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Series Editors
Grant Frame Brent A. Strawn Niek Veldhuis
University of Pennsylvania Emory University University of California,
Berkeley
1. Of Courtiers and Kings: The Biblical Daniel Narratives and Ancient Story-
Collections, by Tawny L. Holm
2. The Sacrificial Economy: Assessors, Contractors, and Thieves in the
Management of Sacrificial Sheep at the Eanna Temple of Uruk
(ca. 625-520 B.c.), by Michael Kozuh
3. Children in the Ancient Near Eastern Household, by Kristine Henriksen
Garroway
4. Fishers of Fish and Fishers of Men: Fishing Imagery in the Hebrew Bible and
in the Ancient Near East, by Tyler R. Yoder
5. Child Sacrifice in Ancient Israel, by Heath D. Dewrell
6. The Dragon, the Mountain, and the Nations: An Old Testament Myth,
Its Origins, and Its Afterlives, by Robert D. Miller II
The Dragon, the Mountain,
and the Nations
An Old Testament Myth, Its Origins
and Its Afterlives
Robert D. Miller II
Eisenbrauns
University Park, PA
Nihil Obstat:
Rev. Christopher Begg, S.T.D., Ph.D.
Censor Deputatus
Imprimatur:
Most Rev. Barry C. Knestout
Auxiliary Bishop of Washington
Archdiocese of Washington
December 19, 2017
The nihil obstat and imprimatur are official designations that a book or pamphlet is free
of doctrinal or moral error. There is no implication that those who have granted the
nihil obstat and the imprimatur agree with the content, opinions, or statements expressed
therein.
It is the policy of The Pennsylvania State University Press to use acid-free paper.
Publications on uncoated stock satisfy the minimum requirements of the National
Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Material,
ANSI Z39.48—1992.
•20
|\A1
Contents
Introduction....................................................................................... 1
Part I
East of Qinger Trees
1. India............................................................................................. 11
Indra in the Rig-Veda 12
Post-Vedic Indra 20
Trita 23
2. Proto-Indo-Europeans ............................................................... 26
Slavic and Baltic Examples 36
Variants and Summation 38
3. A Global Myth?........................................................................... 40
A Nostratic Myth? 42
Debunking the Global Myth: Japan 45
Debunking the Global Myth: Egypt 50
4. Iran............................................................................................. 55
Thrita and Thraetaona 55
Verethraghna 57
Shahname 58
Vahagn 61
Part II
The Matter of the North
5. Hittites....................................................................................... 67
Post-Hittite Developments 75
Summation 79
6. Hurrian Influence........................................................................ 81
Post-Hurrian Developments 93
v
vi Contents
Bibliography....................................................................................... 305
Indexes............................................................................................. 377
Index of Authors 377
Index of Scripture 388
Index of Other Sources 393
Introduction
This book is about myth—a myth that plays a major role in the Hebrew
Bible and a substantial role in the New Testament. This myth has a hoary
ancestry, extending back long before its appearance in the Hebrew Bible, and
a vast range, extending as far as India and possibly even to Japan. This book
is a chronicle of its trajectories and permutations.
Myth is essentially characterized by “its tendency to follow circuitous,
sinuous paths.”1 This study will follow those paths using the methodology
known as comparative mythology. Comparative mythology is an intentional
parallel to comparative linguistics, and it is from the latter that its methods
derive. Thus, most importantly, comparative mythology seeks not only to dis
cuss parallels between myths2 but also to explain their genetic relationships.3
Just as languages develop into multiple daughter languages that share forms
with one another that reflect the ancient forms of the original language, so,
too, myths are passed down from one population group to another, diverging
into multiple forms that all share with one another some elements deriving
from the original ancient myth.4
Comparative linguistics has shown that groups at the most extreme geo
graphic distances often preserve best the most ancient forms deriving from
their common origin (Ireland and India, for example).5 This fact necessitates
beginning this study, whose proper subject is the biblical text, with India.
1. Jeffrey Andrew Barash, “Myth in History, Philosophy of History as Myth: On the Am-
bivalence of Hans Blumenberg’s Interpretation of Ernst Cassirer’s Theory of Myth,” History and
Theory 50 (2011): 334.
2. This need imply neither diffusion nor evolution; Robert A. Segal, “In Defense of the
Comparative Method,” Numen 48 (2001): 346.
3. Jens Fleischhauer, “A Phylogenetic Interpretation of the Comparative Method,” Jour
nal of Language Relationship 2 (2009): 115; Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of
Indo-European Poetics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 4.
4. For a contrary view of language development, see Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruc
tion: An Introduction to Theory and Method (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 51, 125.
5. George Dumezil, Entretiens avec Didier Eribon (Paris: Gallimard, 1987), 112. The ex
treme example is the Kusunda language of Nepal, a linguistic isolate that is actually an Indo-
Pacific language with its closest relatives in New Guinea and Tasmania. The genetic relation-
2 Introduction
ship, evidence of ancient migration from Asia into the Pacific, is undisputed; Paul Whitehouse
et al., “Kusunda: An Indo-Pacific Language in Nepal,” Proceedings of the National Academy of the
Sciences 101, no. 15 (April 13, 2004): 5692-94.
6. R. L. Trask, The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (Chicago: Fitz-
roy Dearborn, 2000), 62; Fleischhauer, “A Phylogenetic Interpretation of the Comparative
Method,” 116.
