated. This
profile as possible. Keep away static electricity has
from anything tall or metal. enormously high voltage,
Lightning strikes create huge flashing between water-
flashes, a shockwave, and much particles, striking the first
heat, which can injure people even object it encounters as it
runs to earth by the
though they might not be hit.
easiest route. Even if you
are struck by lightning,
you may still survive.
 APPENDIX A
172

Signaling
I T IS VITAL, before leaving on any expedition, that
people know your plans, route, and expected
international distress signals are “SOS” (Save Our
Souls), transmitted by Morse Code using a mirror,
arrival times. If overdue, somebody will thus know flashlight, or smoke signals, or by Semaphore; and
you are lost, and roughly where. Indicating your the radio call “May Day,” from the French
position and the problem is simple. The basic “M’aidee,” (“Help Me”).

Semaphore
Sender and receiver must have a clear sending, count slowly from “one new letter. When receiving, draw the
view of each other. Use binoculars to thousand and one” to “one thousand arm positions, then determine the
ensure accurate reading. When and six,” moving deliberately to each letters when the message is complete.
 SIGNALING

Ground-to-air Signals
Waiting to be rescued, you must be If there is no need to be rescued but risk airplane and crew to attempt a
able to attract the attention of aircrew, you need supplies, you must make landing in a dangerous place. Their
then indicate exactly what you need. this clear (see below). Pilots willingly dedication must not be abused.
USING MARKERS
Ground Markers
These signals are
international. “FILL" is the
mnemonic for remembering
them. Pilots will take great
P Need food
AND WATER
Serious
injury/need
DOCTOR

risks if they Mse “I” for ■ Need

“serious injury. ”Make the COMPASS
AND MAP
signs as Iaige as possible,
from sticks or stones, or
by drawing in the dirt.
Using the Body
Marshaling
Aircraft Using the Sun
These signals can be
used to marshal a Using a piece of reflective
helicopter safely in material with a hole punched
to land, or to in the center, look through
communicate with the hole in the direction
aircrew. You must of the sun. Tilt
stand straight and the reflector
exaggerate all downward
movements. Brace
until a bright
yourself when a
flash of
helicopter lands—
Fly Toward Hover/ Need Descend sunlight is
its downdraft may Mechanical
Me/ Pick Me Up reflected onto
. bowl you over. Help
the ground. Move
the flash up into
the sky and onto
an aircraft. Tilt the
reflector slightly to
attract the pilot's
attention, but avoid
blinding him.

Heliograph
A heliograph can
reflect the sun to
CWaving right /Waving left Indicating attract attention.
arm.) move to arm) Move to direction of
My Left My Right SAFE EXIT

MORSE CODE

Morse Code can be sent A • - N - • 1 •_

by radio, whistle blasts, B - ••• O — 2 • •-
heliograph, or smoke C - # - • P •-e 3 • • •-
clouds. It is easier to D - •• Q -. — 4 •••• -
transmit Morse than to E • R • - • 5
receive it, so send very F •• - • S ••• 6 - ••••
slowly. Pause after each G -€* T — 7 -• • •
word. AAAAAA means I H •••• U •• - 8 -• •
have a message; IT IT I •• V ••• - 9 -.
means I am receiving J •- w •- 0
you; and R (roger) K - • - X - •• -
means message received. L • - •• Y - •-
Send slowly. M z -• • SOS
•
•
•

•
•
•
1
1
1
 APPENDIX B
174

APPENDIX B

First aid
IN ORDER FOR injured people to come through a
survival situation alive, the correct first aid must
injured people is a major problem, but you can
treat minor injuries and keep serious casualties
be given immediately. Consequently, every stable until further help is available. Although
person in your party must know what to do, and there are innumerable injuries and ailments that
be confident enough to take action immediately. could affect you or a member of your party, as
Without the professional backup of ambulances long as you learn the basic principles of first aid,
and hospitals, the continued care of seriously you can apply them to almost any situation.

BASIC FIRST-AID KIT

Your first-aid kit should contain emergencies, helping you to stabilize of kits available, but it is best if
specially selected items to enable a casualty’s condition until you can you assemble your own basic kit,
you to deal with most medical get him to a doctor. There are a lot including the items shown below.

Bandages
Bandages are useful for
Adhesive a variety of purposes,
Bandages from keeping dressings
Use these to keep in place and binding
small cuts from wounds closed, to tying
Limb Digit Spot going septic, and for gauze Gauze Crepe up broken limbs to
ADHESIVE ADHESIVE ADHESIVE covering blisters. dressing bandage bandage prevent further damage.
BANDAGE BANDAGE BANDAGE
Painkillers
Safety Pins Gauze Padding
Save painkillers for when you
Safety pins are useful for Pads of gauze absorb
really need them, for
securing bandages, and as blood and keep
instance when you are
temporary sutures. wounds clean until
making an emergency move.
they can heal.

ANTISEPTIC ANTISEPTIC
Scissors
WIPE CREAM
A pair of scissors
is perhaps the most
valuable first-aid
tool. You should buy
the best-quality,
Antiseptic
blunt-nosed kind
.. Use antiseptic wipes to clean wounds.
that you can find.
Antiseptic cream can be put on minor

V wounds to help them heal properly

without becoming infected.

Foot Felt and Corn Pads

Blisters and other foot problems are
com mon when you ha ve a lot of walking
to do. so foot felt and com pads are
helpful for preventing
small wounds from
becoming latge ones. Cut
Triangular Bandage
the felt to fit over the sore ^
This can be used to make a sling for supporting a broken
spot. Hold in place with
arm, or as a large bandage, for example around a foot.
an adhesive bandage. Corn pads
It can also serve as a scarf (see page 142).
 FIRST AID
175

Assessing Victims

When approaching the scene of an accident,

take time to stand back and assess the
scene. Turn off vehicle ignitions to prevent
fire, and sort out any other hazards
that could cause further injury. Look
quickly at all the victims, ensuring that
nobody remains trapped or hidden from
view. Then assess each of the injured, WARNING
deciding who is so badly injured that Do not try to move victims until you
he will die anyway; who requires have discovered what is wrong with
immediate life-saving treatment; and them (unless there is a greater
who can wait. Do not panic. Act danger in leaving them where they
with assurance and efficiency - are). You could paralyze those with
people may die if you do not. spinal injuries (see page!78).

The ABC of Resuscitation

1 To check an 2 Listen and feel 3 Check the
unconscious for the victim’s victim’s
victim, place two breathing. If she is by feeling for a pi
fingers under her breathing, place her at the side of her
chin and a hand in the recovery windpipe (carotid
on her forehead. Tilt position (see below) artery). If there is
her head back to If she is not no pulse, begin
open her airway breathing, start cardiopulmonary
Remove any rescue breathing resuscitation immediately
obstructions from (see below). (see page 176).
her mouth.

Recovery position

1 If a victim is unconscious but 2 With the victim on her side,

breathing, bend her near arm place her uppermost leg at right
up at a right angle to her angles to her body. Her head will
body. Hold the back of be supported by the hand of the
her far hand to her uppermost arm. Tilt her head
near cheek. With the back so that she will not
near leg straight, choke if she vomits
pull the far knee
toward you.

Rescue Breathing

1 To ensure an open airway, 2 Pinching the victim's nose shut, 3 Listen for the victim’s breathing and
first clear the victim's clamp your mouth over his mouth, check his pulse. If he still has a pulse,
mouth of obstructions. and blow steadily for about two give 10 breaths per minute
Then place one hand seconds until his until help arrives or the
under his chin and chest rises. Remove victim is breathing by
one on his your mouth and himself. If the pulse has
forehead, and tilt let his chest fall stopped, combine
his head back. then repeat. rescue breathing with
chest compressions
(see CPR. page 176).
 APPENDIX B
176

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Press with heel of

If a person’s heart has stopped, 1 Place the heel of your hand two
hands, keeping
give cardiopulmonary finger-widths up from the fingers off chest
resuscitation (CPR). This consists end of the breastbone,
Carotid
of chest compressions to and your other hand pulse is
maintain the circulation of blood on top of the first. next to
Press down V fl® Adam's
to the brain, combined with
apple
rescue breathing (seepage 175) firmly, then 1' ji rlin
release. ' )
to oxygenate the blood. Give
2 Check for a pulse.
chest compressions at a rate of 80
After 15 chest
per minute, counting “one-and- compressions, give the
two-and...”. victim two breaths of
rescue breathing (see
page 1751 Repeat until
Find end of breastbone the pulse restarts,
with two fingers, then medical help arrives,
slide other hand down or you are too
to touch index finger
exhausted to continue.

Choking

Slapping the Back Abdominal thrusts

To dislodge a n If back slaps do not Choking in Children
I obstruction from a work, stand behind
f person’s airway, sit the victim, interlock Bending the child over your knee,
her down with her your hands beneath i strike it between the shoulder
head lower than her her ribcage, and blades with the heel of your hand.
chest. Slap her firmly pull sharply Hold a baby over your arm. Do not
between the upward. The use abdominal thrusts on babies.
k shoulder blades sudden pressure of
five times. her exhaled air
should clear the
throat obstruction.

Lie an unconscious victim

down and alternate five back
slaps with five abdominal
thrusts. Follow the ABC of
Resuscitation (seepage 175).
Back slaps

1 Lay the victim down, on 2 Cover the victim with a coat or

a coat or sleeping bag, if sleeping bag. Check his breathing
possible. Raise his feet higher and pulse rates, particularly if
than his head. Loosen his he is unconscious. Be
clothing, reassure him, ready to resuscitate him
^ and take his pulse. if his heart stops.
Sleeping bag
keeps victim
warm
 FIRST AID
177

Severe External Bleeding

1 Press the edges of the wound 2 Lie the victim down. Check
together. If you cannot remove a for fractures, then raise his WARNING
foreign body from the wound, press bleeding limb and apply Some infectious diseases can be
the skin up to the sides of the object. pressure on the wound transmitted by body fluids, so you
with a gauze pad until should ideally wear lightweight
the bleeding stops.
rubber or plastic gloves when
treating bleeding (see page 183).

Press
fingernail
gently

3 Apply a
sterile dressing
to the wound,
padding all
sides of a
protruding
object. 4 Bandage the wound firmly, but do 5 Gently press a fingernail or toenail.
not impede circulation. Do not push If the color does not quickly return
in or pull out a protruding object. to it, rebandage more loosely.

Nosebleeds
knocked-out Tooth
High altitude can sometimes
cause bleeding from the nose. Replace the tooth in its socket and keep it in
place with a sterile pad. If it is dirty
The victim should sit down
you can rinse it in milk, but do not
with his head forward,
touch the root with your fingers. If
and pinch the bridge of
the tooth will not replant, the
his nose where the
victim can store it in his cheek
blood vessel passes
until he receives medical attention.
across the bone.
Treating Nosebleeds
Replanting Tooth
Pinch the bridge of
Replacing a tooth in its socket gives it
the nose until the
the best chance of taking root again.
bleeding stops.

Bleeding varicose veins

WARNING
Never make a tourniquet
above a wound. You may cut
off the circulation for too long
and cause tissue damage. If
direct pressure fails on a
bleeding vein or leg wound,
press hard with your thumbs
into the groin at the point
where a trouser crease would
cross the bottom edge of a
1 Varicose veins in the legs can easily 2 When bleeding has slowed, bandage the leg pair of shorts (femoral artery).
be damaged, losing a lot of blood. Lift firmly over a clean pad. Check to ensure that Release every 10 minutes.
the leg and press hard on the site. circulation is not impeded (see above).
 APPENDIX B
178

broken Leg

1 To treat a broken leg, 2 Immobilize the broken leg by

first dress any puncture binding the good leg to it. Tie
wounds. Put padding the knots on the good leg.
Bind good leg
between both legs. If you Wrap a figure-eight bandage
to broken leg
have to move the victim, for support around the feet and ankles to
apply traction by pulling support them.
the leg straight gently but
firmly from the ankle,
while supporting the
knee. This may reduce
the pain.

MOVING VICTIMS
Sleeves should he
3 To move the victim, make a pushed inside for
Moving a seriously injured person
strength
stretcher by pushing two strong over rough ground is a nightmare -
branches through the sleeves of both for the uninjured carrier, in
jackets with their zippers and terms of physical effort, and for the
buttons done up.
victim. To avoid worsening the injury
during the move, the injured part
must be comfortably secured and
immobilized. /-f

Broken Ankle
Support a
broken ankle
4 Test the stretcher to Push stretcher with clothes
ensure that it is strong underneath secured with
enough to hold a body. victim, one sidi bandages.
Then carefully roll the at a time i
victim onto his side and
push the stretcher
underneath him.

MOVING A CONSCIOUS VICTIM

1 Pad the injured part as

firmly as you can. With the
victim standing, grip one of
Do not use any of these
his arms and place your other
arm between his legs. This methods of moving a victim if
technique can also be used he has a back or chest injury.
for an unconscious In such cases, it is best to
person, but you will leave him where he is, rather
have to lift him to than risk making his injury
his feet first.
Put your worse. An unconscious victim
arm through should ideally be strapped to
victim's legs
ready to grasp
a stretcher.
his knee -

2 Pull the victim over your shoulder as

Bend you r
you stand up, taking the strain with
knees to take
victim's weight your leg muscles, not your back. He
should rest comfortably across your
shoulders. Once you are walking,
you can grasp his knees and hand
with one hand, leaving your other
arm free for balance.
 FIRST AID
179

Lifting an Unconscious Person

1 You can use this method if there

Victim is
is no one to help you. Lay a loop supported on
of rope underneath the victim. earner's
shoulders_

2 Lie between the victim’s

legs and loop the rope over
your shoulders. If you do
not have a rope, you could
use a long, fastened belt.

3 Keeping the rope

around your arms,
H roll over and pull
the victim on
4 With the victim draped over your shoulders,
top of you
kneel, then carefully stand up. You should be able
to carry the victim for short distances at a time.

Broken Arm

2 Gently ease a triangular 3 Bring the

bandage behind the injured bandage up over
\ arm. If the arm is broken the injured arm
f|\ near the elbow, it may and tie its ends
Mb be too painful to bend. together so
In this case, bandage that the knot
PSft the arm to the upper Sjjj? A rests on the
[ZJ body, which will act uninjured
'T/P as a splint. i shoulder.

Place
bandage
beneath arm

1 You can splint a broken arm

with a piece of bark or wood to
protect it from further damage.

Broken f Iand
y 4 Bring the bottom corner 2 Support the injured hand
|A of the bandage around the with a triangular bandage
elbow and pin it in place. tied around the victim’s
W Gently lift the arm off the neck. This elevated sling
fjI chest and place padding iw/ p Ss helps to reduce swelling in
Sjtk, behind it. You may l the injured hand, and
also want to place stops any bleeding.
/ * '/ J |
L :.. ....'^lip. padding under M y// / y You can splint
i the sling where 1 Wrap the \ I in >ken lingers
'' 8wes around injured hand in ■HHHg with bark.
the victim's neck. clean gauze to
J to prevent it protect it from Arm is elevated to
\ from chafing. further damage. reduce swelling
 APPENDIX A
180

Animal Bites

Minor Bites
Animals cany bacteria in their WARNING
mouths, and these bacteria cause
In some countries, notably
a wide variety of infections, such
Australia, spiders can give
as tetanus and rabies (see page
183). Pour water over the wound poisonous bites. If bitten by
for at least five minutes, as soon a Sydney funnel-web
as possible after you have been spider, apply pressure to
bitten. Cover the wound the bite and seek urgent
with a sterile dressing.
Serious Bites help. A bite from a red-back
Pour cold water on Wash the wound in spider, however, should be
wound to clean it cold water, then apply pressure with a
treated with an ice
gauze pad to control bleeding. Raise
compress, not pressure.
the area above the heart. Bandage the
wound and seek urgent medical help.