7. Fleischhauer, “A Phylogenetic Interpretation of the Comparative Method,” 125.
Introduction 3
pletely unrelated.8 Just as, by the laws of probability, two or more languages
will sometimes happen to have very similar forms, so, too, close parallels in
myths may derive from any number of non-genetic factors, including shared
diffusion originating in the Paleolithic period (as per Michael Witzel),9 so
cioeconomic parallels (as per Louis Althusser), or biological-evolutionary
factors inherent to the human brain (as per Karl Jung and Otto Rank).10
Robert Segal believes that discussion of the causes of connections can be sus
pended in the comparative study itself,11 but this seems dangerous. Scholars
tend far too often to equate vaguely similar stories, to blur vegetation-gods
with storm-gods, for example.12 Most comparative linguists pay no attention
to mere lists of miscellaneous resemblances between languages, and neither
should comparative mythographers. Chance linguistic resemblance is re
duced by comparing forms that are as long as possible.13 In seeking genetic
relationships and cognates, it will also be essential to identify systematic cor
respondences, not mere miscellaneous resemblances.14
Nevertheless, while it is of paramount importance that entire myths
be studied, and in their original languages where possible, without cherry-
picking the bits that compare best,15 we will not be able to find entire myths
that are cognate without isolating elements within myths. These elements
are analogous to tentative morphs in comparative linguistics,16 and for
24. Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective,” 43;
Emily Lyle, “The Cosmological Theory of Myth,” in New Perspectives on Myth: Proceedings of the
Second Annual Conference of the International Association for Comparative Mythology, Ravenstein
(the Netherlands), 19—21 August, 2008, ed. Wim van Binsbergen and Eric Venbrux (Haarlem:
Shikanda, n.d.), 269.
25. Frog, “Confluence, Continuity and Change in the Evolution of Mythology: The Case
of the Finno-Karelian Sampo-Cycle,” in Mythic Discourses: Studies in Uralic Traditions, ed. Frog,
Anna-Leena Siikala, and Eila Stepanova (Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society, 2012), 206.
26. Ibid; Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective,”
41; Lyle, “The Cosmological Theory of Myth,” 268.
27. Segal, “In Defense of the Comparative Method,” 342; Spivak, “Rethinking Compara
tivism,” 615.
28. Segal, “In Defense of the Comparative Method,” 349.
29. Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective,” 44;
Wendy Doniger, “Minimyths and Maximyths and Political Points of View,” in Myth and Method,
ed. Laurie L. Patton and Wendy Doniger (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996),
124; Binsbergen, Rupture and Fusion in the Approach to Myth, 46; Chris Barker, Cultural Studies:
Theory and Practice, 4th ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012), 10.
30. Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective,” 46;
Freidenreich, “Comparisons Compared: A Methodological Survey of Comparisons of Religion
from ‘A Magic Dwells’ to A Magic Still Dwells,” 92; also, already, T. P. Van Baaren, “The Flex
ibility of Myth,” Ex Orbe Religionum (Leiden: Brill, 1972), 199, 202.
31. Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective,” 46;
Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics, 10.
32. John J. Gumperz, “Contextualization Revisited,” The Contextualization of Language,
ed. Peter Auer and Aldo Di Luzio (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1992), 40-41, 50.
6 Introduction
shall see, the mountain upon which the events focus—have histories ex
tending beyond their particular context, histories that situate the myth in
a long-term continuum that has a potential for meaning?3 “At each stage
in transmission of a tale from generation to generation, modifications take
place but something remains. Thus there is a potential for material to be
retained from a time in the distant past when the narrative was embedded in
a total oral worldview or cosmology.”33 34 Moreover, an excessive focus on the
particular iteration of a single myth “tends to generate even smaller foci until
it is impossible to generalize even from one moment to the next; nothing
has enough in common with anything else to be compared with it even for
the purpose of illuminating its distinctiveness.”35 We will only see how each
individual society changes a myth to suit its own situation if we are able to
compare.36
In examining each iteration of these mythemes, each myth in the con
text of its own historical location and society, we will attempt to interpret the
myth both by the way it works within its society and with an appreciation of
the meaning-laden heritage it already has. In addition, “interpretation must
produce both an emic and an etic explanation.”37 That is, we will try to un
pack what value ancient societies attributed to these myths, what they signi
fied, as well as what functions the myths had and the reasons why mythemes
arose, of which ancient societies may have been completely unaware. In the
chapters that follow, each society will be treated in turn, with meaning and
significance attached to the patterns, themes, domains, and connections that
we will have identified during our analysis.38
Finally, a word about motive is warranted. Why should discussion of the
myth of Indra be valuable for an understanding of the Bible? The answer lies
in the Parallax Approach and its applicability to the Bible. I have argued else
33. Frog, “Confluence, Continuity and Change in the Evolution of Mythology: The Case
of the Finno-Karelian Sampo-Cycle,” 206; Frog, “The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions
in Long-Term Perspective,” 40, 46; Bruce Lincoln, Theorizing Myth (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999), 150.
34. Emily Lyle, “Narrative Form and the Structure of Myth,” Folklore 33 (2006): 59; Frog
and Karina Lukin, “Reflections on Texts and Practices in Mythology, Religion, and Research,”
Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter 10 (2015): 7-8.
35. Doniger, “Minimyths and Maximyths and Political Points of View,” 110.
36. Manfred Lueger, Grundlagen qualitativer Feldforschung (Venice: WUV-Universitatsver-
lag, 2000), 147.
37. Margaret D. LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul, Analysis and Interpretation of Ethno-
graphic Data: A Mixed Methods Approach, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2013), 17.