Snake Bites

Washing the Wound Applying Pressure

Do not panic if you are bitten by If you are bitten by a
a snake. Panic increases the snake in a country
heartbeat, taking the venom where such a bite can
around the body. If you be fatal, or you cannot
can correctly identify be certain of identifying
the snake as a mildly the snake correctly,
poisonous species, wash immediately apply
the wound, then bandage direct pressure to the
it firmly. Do not wash the bite wound. Bandage
bite if you cannot identify the area firmly above
the snake. A snake can and below the bite to localize the venom.
be identified by its Seek medical help immediately. Do not cut
venom, and its bite can the wound, apply a tourniquet, or try to
firmly suck out the venom.
be treated accordingly.

insect Stings and Tick bites

INJURIES FROM MARINE ANIMALS
Bee and Wasp Stings
Carefully remove the sting with tweezers, Stings
taking care not to squeeze the poison sac, Sea anemones, jellyfish, and corals
thereby injecting even more venom into often release stinging cells when
the wound than it has already. Some touched. These stick to a victim's
people can have severe allergic skin and discharge venom. If
reactions to the stings of bees and you are stung, wash the area
other insects (anaphylactic thoroughly with vinegar or
shock). They should be alcohol to neutralize the
treated for shock., and may stings. Pick off the
need to be resuscitated stings using gloves.
(see page 175). Seek
medical help.

Puncture Wounds
If you step on a spiny
creature such as a sea
urchin, its spines may
break off and remain
embedded in your skin,
Removing Ticks generating pain and rapid
Ticks have strong jaws, which will infection. Immerse the
remain embedded if the body is affected part in water as
pulled away, causing infection. hot as you are able to bear in
Dab an embedded tick with insect order to deactivate the venom and
repellent or a cigarette to make it remove the pain. Remove the spines if
loosen its grip, then remove it you can. Seek medical help.
carefully with tweezers.
 FIRST AID
181

POISONING

Contact Poisoning
Internal Poisoning
Some poisons affect the skin
WARNING It is important to find out what the victim has
and must be washed off
Do not induce vomiting in ingested, so that the correct treatment can be
thoroughly before treatment
given. If the victim is unconscious but
as for bums (see page the victim to prevent a
breathing, put her in the recovery position. Seek
182). Alcohol helps poison from being absorbed medical help immediately.
remove all residue.
into the bloodstream unless
Contaminated clothing
you know what has been
must be removed and
thoroughly washed ingested, since some
or discarded. caustic substances
may cause damage
on the way back up.
Put victim in
recovery position

Blisters

1 Never burst a blister caused by a

burn (see page 182). If you must
pierce a blister to continue walking,
first cleanse the area with alcohol.
Sterilize a needle to red heat in a
flame. When the needle has
cooled, slide it into the edge of
the blister parallel to the
surface of the skin.
2 Carefully apply pressure to the 3 Cover the blister with a clean
blister on the side away from the dressing. Take care not to rub
needle, squeezing out the fluid. tlie site of the blister.

Cramp

In Leg
Unaccustomed walking or
WARNING
running, and loss of mineral
Massage muscles
salts through excessive Take great care to ensure that
to loosen them
sweating, may cause a a cramp is just due to muscle
cramp. To relieve a cramp strain, and does not indicate
in the knee or leg, raise the
a more serious complaint. For
affected leg in the air and
massage the muscles until example, a snake bite can
they relax. cause muscle paralysis, while
In Foot tetanus can cause lockjaw. If
To relieve a cramp in the foot, gently massage in doubt, always seek medical
the ball of the foot, stretching the toes. attention for a serious cramp.

Diarrhea and vomiting

Diarrhea and vomiting can signify many

serious conditions. In the wild, they can kill
through dehydrating the sufferer
(see page 69). The most likely causes
of diarrhea and vomiting are food
poisoning or drinking contaminated
water, although serious infectious
diseases should not be ruled out.

Fluid Treatment
Maintain your fluid level by frequently
taking one teaspoon of salt and one
teaspoon of sugar in a quart of water.
 APPENDIX B
182

BURNS

1 Considerable tissue damage can be 2 All burns are very susceptible to

prevented by immediately plunging the infection, and must be protected with
burned area into cold water and leaving a clean, non-fluffy dressing. Do not
it there until the skin has cooled. put any ointment on the burn. shock (seepage 176). Seek medical help.

The Effects of heat

Dehydration Heatstroke
The gradual loss of water and salts from the WARNING Heatstroke is the result of depletion of body
body causes headache, dizzyness, nausea, fluids or exposure to a significant heat
If a heatstroke victim is cooled
and sweating. The victim may have pale, source. It can cduse feverishness, severe
too quickly, for example by headache and vomiting, the cessation
clammy skin, muscle cramps, and breathing
problems. Move him to a cool place and give immersion in cold water, his of sweating, and unconsciousness.
him plenty of food and body temperature may drop The victim's body heat must be
electrolyte solutions. too far, causing shock. Take reduced by placing her in the
care to cool him down slowly. shade, preferably under a
sleeping-bag liner soaked in
cold water. Fanning her
Fanning face will help to cool her.
Raising the feet eases
helps to cool Do not immerse her
patient down directly in cold water.

foreign Objects

Object in ear
Flood eye
with water Carefully pour tepid water into
the ear until the foreign body
floats out. If it does not, do not
try to pull it out. Cover the ear
and seek medical help.
2 Try to flush out
the object with FLUSHING OUT OBJECT
sterilized water. If
necessary, patch
the affected eye
to prevent the
victim from
1 For a foreign object in the rubbing it.
eye, separate the eyelids and
examine the whole eye. Do not Towel catches
attempt to remove anything water falling
from eye
embedded in the eyeball. Seek
medical attention immediately.
 FIRST AID
183

Removing a Fishhook

WARNING
Never attempt to pull out a
fishhook that is deeply
embedded in the tissue.
Instead, cut the fishing line
as close to the hook as
possible, then pad the area
with cotton wool or gauze
1 If tffe barbed end of the fishhook is visible, cut it off 2 Gently pull the shank the way it until it can be bandaged
with wirecutters close to the skin. If the tip of the barb entered the skin. Cleanse the area without pushing the hook in
is buried in the skin, you may be able to press on the with antiseptic solution, and put a further. Seek medical help.
eye of the hook and pull on the line to remove it. bandage on it to stop bleeding.

Eye injury

1 Keep the victim's WARNING 2 Bandage across

head still to prevent any both eyes to keep
Be very careful with eye
further damage. Put a the pad in place,
gauze pad over the injuries. Never try to remove
and to prevent the
injured eye to prevent anything embedded in the
victim from moving
any infection from eyeball. Seek professional the injured eye.
entering it. medical help for any eye injury.
Bandage both
eyes to keep
injured one still

Worldwide Disorders
DANGEROUS DISEASES
There are a great many
Disease Where Found How Transmitted Symptoms diseases around the
world that can be picked
HIV/AIDS Worldwide Via bodily fluids, Persistent influenza, colds, sores,
up by a traveler who is
such as blood general ill health, fatigue
unprepared. 'They can be
Cholera Africc, Asia Through insanitary Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, caused by viruses or
conditions cramps, dehydration, shock bacteria, and are
transm itted via food or
Infectious hepatitis Worldwide From the feces of Chills, fever, headache, bone pain, water, or in the feces of
(Hepatitis A) infected people enlargement of liver and spleen infected people. Some
are carried in animat or
Poliomyelitis Warm climates From water infected Paralysis
insect saliva and are
with the virus
transmitted by bites.
Typhoid Mexico, Far From water contaminated Headache, abdominal Many of these diseases
East, Africa with Salmonella bacillus pain, delirium, fever could prove fatal in a
survival situation, in
Yellow fever West Africa, Via a mosquito bite Headache, fever, limb pain, which proper medical
South America vomiting blood, constipation attention may be
unavailable. Before
Tetanus Worldwide Through bacterial spores Lockjaw, fever, stiff face and back
venturing into areas
entering wounds muscles, sweating, asphyxia
where these diseases are
Rabies Almost worldwide Via the saliva of Fever, appetite loss, hyperactivity, prevalent, therefore, you
infected animals thirst, inability to drink, coma, death should have appropriate
vaccinations. Diseases
Bubonic plague Almost worldwide Through flea bites from Coughing, swollen lymph glands
transmitted in water can
infected rodents be avoided by purifying
Almost worldwide From breathing in virus Coughing, labored breathing all water before drinking
Pneumonic plague
it (see page 75).
 GLOSSARY
184

Glossary
Anticyclone Winds rotating outward from area of high Convex slope Hill whose summit cannot be seen from
barometric pressure, producing good weather. the ground.
Aerobic exercise Endurance exercises designed to Cord Rope, string, or cord used for lashing.
increase amount of oxygen taken in by the body. Core Center of the body, whose temperature must be
Aiming off Deliberately heading to one side of a maintained to sustain life.
destination point, so that you know in which direction to Core layer First layer of clothing next to skin.
turn in order to complete your journey. Crampons Metal spikes that fit to soles of boots,
Anaphylactic shock Shock caused by sudden, massive providing grip on ice.
allergic reaction. Cumulus clouds Mass of rounded clouds forming above
horizontal base. Usually associated with high-pressure
Back bearing Compass bearing taken from a feature and zones and fine weather.
plotted on a map in order to find one’s position in Cumulonimbus clouds Tall bank of dark cumulus clouds
relation to that feature. that may contain thunderstorms.
Bearing Angle of travel, taken by compass, measured in Cyclone Winds rotating into area of low barometric
degrees or mils (thousandths of an inch) from north. pressure, causing bad weather.
Belay Pay out or pull in rope attached to someone, in Cylindrical projection Method of mapmaking in which
order to act as support if that person falls. an image of a globe is projected onto a cylinder, and then
Billycan General-purpose metal container for cooking. unrolled to make a flat surface.
Bivy sack Weatherproof sleeping bag cover that can be
used instead of a tent. Damper bread Unleavened bread made from flour and
Bow drill Fire-starting instrument consisting of a bow that water. Often cooked over an open fire.
turns a pointed stick (the drill) in a wooden hearth to Daypack Small backpack used to carry supplies for short
create friction and produce sparks. trips away from the main camp.
Bowline Knot that will not slip or come undone by itself. Dehydration Results when the body loses more water
Usually used to secure a loop. than it takes in. Signified by nausea, headache, and
Breathable fabric Fabric with treated surface that allows eventual collapse. Drink so that urine remains clear or
body moisture to escape through pores, but prevents rain only slightly yellowish.
from seeping in. Detouring Navigational technique of veering away from a
set course to avoid an obstacle, then returning to the
Calorie A unit of heat related to the energy values of course once the obstacle has been passed.
foods. The calorie is correctly termed a kilocalorie (or Dome tent Stable tent supported by curved poles.
large calorie), which is the amount of heat needed to raise Double fisherman's knot A specialized knot used for
the temperature of 2.2 pounds (1 kg) of water through joining ropes together, and for making secure connections.
1.8°F (1°C). It is particularly used in rock climbing (seepage 149)-
Carabiner Clip useful for joining ropes.
Chimneying To climb or descend a gap Edging Rock climbing technique of placing edge of foot
between rock faces by supporting oneself in a crack instead of on a protrusion.
using the hands and feet on opposite sides
of a fissure. Fitness rating Measurement of how quickly pulse rate
Cirrus clouds High, wispy clouds returns to normal after exercise. Depends upon age,
formed of ice crystals. gender, and health.
Conical projection System of Flare A signal used at sea, in the form of a flame or light.
projecting a globe onto a cone, then Flysheet Outer skin of tent that can be used as a shelter
opening it out to form a map. by itself in warm weather.
Contour lines Lines on a map, joining Frostbite The freezing of body tissues, causing damage
points of land that are of the same and eventually death.
height above sea level.
Contouring To negotiate a hill by GPS Global Positioning System used for navigation. Radio
remaining at the same height as you signals are sent to and from satellites to determine a
walk around it, moving along the position on the ground.
imaginary contour line. Gaff Hook used for landing fish.
Concave slope Hill whose summit can be Gaiters Fabric or plastic worn around lower legs to
seen from the ground. protect them from dampness, rocks, or thorny vegetation.
Contact poisoning Skin rash or ailment Geodesic dome Stable dome structure made from
caused by touching poisonous substance, interlocking struts. Commonly used in tent frames,
such as a plant with irritant hairs or sap. Gillnet Net usually strung across a stretch of water,
 GLOSSARY
185

designed to catch fish by the gills Magnetic variation Difference between magnetic north
as they try to swim through it. and grid north.
Gradient A slope. Gradient can Manteling Rock-climbing technique used to negotiate
also mean the amount that a slope overhangs and bulges in a rockface.
rises from the horizontal. Mercator projection Method of projecting earth onto flat
Grid reference Position on a surface in order to make a map.
map, given in relation to the lines Middle layer Layer of clothing worn on top of second
of the direction grid. layer and underneath outer layer.
Guyline Cord with one end Morse Code Alphabet consisting of dots and dashes, used
attached to a tent to act as a for signaling. Can be adapted to sounds, printing, or visual
stabilizer when the other end is signals, such as smoke or light.
pegged into the ground. Mountain bibs Pants, usually insulated, with high
waistband and suspenders.
Hand drill Pointed stick rotated Muscarine Poisonous substance found in Amanita
between the hands in a wooden muscaria mnscaria fungus. Causes convulsions,
“hearth" to cause friction and hallucinations, and sometimes death.
| produce sparks to light a fire.
Handrail Navigational technique in Occluded front Weather system in which cold air of a
which a linear feature in the depression meets warm air and forces it upward.
landscape, such as a river or road, is Omnivore Creature that can live on a wide variety of
followed until a bearing can be foods, including both meat and vegetation.
taken to another feature that was Outer layer Layer of clothing worn on top of other items,
previously out of sight. to act as an outside barrier against the air.
Hawser-laid Type of rope formed
from twisted strands. Panniers Bags attached to sides of pack animal, bicycle,
Heatstroke Condition in which body becomes or motorcycle.
overheated, sometimes resulting in collapse. Pemmican Cake of dried meat or fish mixed with
Heat exhaustion Condition of collapse, due to excessive congealed fat, originally devised by Native Americans as a
exposure to heat, exertion, and a lack of water to replace method of preserving meat.
water lost by the body. Phillips screwdriver Screwdriver with cross-shaped tip,
Heliograph Reflector used for signaling with the sun. which fits into special screws with cross-shaped slots.
HELP Heat-Escape-Lessening Posture, used when floating Named after original manufacturer in the United States.
in water. Designed to keep abdomen covered to reduce Pitfall trap Container set in ground and disguised, in
loss of heat from body core (see also Core). order to trap ground-crawling animals, particularly insects.
Hurricane Tropical storm characterized by whirling Primary forest Forest that has never been cut
winds. May be hundreds of miles across. Prussik loop Knot formed of loops of rope over a second
Hypothermia Condition in which body loses heat from rope. Particularly used in rock climbing.
its core. Fatal if not treated early enough. Prussiking Descending or ascending a rockface using
prussik knots attached to a fixed rope.
Igloo Dome-shaped shelter made from snow blocks. Pulk Sled pulled by a person.
Inner tent Basic tent that can be used in conjunction with Purse seine Large fishing net with drawstring edge.
weatherproof flysheet.
Invertebrate Animal without backbone. For example, Quicksand Waterlogged sand whose loose particles
insect and shellfish. spread apart easily, to engulf anything that falls into it.
Isobar Line on a weather map connecting areas having Quinze Shelter consisting of hollowed-out heap of snow.
the same atmospheric pressure at the same time.
Kappel To descend a rockface supported by a rope.
Kayak Small, one-person canoe based on traditional Inuit Reamer Instrument for boring or widening a hole.
sealskin boat. Recovery position Medical position
Kernmantle Type of rope consisting of a central core of of prone body designed to enable
twisted strands surrounded by a woven sleeve. victim to vomit without
Kindling Sticks of wood or other fuel used to get a small choking, and to breathe
fire going from initial flames. without throat being
Kukri Large knife traditionally used by Gurkhas in Nepal. blocked by
Useful for several different purposes. tongue.
Ridge Long,
Lashing Method of joining items together using ropes. narrow hill, or
Latrine Hole in ground used as camp toilet. the apex of
Layering principle Method of insulation using thin layers two long
of clothing. slopes.
 GLOSSARY
186