38. Ibid., 18.
Introduction 1
where that the biblical material here under scrutiny should be called myth.39
Laurence Coupe writes: “We can see the Bible itself as a body of mythology
which does two things. It develops in response to other mythologies; yet it re
works its own myths as it expands, providing further material for post-Biblical
mythology.”40 And, following the Parallax Approach, this reworking and re
sponding “is a sort of symbolic hermeneusis of the realities that are knotted in
clots of sense, nodes of signification and the nexus of transition.”41 As Peter
Machinist writes: “To understand the meaning of a text, its language and
motifs, is to understand first where they came from. It is not enough, indeed
it is misleading, to focus simply on the individual text alone, as though it were
a completely independent, free creation of its author. The text must rather be
seen as one link in a complex chain of tradition.”42
Furthermore, as I have also argued,43 myth in the Bible understood as
myth is of great value “to our modernity that finds itself absorbed in a mate
rial or mechanical mythology that, being rationalist, scientific and positivis
tic, despises subjectivity and the subjective as superstition.”44
The target of this study is the biblical myth. This target, however, is
itself a fluid tradition, responding to and reworking extrabiblical myths and
reworking its own myths. In that sense, the continual rereadings and multiple
reinterpretations have a history, a Traditionsgeschichte.45 We will follow this
traditions-history through the Old Testament and into the New. This does
not mean, however, that each Old Testament manifestation of the myth is
merely read in the light of the New Testament manifestations, nor even that
the New Testament manifestations are the ultimate evocations of the myth.
We will return to the danger of supersessionism in chapter 16.
39. Robert D. Miller II, “Myth as Revelation,” Laval Theologique et Philosophique, 2014,
544-45.
40. Laurence Coupe, Myth, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2009), 100.
41. Andres Ortiz-Oses, The Sense of the World (Aurora, CO: Davies Group, 2007), 29.
42. Peter B. Machinist, “Introduction,” Creation and Chaos (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
2006).
43. Robert D. Miller II, “Myth as Revelation,” 555-61.
44. Ortiz-Oses, The Sense of the World, 32, 77; for discussion, see Erich Unger, Das Problem
der mythischen Realitat; eine Einleitung in die Goldbergsche Schrift: “Die WirkUchkeit der Hebraer”
(Berlin: David, 1926), 5-7; Oskar Goldberg, Die Wirklichkeit der Hebraer (1925), Wissenschaft-
liche Neuausg. jiidische Kultur, vol. 14 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), 16.
45. Klaus Niimberger, Theology of the Biblical Witness: An Evolutionary Approach, Theolo-
gie: Forschung und Wissenschaft 5 (Munster/Hamburg: LIT, 2002); Klaus Niimberger, On Bib
lical Interpretation: Evolutionary Hermeneutics—A Position Paper, 2006, www.klaus-numberger.
com/component/banners/click/13.html, 4-10; James Barr, Biblical Faith and Natural Theology:
Gifford Lectures for 1991, new ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 196-97, 205.
8 Introduction
At the same time, the Psalms stand at the focal point of this study. De
spite subsequently following of the trajectory forward into later texts, the
Psalms will receive the most attention of any biblical text and more than
any other iteration of the myth. This is because it is in the Psalms that the
myth is allowed to play its fullest role, to have free rein to be both metaphor
and icon, to evoke narrative and imagery. In the poetry of the Psalms, the
surplus of meaning remains, employing central, elementary symbols that are
the common heritage of humanity to enable us to venture further toward the
inexpressible than is permitted by the language of prose.
I have published many short studies related to this topic in article form
during the course of the last decade. Almost everything argued in those stud
ies will be repeated here; it is not necessary to refer to them, and this study
in effect replaces them. Moreover, much of the analysis and discussion in the
earlier chapters of this book is not ground-breaking; other scholars have thor
oughly discussed Baal, or Indra, or Ps 68 previously. But none have attempted
to bring it all together. As the folklorist W. F. H. Nicolaisen has said, “It is not
intended, and therefore should not be expected, to startle through its innova
tive fervor but rather to invite quiet reflection in reaction to the synthesized
distillation of scattered thoughts that I have, over the years, expressed in this
place and that, but never, I fear, with persuasive cohesion.”46 This book’s goal
is to be “what the ideal book must be—not authoritative, but suggestive.”47
India
Nothing necessitates beginning this study with India. The mythic ex
amples from India are not the oldest; the Hittite case is older. The Indian
texts are far more numerous, however, and they are among the oldest ex
amples of the dragon-slaying myth. Moreover, in India there is a continuous
development of the myth within more-or-less the same community from an
tiquity to today. So the tracing of the myth will begin with India, although it
will back up to an earlier period in the chapters that follow.
At the earliest point, no mythological narratives proper are to be found in
India. Instead, the elements of the myth, the background mythic story, is pre
supposed by and alluded to by hymns—what Andrew Lang called “myths dis
solving into poetry.”1 Nevertheless, as will become clear, the narrative can be
reconstructed easily. Thus, the situation is different from that which obtains
in ancient Egypt, where extracting mythological narratives from early hymns
and prayers is not only more difficult but in practice depends on knowing
the scholarly reconstructed narrative ahead of time. The “myths” of ancient
Egypt, especially the cosmological myths, exist nowhere in narrative form;
they are constructs of a century of Egyptological scholarship. As Jan Assmann
has argued extensively, myth in Egypt exists largely in non-narrative form.2
Texts, images, and rituals give representation to an idea or “icon” that is a
constellation of deities who are constituted as persons and act in relationship
to one another.3 Thus, it is impossible to find narratives of the creation myths
of ancient Egypt; one can perhaps piece them together from the images and
liturgical texts, but the narrative is imposed by the scholar.
1. Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion (Guernsey: Guernsey Press, 1913), 1.170.
2. Jan Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion, vol. 22 (London: Kegan Paul, 1995), 38, 41; Jan
Assmann, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 112.
3. Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion, 22:38, 40; Assmann, The Search for God in Ancient
Egypt, 102-3, 107, 111.
12 Chapter 1
4. ]. Gonda, The Indra Hymns of the Rgyeda, vol. 36 (Leiden: Brill, 1989), 1; Wendy Do
niger, The Hindus (New York: Penguin, 2009), 104.
5. Doniger, The Hindus, 105.
6. Gonda, The Indra Hymns of the Rgveda, 36:3.
7. Doniger, The Hindus, 104.
8. Vedic is not the direct ancestor of Sanskrit and is more like the language of the
Prakrits; R. L. Trask, The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 2000), 361.
9. Doniger, The Hindus, 103-4; Michael York, The Divine Versus the Asurian: An Inter'
pretation of Indo-European Cult and Myth (Bethesda, MD: International Scholars Publications,
1995), 100; Kshetresh Chattopadhyaya, Studies in Vedic and Indo-Iranian Religion (Varanasi, In
dia: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1978), 17.
10. All quotations from the Rig-Veda are from Ravi P. Arya and K. L. Joshi, eds., Rgveda-
Samhitd, Parimal Sanskrit Series 45 (Delhi: Parimal Publications, 1997).
11. A great number of occurrences of this term are in Book 8; Raymond Hodgson, Indra
and Vrtra: A Study of Continuity and Change in the Indian Religious Tradition (1975), 70.
India 13
At other times, however, the battle with Vrtra seems not to be a past
event but something happening at the moment of the hymn. Thus, “Indra,
who are invoked by many, grind to dust the reviling malevolent Vrtra oppos-
ing you” (RV 3.30.8). “Be victorious, Indra, in battles: we solicit you, object
of many rites, to destroy Vrtra” (RV 3.38.6). “O heaven, give room to contain
the thunderbolt; let us smite Vrtra” (RV 8.100.12). The impression is given
that Vrtra might not quite be dead forever.12 In the 7 th-century BC Shata-
patha Brahmana (1.6.3.17), Vrtra is the “undying worm.”13
From these quotations, it appears that Indra is a storm-god, wielding a
thunderbolt.14 This is confirmed by many passages in the Rig-Veda: “The
thunderbolt of the showerer roared aloud, when [Indra], the friend of man,
sought to slay the enemy of mankind” (RV 2.11.10).15 Indra is called “the
sender of rain” (RV 2.30.1) and “showerer” (RV 5.36.4; 5.37.5; 5.40.3;
6.44.21), as well as “lord of clouds” (RV 6.46.2). For this reason, he is the
giver of agriculture (RV 5.39; 4.32; 8.24).16 His weapon is the vajra or thun
derbolt (RV 3.41.1; 5.37.3; 5.38.3; 5.39.1; 6.45.9, 18), which becomes Indra’s
totem (fig. 1).17 “The slayer of many foes ... the showerer, the wielder of the
bright thunderbolt, him who is the destroyer of Vrtra” (RV 4.17.7-8).18 The
weapon was specially made for Indra for the combat by Tvastr (1.61.6), and
it is used to split Vrtra’s head (8.6.6, 76.2).
Vrtra, on the other hand, is identified as an Af}i or serpent (e.g., RV
5.30.6; 5.31.7): “Indra, you have slain by your prow the glorified AJii” (RV
2.11.5). “Of you, Indra, who are mighty, great are deeds, and to be proclaimed
at all sacrifices, inasmuch as, high-minded hero, you, sustaining, have by your
strength slain Ahi with the resistless thunderbolt” (RV 4.22.5). Vrtra is de
scribed in serpentine images (see below) and is sometimes referred to as the
“encompasser” (RV 5.32.8), fyaydna, a term cognate with Greek okeanos, to
which we will return in chapter 13.
RV 5.32.2-8 provides a rather extended account:
12. M. L. West, Indo-European Poetry and Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007),
257; Uma Chakravarty, Indra and Other Vedic Deities, vol. 8 (New Delhi: D. K. Printworld,
1997), 115-16.
13. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Indra and Namuci,”
Speculum 19, no. 1 (January 1944): 111.
14. Ev Cochrane, “Indra: A Case Study in Comparative Mythology,” Aeon 2 (1991): 8.
15. “Friend of man” is a frequent attribute: RV 6.28.5; 8.45.32; 9.113.2.
16. Shanti S. Gupta, A Study of the God Indra, vol. 85 (New Delhi: Krishna, 2001), 20-21.
17. Chakravarty, Indra and Other Vedic Deities, 8:97-98.
18. Cochrane, “Indra: A Case Study in Comparative Mythology,” 4.
14 Chapter 1
Figure 1. Torso of Indra (E24), Mathura Museum, originally from Tarsi near Bharatpur,
2nd century AD. Photograph by Robert Miller.