Ridgepole Central, horizontal support of pitched roof. Taste test Step-by-step test for
Ridge tent Basic tent with pitched roof and two pointed assessing unfamiliar plants for
gables at the same height. palatability and whether they
Ring of Fire Region around edge of Pacific Ocean where are safe to eat.
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common, due to Tepee Conical structure
the collision of plates of the Earth’s lithosphere. formed by three or more
sticks leaning together.
Saddle A ridge rising to a hill or peak at each end. Tick Arthropod that lives
Named for its resemblance to a riding saddle. on blood from mammals.
Sculling Keeping afloat by scooping water with hands Can transmit disease.
toward body. Tickling a fish Technique
Sea anchor Device dragged from vessel in order to limit of catching a fish with the
drift due to current. hands. Accomplished by
Second layer Layer of clothing worn on top of stroking the underside of a
underwear. Can be added to or removed to moderate resting fish to calm it, then
body temperature. grabbing it and throwing it
Secondary forest Forest that has been cut down at least out of the water.
once, and has grown back in a more tangled form. Tinder Small, fine,
Semaphore Alphabet formed by position of arms, or combustible material used for
both hands holding flags. Used for signaling. starting a fire.
Shear lashing Method of joining two spars by lashing Toilet can Container used
them together with cord. for holding human waste
Shock Medical condition of total collapse of bodily when it is not practical or legal to
systems, following an injury or accident. dig a latrine.
Snowmobile Vehicle with motorcycle engine and tracks Tornado Whirling winds and funnel-shaped cloud,
or skis for crossing snowy ground. caused by hot air being sucked up into thundercloud.
Sod house Building constructed of blocks of sod. Travois Improvised vehicle for carrying a load,
Solar still Device using the heat of the sun to distil consisting of two poles joined by a platform, dragged
contaminated water, so that it evaporates, then behind a horse or man.
condenses on a surface as pure freshwater. Trench foot Fungal condition of skin, caused by
Step test Method of determining fitness by stepping on excessive dampness. Particularly prevalent in humid
and off a raised block for a measured length of time, areas, such as jungle.
then taking one’s pulse to see how long it takes to return Tsunami Enormous wave caused by earthquake on the
to normal (.see Fitness rating). seabed. Such a wave may travel for hundreds of miles
Stratocumulus clouds Combination of stratus (layered) and swamp coastlines for a long way inland.
and cumulus (rounded) clouds, forming a thick sheet.
Stratus clouds Continuous sheet of thin cloud, Vegetation still Device for extracting water from
sometimes forming fog, or bringing drizzle. vegetation. Foliage is enclosed in plastic, and as the air
Sunblock Cream or lotion put on skin as a barrier inside the plastic heats up, the vegetation gives off water
against ultraviolet rays from the sun. vapor. This vapor condenses as water droplets on the
Sundial Instrument for determining time or direction by underside of the plastic and can be collected.
measuring a shadow cast by the sun. Vent To open clothing zippers and buttons to allow
Survival bag Insulated bag that can be used as tent or excess body heat to escape.
sleeping bag in extreme conditions. Volcanic bomb Rocks, ash, and gas exploding from
Synoptic chart Map showing synopsis of information on erupting volcano.
weather conditions in a particular region at a certain Volcano Conical protrusion of land, through which
time, marked in symbols. Used by meteorologists to molten material and gas from the Earth’s mantle escapes.
correlate information and forecast probable weather.
Wick Ability of fabric to allow body moisture to seep
away from skin, yet prevent outside moisture from
reaching it.
Winch Cable with a hook on one end, used for pulling.
Sometimes attached to vehicles. Can be used to pull
vehicle out of soft ground.
Windchill Increased effect of cold temperatures caused
by wind.
Wire saw Twisted wire attached to handles.

Yukon stove Oven constructed from hardened clay,

consisting of cone-shaped chimney with fire at bottom.
 CHECKLIST
187

Checklist for Survival

T his list is anything but exhaustive, but it is
intended to give you headings from which to
forgotten. It may also remind you of other things
you may need that are not on this list. Always
create lists of your own. for whatever activity you keep a list of the equipment you take with you
are undertaking. Use it to trigger your thinking, to into the wilderness. The next time you go, you
determine what might be necessary - as well as will know which items to leave behind, and
to help you remember things you may have which ones you cannot manage without.

Bags and Packs Personae Gear Mosquito face net Signaling Equipment
Backpack Towel Mosquito bed net Whistle
Daypack Washcloth Insect repellent Heliograph
Moneybelt Sunscreen Ankle wrist bands Paper
Washkit Insect repellent Belt Pencils and pens
Soap Sunglasses
Shelter Toothbrush [tingle boots Miscellaneous
Tent with poles and pegs Toothpaste Rope
Sleeping bag Lip balm Desert Regions String or cord
Sleeping bag liner Shampoo Cotton underwear Climbing helmet
Bivy sack Razor Cotton long-sleeved shirt First-aid kit
Sleeping mat Toilet paper Cotton pants Candle lantern
Tent repair kit Windproof jacket Magnifying glass
Sewing kit Navigation equipment Lightweight boots Flint and steel
Compass Sunglasses Firestarter blocks
Tools Binoculars Hat Disposable cigarette lighter
Large knife Map in plastic bag Scarf/bandanna
Pocketknife Flashlight Optional Equipment
Survival kit Batteries Polar Regions Books
Thermal underwear Games
Cooking, Eating, and Clothing Heavy shirt Radio
Drinking equipment General Fleece jacket Camera
Stove Underwear Hooded parka Film
Waterproof matches .Socks Insulated mountain bibs Lifejacket
Fuel Boots Cotton inner socks
Fuel bottles Light hiking boots Wool outer socks
Stove maintenance kit Pants Inner boots
Billycans Shin Heavy insulated boots
Plate Jacket Inner gloves
Dish Hat Warm mid-layer mittens
Utensils Sunglasses Heavy outer mittens