You, thunder . . . fierce Indra, destroying the mighty Aki when slumbering,
you have established the reputation of your prowess. Indra, by his prowess,
has annihilated the weapon of that mighty beast, . . . You have discovered,
Indra, by his acts, the secret vital part of him who thought himself invuh
nerable, when, powerful Indra, in the exhilaration of the Soma, there have
detected him preparing for combat in his dark abode. . . . The fierce Indra
India 15
seized upon him, that vast moving [Vrtra], when slumbering, having drunk
the Soma, subduing and enveloping, and then slew him with his great weap
on in battle, footless, measureless, speechless.
This, then, is a proper dragon-slaying myth, and it is worth noting its lin
guistic expressions. In the Rig-Veda, this is Indro vrtram (or dhim) jaghana or
dhann.19 As will be discussed in the following chapter, this reflects a Proto-
Indo-European formula HERO+SLAY (*gwhen in the perfect or imperfect)
+SERPENT. In hymn 2.12, Vrtra is called the “swelling serpent,” ojayamanam
yo dhim. The verb for Indra’s act can also be avadhit, “slay” (PIE *wedh), as
in 1.33.4: “You slew the rich Dasyu with your ‘slayer’”—or tur “overcome”
(Indrena tarusema vrtram; 7.48.2) or bhinatti “split” (PIE *terh2' or *Wieid-).20
The killing of Vrtra somehow releases pent-up waters.21 “Indra, hero,
you have set free the copious [waters] which were formerly arrested by Ahi”
(RV 2.11.2). “You, Indra, are mighty; the vast earth confesses to you strength,
as does the heaven: you have slain Vrtra by your vigour, you have set free
the rivers arrested by Ahi. ... The subduer of foes, manifesting his energy
in hurling his thunderbolt, shattered the mountain by his strength; he slew
Vrtra with the thunderbolt, exulting, and the waters whose obstructer was
destroyed rushed forth with rapidity” RV 4.17.1-3). In other hymns, what is
released are “seven streams” (RV 4.28.1; 2.12.3).
There is also a variant where what is rescued/released are stolen cows (RV
3.34.3). “Indra, the slayer of Vrtra, let loose the milch kine” (RV 3.31.11).
“This [Indra], is renowned, whether conquering or slaying, or whether in
conflict he recovers the cattle” (RV 4.17.10).
Indra came to the battle after all the other gods had fled in fear (RV
3.32.4; 8.85.7; 8.93.14; 8.96.7).22 Indra is summoned by the gods to be their
victor against Vrtra, as seen in the extended account in RV 4.19.1-4:
Indra, wielder of the thunderbolt, all the protecting deities who are rever
ently invoked, and both the heaven and the earth, glorify you who are verily
one alone, mighty, vast, and pleasing of aspects, for the destruction of Vrtra.
As elders [send forth their young], so the gods have sent you [against Vrtra]:
thence you became, Indra who is the abode of truth, the sovereign of the
19. Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 301.
20. Ibid., 341.
21. And yet the term Vrtrahan rarely occurs with the release-of-waters motif; Hodgson,
Indra and Vrtra, 89.
22. Ibid., 158.
16 Chapter 1
world: you have slain the slumbering Ahi for [the release of] the water and
have marked out [the channels of] the all-delighting rivers. On the day of
the full moon, you have slain with the thunderbolt the insatiable, unnerved,
ignorant, un-apprehending, slumbering Ahi, obstructing the gliding-down-
ward-flowing [streams]. Indra, by his strength, has agitated the exhausted
firmament, as wind, by its violent [gusts agitates] the water.
This passage also shows how Indra was awarded kingship of the gods because
of his victory over Vrtra.23 Also RV 8.12.22: “The gods have placed Indra
[foremost] for the destruction of Vrtra.” “The king [of the gods] has slain
Vrtra” (RV 3.53.11). Indra remains king of the gods in India for all phases
of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well. His titles include “Indra, the lord of all,
the lord of wealth, the lord of heaven, the perpetual lord, the lord of man,
the lord of earth, the lord of horses, the lord of cattle, the lord of water” (RV
2.21.1); “the sovereign of both [heaven and earth]” (RV 6.47.16); “Indra, the
supreme king of men” (RV 8.16.1). Indra in the Rig-Veda is not only king of
the gods but king of everything. This last-mentioned hymn suggests a sort of
Indra-monism: “Indra is Brahma” (RV 8.16.7).
Nevertheless, Indra is not initially successful against Vrtra, who struck
him first (RV 4.18.9). Indra needs help to defeat Vrtra.24 The Marutas must
come to his assistance. “Those were the Maruts who were the strength of In
dra, and gently encouraged him; animated by whom he pierced the vital part
of Vrtra, fancying himself invulnerable” (RV 3.32.4).
A few more characteristics of Indra should be noted. Indra is ageless; he
cannot be made old (RV 6.42.7; 4.30.3).25 Indra is identified as a “bull” (vrsa;
RV 3.50.1; 6.33.1; 8.15.6)26 and was sometimes portrayed as a bull.27 And
Indra is also a creator-god, “firmly fixing the world” (RV 4.21.5).28 “By Indra
the constellations were made stable and firm and stationary” (RV 8.14.9).
Consider RV 2.12.1-3:
23. George Dumezil, The Destiny of the Warrior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1970), 118.
24. Chakravarty, Indra and Other Vedic Deities, 8:114.
25. Renate Sohnen-Thieme, “Rise and Decline of Indra Religion in the Vedas,” Inside
the Texts, Beyond the Texts, ed. Michael Witzel (Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1997), 237.