Plastic mug Belt Balaclava

Water filter Goggles

Water purification tablets Tropical Regions Glacier glasses

Water bottles Cotton underwear Snowshoes

Large water container Long-sleeved, cotton, Crampons

Can opener ripstop shirt Cross-country skis

Pan scrub Cotton ripstop pants Ski poles

Plastic bags Windproof jacket Ice ax

Food Hat Ice hammer

 INDEX
188

INDEX
Arenga 83 black widow spider 167 Ceratonia 83
A arm, broken 179
Arothron 167
bleeding, controlling 177
blinding mangrove 85
Ceylon spinach 83
chemicals 13
ABC of resuscitation 175 arrowhead 86 blisters, treating 181 Chicorium 93
Abramis 98 ascending a rockface 146 bog arum 87 chicory 93
Acacia 72 aspen 83 boggy7 ground, crossing 153 chimneying 148
Acanthocybium 101 assessing Boletus 90 choking 176
Acer 88, 93 companions 123 boomslang 167 Chondrus 93
Aeon it urn 84 terrain 122 boots chopping wood 33
acorns 88, 93 victim 175 choosing 24 chub 98
Acorns 86 asthma 13 cleaning 25 Cicuta 84, 87
adder 167 Astralagus 86 bottle fish trap 107 cinnabar moth 95
Aegopodium 82 At rax 167 bow7 drill 63 circulation, checking 175
Aesculus 88 Atropba 89 bowl, carving 113 Cladonia rangiferina 91
Agaricus 91 avalanche 168 bream 98 clay pot, making 113
aiming off 131 breathing clothes
air pollution 13 rate 12 cold climate 138
checking 175 desert 142
airway, checking 175
Alaria 93
Aleuria aurantia 90
B bridge, building 153
brown recluse spider 166
fabrics 22
jungle 144
Alligator 166 back bearings 128 bullhead 99 layers 22
Allium 82 backpack, Bungarus 167 washing 57
almond 88 carrying 134 buoyancy aid, making 163 cloudberry 89
Amanita 91 improvised 135 burns, treating 182 clouds 132, 165
Amaranthus 83 packing 134 buttercup 84 clover 93
American alligator 166 baking in mud 117 butterflies 94 Clupea 100
animal bites 180 Balistidae 109 buttons 29 coconut palm 83
animals, caring for 160 bamboo Cocos 83
ankle, broken 178 edible 83 coiling rope 36
Anacardium 88
Anopheles 167
anticyclone 170
pot 116
shelter 53
shovel 33
c Colocasia 87
compass
making 124
antibiotic tablets 29 banana tree, getting water California laurel 85 using a 130
ants 94, 98 from 73 Calla 87 cone shell 95
baneberry 89 calorie needs 15 Conium 84
Barbarea vulgaris 82 Calvatia utriformis 90 contact poisoning 181
bark water container 77 camels 160 contouring 131
barracuda 101 camp contours 127
barrel cactus safety 56 cooking on hot rocks 117
as water source 72 tips 40 coracle 157-
getting water from 73 campsite coral snake 166
Basetta 83 choosing 40 cord, improvised 34
basket fish trap 107 cleaning up 64 Cortinarius 91
bass 100 cancer 13 Corylus 88
Batrachoididae 101 candle 28 cowbane 84, 87
beachapple 85 cannibals 13 cow7hage 85
bed, improvised 31 Cape gooseberry 14 crabapple 89
beefsteak fungus 90 carabiner 149, 152 crab
bees carbohydrate 1-t cage 107
edibility 94 Carcbarodon 167 dressing 97
collecting 96 cardinal beetle 95 Crambe 82
belaying 147 cardiopulmonary resuscitation cramp, relieving 181
Betula 83 176 cranberry 89
bicycles 161 carnivores 14 Crocodylus 167
Big Dipper 125 carob 83 cross-country skiing 139
billy tea 93 carp 98 Crotalus 166
binoculars 26, 123 carrageen 82, 93 cyclone 170
birch 83 carrion flower 72 Cyperus 86
bistort 82 Cary a 88 Cyprinus 98
bites, treating 180 cassava 87
Bids 167 Castanea 88
bivy sack 43 caster bean plant 84
black locust 85 cauliflower fungus 90
black mamba 167 caves 55
 INDEX
189

E Fistulina hepatica 90
fitness rating 18
flares 165
hemlock 84
hen-of-the-woods fungus 90
herring 100
ear. foreign object in 182 flashlight 26, 96 Hippomdne 85
earthquakes 169 flint blade 33 hippopotamus 167
earthworms, cooking 97 floating honey ants 97
easing lower back pain 19 aids 163 honey, collecting 96
Ecbinocactus 72 HELP position 162 hornet 167
edging 146 survival 163 horse chestnut 57, 88
edibility test 82 with lifejacket 162 horses 160
eel, skinning 111 without lifejacket 163 Hudson Bay pack 137
electric eel 99 flood 171 human body, features of 12
electrical storm 171 flour, making 92 hurricane 171
Electrophorus 99 fly agaric 91 huskies 160
elephant seal 166 flysheet 42 Hydropbis 166
elephant 160 food safe 57 hygiene 57
environment fool's mushroom 91 hyperactivity 13
affecting health 13 footholds for climbing 146 hypothermia 151
protecting 65 forest fire 168
Esox 99 foxglove 84
estuarine crocodile 167 Fragaria 89
eucalyptus 93
Euthynnus 100
frostbite 140
fruit 89
I
Excoecaria 85 fuel Ictalunis 99
exercise, benefits of 19 for fire 59 igloo 50
eye for stove 114 Indian krait snake 167
foreign object in 182 fungus 14 industrial solvents 13
injury 183 funnel-web spider 167 inflatable boat 157
D protection 1 -*2 insect
eating 96
dace 98
daffodil 87
F G identifying 94
stings 180
trapping 96
damming stream 108
gaff 105 intervisibility
damper bread 117
fat 14 gaiters 25 isobars 170
dandelion 82
feet galingale 86
Dasyatis 101
features of 12 geodesic dome tent 43
dates 1-t
daypack 134
deadly nightshade 89
death camas 84, 87
keeping clean 24
Feirocactas 72
fiber 14
pitching 45
gillnet, using 108
glass knife 33
J
fierce snake 167 Glechoma 93 Jatropba
death cap 91
fire Global Positioning System 128 glandulosa 85
death puffer fish 167
carrying 61 Gluta 85 integerrima 85
dehydration 69
cleaning up 65 goutweed 82 podagtica 85
Dendroaspis 167
lighting methods 62 gradients 127 jellyfish 95, 180
descending a rockface 146
types 61 grasshopper 94 Jerusalem artichoke 86
desert, crossing 142
fireplace, building 54 great white shark 167 joints 12
destroying angel 91
first-aid kit 174 grid references 127 Juglans 88
detouring 131
fish Grifola frondosa 90 j tingle
dew, collecting 70
drying 118 grizzly bear 166 equipment 25, 144
diamondback rattlesnake 166
filleting 110 ground ivy 93 types 145
diarrhea 69. 181
skewering 111 ground-to-air signals 173 juniper 89
Digitalis 84
skinning 110 grubs, collecting 96 Junipenis 89
Dioscorea 87 guyline 12
where to find 105
direction, finding 12-t
fishhook
Dispholidus 167
in finger 183
distance
estimating 127
measuring 129
making 102
using 104 H
fishing
dock 82 hand drill, using 63
bait 103
dogsled 140 handholds for climbing 146
floats 102
dome tent 43 handrail, using 131
harpoons, making 103
pitching 45
ice 104 hay fever 13
double fisherman's knot 184
landing, 105 hazel 88
drying frame 118 hearing, sense of 12
line 28
Duchesnea 89 heart 12
lures, making 102
net, making 106 heat-loss areas 163
netting 108 heatstroke 182
spearing 104 Helianthus 86
trap, making 107, 109 heliograph 28, 173
 INDEX
190