26. Gonda, The Indra Hymns of the Rgveda, 36:93, 118; Hodgson, Indra and Vrtra, 197.
27. West, Indo-European Poetry and Myth, 246; Susan L. Huntington, “Iconographic Re
flection on the Arjuna Ratha,” Kaladarsana, ed. Joanna G. Willilam (New Delhi; Bombay; Cal
cutta: Oxford & IBH, 1981), 61.
28. John Irwin, ‘“Asokan Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence—IV: Symbolism,” The
Burlington Magazine 118, no. 884 (1976): 740.
India 17
He, who as soon as bom, is the first [of the deities]; who has done honour to
the gods by his exploits; he, at whose might heaven and earth are alarmed,
and [who is known] by the greatness of his strength, he, men, is Indra. He,
who fixed firm the moving earth; who tranquillized the incensed mountains;
who spread the spacious firmament; who consolidated the heaven; he, men,
is Indra. He, who having destroyed Ahi, set free the seven rivers, who recov
ered the cows.
Even when he is praised as creator, the victory over Vrtra remains forefront.
RV 3.55.20-21 link Indra’s roles as creator, king, and fertility-god:
He has filled the two vast receptacles [heaven and earth] united [with crea
tures]. ... Our king, the nourisher of all, abides nearest to this earth like a
benevolent friend: the valiant precede him and dwell in his mansion: great
and unequalled is the might of the gods. The plants, Indra, come to perfec
tion by you.
“ There are clear references to Indra’s cosmogonic acts after the slaying
of Vrtra”29: RV 5.29.4, “Then he propped both the worlds far apart”; 7.23.3,
“Indra with his greatness pushed asunder both the world-halves, as he slew
the irresistible Vrtra.”30
As mentioned earlier, the first and last (tenth) books of the Rig-Veda
postdate the rest of the books. These books confirm the earlier images of
Indra: thunderer (RV 1.8.7), armed with the vajra or thunderbolt (RV 1.9.5;
1.57.2; 1.61.12), showerer (RV 1.10.4), bull (RV 1.8.8), ruler of the world
(RV 1.11.8), slayer of Vrtra (RV 1.51.4; 1.63.4), or the Ahi (RV 1.130.4),
freeing the obstructed waters (RV 1.33.12). Book 1 also contains two hymns
that turn the various elements into a full narrative and merit quotation at
length. First, 1.32.1-8:
I declare the former valorous deeds of Indra, which the thunderer has
achieved: he clove the cloud, he cast the waters down [to earth]; he broke
[a way] for the torrents of the mountain. He clove the cloud, seeking ref
uge on the mountain: Tvasta sharpened his far-whirling bolt: the flowing
waters quickly hastened to the ocean, like cows to their calves. Impetu
ous as a bull, he quaffed the Soma juice, he drank of the libation at the
triple sacrifice. Maghavan took his shaft, the thunderbolt. . .. With his vast
destroying thunderbolt, Indra struck the darkling mutilated Vrtra: as the
29. Ajoy Kumar Lahiri, Vedic Vrtra (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984), 103.
30. Ibid.; Cochrane, “Indra: A Case Study in Comparative Mythology,” 5.
18 Chapter 1
trunks of trees are felled by the axe, so lies Ahi prostrate on the earth. The
arrogant Vrtra, as if unequalled, defied Indra, the mighty hero, the destroyer
of many, the scatterer of foes;—he has not escaped the contact of the fate
of [Indra’s] enemies. The foe of Indra has crushed the rivers. Having neither
hand nor foot, he defied Indra, who struck him with the thunderbolt upon
his mountain-like shoulder, like one emasculated who pretends to virility;
then Vrtra, mutilated of many members, slept. The waters, that delight the
minds [of men], flow over him, recumbent on this earth, as a river [bursts
through] its broken [banks]. Ahi has been prostrated beneath the feet of the
waters, which Vrtra, by his might, had obstructed.
The hymn continues, noting, “When fear entered, Indra, into your heart
when about to slay Ahi” (line 14), and finally, “Then Indra, the wielder of the
thunderbolt, became the sovereign” (line 15). The other long hymn is 1.80,
which also relates the entire story, specifying that Indra struck Vrtra on the
jaw (line 5) and fought with the assistance of the Marutas (line 11).
A few new elements are introduced in Books 1 and 10, such as the iden
tification of Indra as a mountain in 1.121.12 (cf. Atharvaveda 10.7-8).31 An
other oddity is 1.121.12, which indicates that it was not Tvastr who gave
the vajra to Indra but Usanas son of Kavi. Usanas is in later texts Shukra,
a descendent of Pushan, also known as Kavi, the god of meeting. Shukra is
sometimes the father of Tvastr.
The Vedic story can be summarized. The dragon Vrtra is the aggressor.
The gods cower in fear, and call upon Indra to be their champion. Indra is
not initially successful, but when Tvastr fashions the vajra for him and with
the help of the Marutas, he is able to strike Vrtra on the head and render him
incapacitated if not dead. Indra then engages in some creation action in the
world, although he may have done so before the battle as well. Indra is finally
proclaimed king of the gods.
Many interpretations have been given to this myth. F. B. J. Kuiper, Mir-
cea Eliade, and Boris Oguibenine consider the Indra-Vrtra to be a cosmog
ony: the dragon represents formless watery chaos before creation.32 Alterna
tively, the myth may have become a creation myth even though it originated
as something else.33 Others have interpreted the myth as being an allegory
about tectonic or meteorological events.34 “It must be admitted that meteo
the waters contained by Vrtra, who is frequently called “Ahi of the Deep,”42
washing out and up upon Indra, who is both mountain (RV 1.121.12) and
bull (RV 3.50.1; 6.33.1; 8.15.6). At the start of the anointing, the king has
been “anointed with Indra’s power” (Taittiriya Samhita; Kathaka Samhita), or
more properly, “Indra’s Indrahood [Indriya],” along with soma’s glory, Agni’s
brilliance, Mitra and Varuna’s strength, and the Marutas’ force.43
Heesterman’s extensive treatment of all the textual witnesses does show
that the entire anointing rite is a ritual birth of the king.44 Note Shatapatha
Brahmana 5.3.5.24: “When he is bom, I will anoint him.” Heesterman is also
correct to note that the king stands as a cosmic pole, the center of the four
cardinal directions represented by four Brahmins who stand, performing the
anointing.45
mana 2.5.3.18.51 In the Ramayana (4th century BC), Indra is jealous and
self-centered.52 Always the god of soma (RV 9.4.4; 9.8.1; 9.11.8), he becomes
a soma drunkard. He seduces Ahalya, wife of the sage Gautama Maharishi, a
story found in many lst-millenium BC texts.
In the 8th'century BC Mahabharata, Indra gets into trouble by killing a
Brahmin, Trisiras the three-headed son of Tvastr (5.9.3-5.18.9).53 The only
hint of such a thing in the Rig-Veda is in 1.32, where Indra is afraid after he
has killed the Ahi.54 In the 5th-century BC Taittiriya Samhita (2.4.1.2-5),
the Brahmin son is actually Vrtra. Indra goes into hiding after his Brahmini-
cide and hides in a lotus, having shrunk his body to tiny dimensions. During
Indra’s absence, his throne—his “Indrahood”—is usurped by a human king
Nahusha (Mahabharata 5.11.15; 12.329.31.2).55 Thanks to his own hubris,
Nahusha falls from Indra’s chariot back to earth.56
As part of the general decline of Indra, the Brahminicide seems to be
an attempt to negate the importance of a deed that could not be removed
from the tradition.57 That is, something has caused Indra’s reputation to fall
precipitously. The dragon-slaying myth, however, was too embedded in tradi
tion to simply be ignored. By transforming Vrtra into a Brahmin, the myth
is turned on its head to be an example of Indra’s sins—the sins of the self-
centered, drunken philanderer.
This raises the question regarding how the deity who is without question
the supreme deity of the Rig-Veda can fall so dramatically. It is not that Indra
has become a demon, as the name “Indra” does in the Zoroastrian tradition,
but there are today no temples to Indra in all of India. While individual Indi
ans, especially Rajputs (I am told), will invoke Indra privately for agricultural
fertility, and while he still retains the title “king of the gods,” his reputation
is quite comical.
A possible answer lies in one of the functions of the Indra myth. All
myths have multiple functions—scientific, mythopoeic, ritual, psychological,
ethical, and so on. We will have recourse to these explanatory schemes in the
course of this book. But one of the key functions is political. As shown by
Emile Durkheim and Bronislaw Malinowski, myths function to cement social
bonds and provide group identity. The myths are a pragmatic charter for a
community. They can also legitimize power structures. Important theoretical
work in this regard was done by Louis Althusser and Jacques Ellul, building
on Marx’s “Grundrissen der Kritik der Politischen Okonomie.”58
58. Klaus Freyberg, “Die Dialektik des Mythos,” Sic et Non: Zeitschrift fur Philosophic und
Kultur im Netz (2005), archiv.sicetnon.org/artikel/wesen/mythos.htm; David Brown, Tradition
India 23
Trita
Another character in the Rig-Veda needs to be mentioned, Trita Aptya.
In RV 10.8.8, Trita kills three-headed Visvarupa with “ancestral weapons”
and releases cows.64 RV 2.11.19 says Indra delivers Visvarupa to Trita. This
Visvarupa is identified with Vrtra (and as an Ahi) and killed by Indra in the
and Imagination: Revelation and Change (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 178.
59. Sakka derives from the epithet sakra, which replaces the name Indra in some 1st-
century B.C. Hindu texts; Renate Sohnen-Thieme, “Indra in the Harivamsa,” Epic Undertak
ings, ed. Robert P. Goldman and Muneo Tokunaga, vol. 2 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2009),
337.
60. Dhammapada: Annotated and Explained (Woodstock, VT: Skylight Paths, 2002), 11.
61. U. Aye Maung and Bhikkhu Pesala, eds., The Questions of Sakka (Rangoon: Buddha
Sqasananuggaha Organisation, 1996).
62. Edward Conze, ed., The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom (Berkeley: University of Cali
fornia Press, 1975), 203-16.
63. Surindar Singh Kohli, Dictionary of Mythological References in Guru Granth Sahib
(Singh Brothers, 1993), 85.
64. Muralidhar Mohanty, Indra in Indian Mythology (Kolkata: Punthi Pustak, 2008), 92;
Gauri Mahulikar, “Trita Aptya: A Mysterious Figure,” Journal of the Oriental Institute 54 (2005—
2004): 4.
24 Chapter 1
65. West, Indo-European Poetry and Myth, 262; Mohanty, Indra in Indian Mythology, 92;
York, The Divine Versus the Asurian, 110.
66. Nataliya Yanchevskaya, “Trita,” paper presented to the IV International Conference
on Comparative Mythology, Cambridge, MA, 2010.
67. Coomaraswamy, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,” 105; Dumezil, The Destiny of the
Warrior, 19; Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space, 195.