making 129 perch 99

K maple 83, 93
matches, waterproof 27, 28. 62
persimmon 14
periwinkles, cooking
kayak 157 Megalops 100 97
kelp 93 Metroxylon 83 pesticides 13
kindling 59 Micrurus 166 Pbysalia 95
kiwi fruit 14 migration 130 Picea 83
knife minerals 14 pickerel 99
glass 33 Mirounga 166 pike 99
sharpening 32 monkshood 84 pilewort 87
using 33 Morchella 90 pine
knots 35 morel 90 drinks from 93
kukri 32 Morone 100 eating 83
Morse Code 173 Pi nils 83
mosquito 1-45 piranha 99, 166
L moths 9-4, 96
motorcycles 161
Pistacia 88
pitcher plant 72
Laburnum 85 mountain bikes 161 pitfall trap 96
Lactrodectus 167 Mucuna 85 pocketknife 32
land, signs of 165 mud oven 115 poison arrow tree frog 166
Laportea 85 multipitch ascents 147 poison
latrine 56, 6-r muscarine poisoning 91 ivy 8-4
laver 82, 93 mussels, cooking 97 oak 84
lip balm 27 sumac 84
poisoning 181
leeches, removing 145
Leuciscus 98 N polar equipment 138
pollution 13
liferafts 16-4
log cabin 5-4 Narcissus 87 Polygonum 82
Lupinus 8a navigation 130 Populus 83
Lycopersteon 87 needle as compass 12-t Porphyria 82, 93
Neoregalia 72 Portuguese man o' war 95
Nepenthes 72 Portulaca 82
nettle 93 potassium permanganate 29
nettle tree 85 potato 87 Ranunculus 84, 87
M night vision, retaining 137
nosebleed, treating 177
predators, dealing with 167
preservatives 118
razor blade compass 12-4
razor clams 97
mackerel 101 nuts 14, 88 prickly pear 72 recovery position 175
Nymphaea 86 prismatic compass 12-t red-back spider 167
magnetic variation 129
protein 14 reflecting the sun 173
magnifying glass 29, 62
Makaira 101
Mains 89
Manibot 87
o protractor compass 12-4
P run us 88
prussik loop la9
reflector 28
reindeer moss 91
rescue breathing 175
manioc 87 occluded front 170 prussiking 149 rhengas tree 85
manteling 148 omnivores la Pseudosasa 83 Ricinus 84
map 26 Oncborbynchiis 98 puff adder 167 roach 98
contour Opuntia 72 puffball fungus 90 Robinia 85
126 orange peel fungus 90 pulk 1-40 rock tripe 91
Ornithogalum 87 purse seining 108 roots
outboard motor 157 digging for 92
ovens 115 preparing 92
rope

Q coiling 36
damaged 36
quinze 51 improvised 34
Quercus 88 joining 37
pack frame, making 135 quicksand 153 type 34
paddle, making 157 Rub us 89
Page!I us 98 rucld 98
palm 83 Rumex 82
panniers 161
panther cap 91
R Rutilus 98

Panthera 167 rabies 183

papaya 14
Parademansia 167
Partbenocissus 89
rafts 154, 156
rain, collecting
on land 70
s
Passiflora 89 on liferaft 164 Saccbarum 83
passionfruit 89 rainstorms 171 saddle 126
peanut 14, 86 Raja 100 Sagiltaria 86
pemmican 119 ramps 82 sago palm 83
Perea 99 rappeling 147 sail
 INDEX

on liferaft 164 spoon, carving 113 toilet can 56 57

on raft 156 spruce 83 tomato 87 dishes 41
Salma 100 stagnant water 75 tools, improvised 33 wash kit 27, 57
salmon 100 Stapelia tooth, replacing 177 wasps 95
salsify 86 starfish 94 tornado 171 water chestnut 86
saltwater starflower 8^ Toxicodendron 84 water lily 86
boils 165 stars, navigation by 125 Trachinidae 109 water
distilling 75 steam cooking pit 115 Tragopogon 86 bad 75
sandstorm 143 j step test 18 travois, making 135 containers 26,76
Sapiuin insigne 85 I stingray 101 Triakis 101 digging for 70
scalpel 29 stings 180 Trifolium 93 from dew 70
Scanliinis 98 Stizostedion 99 triggerfish 101 from ice and snow 73
Scomberomonis 101 stonefish 109. 167 trout 98 from plants 71, 72, 73
Scopbthahmis 100 stoves II4 tsunami 169 from soil 71
Scorpaeniclae 101, 166 strawberry 57, 89 tuna 100 needs 69
scorpionfish 101, 166 stress 13 turbot 100 signs of 69
sea anchor, making 164 stretcher, making 178 sterilizing tablets 29
sea anemone 95 stretching 19 where to cross 150
sea kale 82
sea lettuce 93
sea snake 166
Stiycbnos 89
sugar palm 83
sugarcane 83
u waterborne diseases 75
weather
masses and fronts 133
sea urchin 94 summer purslane 82 Ulva 93 maps 133
seawater, condensing 71 sunblock 27 l inbeUularia 85 natural forecasters 133
seaweed, using 93 sun l iiibillicaiia 91 w'eaverhirds 125
Sedum 82 navigation by 125 Unconscious person 175 weever fish 101
seeds, collecting 92 signaling with 173 Urolopbus 101 winching 159
semaphore 1^2 sundial, making 125 i'rsus 166 windchill l4l
Serrasalmus 99. 166 sweet chestnut 88 I rtica 93 windstorms 171
sharks, dealing with 109. 164 sweet flag 86 utensils 27, 115 wintercress 82
sharpening knife 32 sweet vetch 86
shear lashing 3- swimming 151
shellfish 95. 97 Swiss Army knife 26
shelter
A-frame 52
Synanceia 101
Synanceidae 167
V Y
bamboo 53 synoptic chart 170 valley yam 87
jungle 53 varicose veins 177 yellow-staining mushroom 91
lean-to 48 vegetarian diet 14 yew 85
natural 55
snow 50
shock, treating 176
T vegetation still 73
venting 22
Vespa 167
Yukon stor e 115

sight 12 I Tamarindm 83 victim

Silva compass 29. 124
skate 100
tandan 99
Tanclanus 99
assessing 175
moving 178, 183 Zigadervtm 84, 87
Z
skin 12 Taraxacum 82 Vincetoxicum 87
skinning taro 87 vine, getting water from 73
eel 111 tarpon 100 Vipera 167
fish 110 taste Virginia creeper 89
slugs, gathering 97 sense of 12 vitamins 14
smell, sense of 12 Taxus 85 Vi Us 89
Smintbillus 166 tepee volcanoes 169
smoker, building 119 fire 60 vomiting 181
snails 94. 97 smoker 119
snake bites 180 teeth
snow equipment 138
snowmobile 140
snowshoes, making 139
cleaning 57
features of human 12
tench 98
w
soap, improvised 57 tent, repairing 47 wahoo 101
socks 24 termites wall pepper 82
sod house 55 collecting 96 walleye 99
Solanum 87 nests 125 washing
solar still 71 terrain, assessing 122
Sorbus 89 Tetrapturus 101
SOS 172 thread 29
Southern Cross 125 Thunmis 100
space blanket 31 tickling a fish 104
Sparassis crispa 90 ticks, removing 180
spearfishing 104 tiger 167
Sphyraena 101 Tinea 98
spider bites 180 tinder 58
splinting 178 toadfish 101
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
192

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Illustrations
AUTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Key: t top, b bottom c centre, 1 left, r right
This book is the sum total of the work of a great many people, Coral Mula: 25b, 30b, 34b, 42t, 50, 51t. 51 c, 53. 54, 55t, 55c, 56t, 56bl.
from the very top of Darling Kindersley downward. It involved 57b, 64, 65, 70, 71, 73t. 77, 91bl, 92, 93, 96, 97, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109,
a tremendous amount of coordination - of artwork, 110. Ill, 115. 117, 118tl, 123t, 126, 127tr, 132, 133, 129, 131, 134t, 143bl,
photography, equipment, and materials, as well as editorial and 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164,
design work. The creative team of editor Lynn Parr and designer 165, 168, 173
John Woodcock: 33. 51b, 55b, 56br, 57cr, 6lcr, 71br, 73br, 75tr, 77tr,
Lee Griffiths made it all happen, and the work was made
97bl, 107br, 111, U3br, 115br, ll6br. 118cr, 123tr. 128br, 143br,
enjoyable thanks to the superb professionalism and good
Jim Robins: 175-183
humor of the photographers Tim Ridley, Andy Crawford, and Colin Newman: 198-101
Steve Gorton. The upper echelons of the DK hierarchy were
Maps
very closely involved throughout the whole project. Inception
James Anderson, James Mills-Hicks, and John Plumer of Dorling
required a good many most convivial meetings with Publisher Kindersley Cartography: 16-17, 136-137, 166-167. 169, 170
Christopher Davis, Editorial Director David Lamb, Managing
Models
Editor Krystyna Mayer, and Managing Art Editor Derek
Peter Griffiths: 40-41, 68-69, 100-101, 122-123
Coombes. As we got under way, Krystyna Mayer kept a
David Donkin: 132
necessarily tight rein (while offering support and guidance), and
Photography
Derek Coombes personally supervised one of the location
All photography by Steve Gorton. Tim Ridley, and Andy Crawford with
shoots. And throughout, I was gingered up by personal assistance by Nicholas Goodall. Sarah Ashun and Gary Ombler except:
comments from Peter Kindersley. I would also like to thank
Charles Badby: 157tr; Courtesy of BMW: l6lt: Buzz Pictures/Doug
Commando Forces and the Royal Marines for giving me both
Biane: 136t; Bruce Coleman Ltd.; David Austen 139cl;Jen& Des Bartlett
the training and the opportunity to learn and develop the
125br; Erwin & Peggy Bauer l6cl, 43cl: N. G. Blake 91tl; Bob & Clara
techniques and ideas shown in this book. Calhoun 84c; John Cancalosi 88c; Alain Compost l67cr; Gerald Cubitt
17cr, l69bc; Adrian Davies 90tc, 90bc: Jack Dermid 84cr; Nicholas
publisher s Acknowledgments Devore III 143cl; Hans & Joachim Flugel 69cl; Michael & Patricia Fogden
For equipment and materials: 130tc, 133cl, 145c: Jeff Foott 13tr, 95c, 133c: Christer Fredriksson 20-21,
Airborne Industries Ltd.: Armory Fitness Centre; Cotswold: The Outdoor l60tr; Michael Freeman 103br, 167c; C. B. & D. W. Frith l66br; R. Glover
People (Free 192-page catalogue, 0285 860612); Cniisermart Discount 120-121: Keith Gunnar 2, 38-39, 139bc, 139br, 160cr. 168bl; Pekka Helo
Marine; Dr. T.J. Dean, Institute of Hydrology, National Environmental 89tl; Carol Hughes 69tr, 75c, 143tr; Johnny Johnson l66tc: Steven C.
Research Council; Ellis Brigham Mountain Sports; Europa Sport; Sally Kaufman 43bl; Stephen J. Krasemann 91bc, 145tr; Harald Lange 17br;
Gilbert; Gooctlife Foods Ltd.; Sheila Metcalf; Paul Goodyear. Nomad Olivier Langrand 69tl; Wayne Lankinen 166c: Luiz Claudio Marigo l68tl:
Pharmacy Ltd.; Olympus; Plastimo Manufacturing UK Ltd.; Jim Sharp, George McCarthy 90cr; 91c; l65bc; John Murray 15cl; Charlie Ott 89cr,
Aberdeen Weather Centre; Roger Daynes and Richard Olivier. Snowsled; 143cr; Robert Perron 15tc: Dieter ck Mary Plage 17tl, 66-67, 122tc, l69bl.
Survival Group Ltd.; The Colt Car Company Ltd.; Zamberlan; 171c; Dr. Sandro Prato 17bl; Andy Purcell 13cl, 90tr, 91tc; Hans Reinhard
Zodiak UK Ltd. 13br, 75cr, 89tr, 91tr, 125bc. 133tl, l66cb, 17ltr: Gary Retherford l45tl;
Norbert Rosing 140br; Leonard Lee Rue III l60cl; Frieder Sauer 91br;
For research and advice
John Shaw 90tl, 143tc; Kim Taylor 13tl, 69cr, 90br; Peter Ward 145bc;
Shane Winser, Expedition Advisory Centre; Tom Sheppard, Royal
Bill Wood 95tc Joe van Wormer 13tc; Corbis/John Henley: 20-21; John
Geographical Society; Deborah McManners, M.D.; Ray Rogers.
Dittli Photography: 66-6T Cotswold Camping: 24br; Getty Images/Per
For picture research Breiehagen: 1-iOt; Getty Images/The Image Bank/Terje Rakke: 2; Getty
Catherine O'Rourke, Anna Lord, and Joanna Thomas Images/Rex Ziak: 10-11: Michael & Patricia Fogden: Endpapers;
For page make-up and computer assistance Hutchison Library: Christina Dodwell 157bl: John Egan 171bc; Brian
Jonathan Harris and Chris Clark Moser l69ci; Dr. Nigel Smith 15tl; J. Wright l6bc; Images Colour Library
Ltd./Horizon International: Andris Apse 78-79: Land Rover UK Ltd.
158bc. 159tl. 159tr, 159c, Hugh McManners: 160tl; Lynn Parr: 84tc;
Phoenix Mountaineering Ltd.: J. Timper 43c: Planet Earth: Jack Jackson
l64tc; Marty Snyderman I67bl: Plastimo Manufacturing UK Ltd.: l62tc;
Dave Reede Photography; 78-79; Lee Rentz Photography: 38-39, 120-
121; The Royal Geographical Society; Martha Holmes 157tl; Nigel
Winser 157c; The Harry Smith Collection: 85tl, 85tc, 85cl, 85c, 85bl, 87tl.
87cl. 87bc, 87cr, 88tl, 88bl. 88tr, 88tc. 88bc. 89bl. 89br; Stockfile: F.
Winner 161 hi; Tony Stone Images: 132tc,171tc; Vango Scotland Ltd.:
Tim Greening 43tr; Tony West: 10-11: Wild Country: 4ltr, 43tc

Additional Photography
Beth Chatto 82tr, 82cr, 84 tl, 86cr, 87tr, 87tc; Eric Crichton 82tl, 84cl,
89bc; Andrew cle Loiy, 82bl, 83cr, 85cr, 89ct; Andrew Lawson 86 ct;
Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire 84 br: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 87br;
Jeriy Young l66br, l66tl, l66bl. l67t, l67br, 167tr
 . iy

" < '*

.
• «

' .

• » .

'

• •' • *
 "Although it has plenty in its rich
store of information and advice for the
weekend camper and nature lover, the
book is fit reading for the hardcore
survivalist as well.'' -Booklist

Hugh McManners
A practical guide to mastering outdoor skills
THE COMPLETE and staying alive in challenging environments,

WILDERNESS The Complete Wilderness Training Manual enables

everyone - expert and novice alike - to answer
TRAININ the call of the wild with confidence.
Jacket images:
Front Corbis: Rob Howard.
Back: Corbis: S.P. Gillette fcl;
All other images © Dorling Kindersley

$15.00 USA
$18.00 Canada
Emm Discover more at
www.dk.com