68. Mahulikar, “Trita Artya: A Mysterious Figure,” 8; Yanchevskaya, “Trita”; Nataliya
Yanchevskaya, “Wolf,” paper presented to the 5 th International Conference for Comparative
Mythology, Strasbourg, 2011. In the Mahabharata, Trita runs from a wolf and falls into a well,
where his two older brothers leave him. Trita performs a soma sacrifice and is released, cursing
his brothers who turn into wolves..
69. West, Indo-European Poetry and Myth, 260.
70. Renate Sohnen-Thieme, “On the Vrtra Myth in the Rgveda: A Question of StratifT
cation,” Philologica et Lingusitica, ed. M. G. Schmidt and W. Bisang (Trier: Wissenschaftlicher
India 25
Trita will be important in the chapter on Iran, later in this study, but it
can be argued that Indra is, in fact, original in the myth. The evidence here
comes from the Kalash, an isolated group living in the western Chitral River
valley in Afghanistan and Pakistan, who preserve old pre-Islamic religious
traditions that are also free from developments within Hinduism after the
Vedic period.71 The Kalash creator-god, who has multiple names including
Indr, kills a snake, causes thunder, and casts lightning.72 He is patriarch of the
pantheon, and he is welcomed in a fall festival.73
This, and the absence of Trita with the Kalash, shows that Indra is origi
nal to the myth. It also refutes Sohnen-Thieme’s argument that the dragon
slaying myth is a late entry into Vedic mythology, arising after the Indie mi
gration to India.74
Verlag, 2001), 301, 305, 311; Lahiri, Vedic Vrtra, 191. Note that Indra is “bom” in RV 6.67.1;
7.20.5; 4.18.10; 10.101.12.
71. M. Witzel, “The Rgvedic Religious System and Its Central Asian and Hindukush
Antecedents,” The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual, ed. A. Griffiths and J. E. M. Houben
(Groningen: Forsten, 2004), 582.
72. Ibid., 583.
73. Ibid., 584.
74. Sohnen-Thieme, “On the Vrtra Myth in the Rgveda,” 302, 305.
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milloin minnekin, niin, että ne loivat varjoja, hämyvaloja ja
kummallisia valovaikutuksia. Keskelle näitä pani hän tavallisesti
ristiinnaulitun-kuvan. Ja hän maalasi milloin täplillä ja pirskeillä, joita
hän näytti huolimattomasti pergamentille pärskyttelevän, milloin
levein pensselivedoin. Arvi arveli toisinaan ettei tuo ollut juuri muuta
kuin tuhrailua; välimmiten häntä ihmetytti tuhrailun tekemä
tenhovaikutus. Hänen käytöksessään mestaria kohtaan oli viime
aikoina kunnioitus alkanut vivahtaa hellyydelle. Hän tiesi, mikä
mestaria, sekä sen ohessa Margitia, rasitti, ja hän tuumaili turhaan
keinoa auttaakseen heitä ahdingosta.
— Niin on. Enkä minä osaa kiivauttani hillitä, vaikka minun olisi
pitänyt se oppia autuaan isävainajani nuhteista, autuaan äitivainajani
esimerkistä ja ystävä vainajani, esimunkki Mathiaksen seurustelusta
sekä lukemalla uutta testamenttia ja Tuomas Kempiläistä.
Kaksikymmentä vuotta ja enemmänkin aikaa on kulunut minun
tietämättäni, että tämä intohimo entisellään rehenteli rinnassani. Sen
uinutti uneen täällä talossa ennen vallitseva rauha; mutta viime
aikoina on se näyttänyt ilkeitä elon oireita. Ja kun en ole laskenut
sitä irroilleen, on se ruvennut työntämään juuriaan syvemmälle ja
tuntuu usein ikäänkuin kirveltävänä polttona sydämen ympärillä.
Näytäpäs nyt minulle, Arvi, piirustustasi. Se on asuinkartano…
— Niin se, jonka aijon rakentaa isäni asumattomalle talontilalle
Kortebohon. Siitä tulee minun taloni, on isä sanonut. Tuohon
kylkirakennukseen laitetaan maalarimaja, jos suinkin ihan tämän
kaltainen, mutta näköala Vetterille päin.
— Ah, mestari, sanoi Fabbe, ette näy tietävän että olen erot
saanut.
*****
— Hän ei olisi sitten niin joutunut Laurin yksinvallan alle kuin nyt.
Sinä olet jaloluontoinen mies. Lauri ei ole. Äiti olisi helpommin tullut
sinun vaikutukseksi alaiseksi kuin hänen, sillä äiti on jalo hänkin,
mutta hän ei tule toimeen ilman miehen johtavaa arvostelua.
— Isä, luuletkos meidän siltä olevan kiirettä, että kello soi? Lauri
sitä salinakkunasta kalistelee, eikä minulle soittokellon äänessä, ole
enempää isännyyttä kuin hänenkään äänessään. Isä, minulla on
jotain muutakin sinulle sanottavaa, kun näin saamme tuttavallisesti
jutella eikä minun tarvitse sinun edessäsi hävetä. Etpä tiedä, että
Lauri on antanut minulle vitsaa…
— Mitä sanot?
— Takaisin mies!
Hän astui nyrkit ojossa Klasea kohden. Mutta tämä juoksi pajaan
ja tuli ulos heiluttaen vasaraa, valmiina lyömään. Silloin kajahti
Gudmund mestarin ääni, kaikuvammin kuin milloinkaan ennen
hänen eläessään:
VIIMEINEN ILTAVAHTIKÄVELY.
*****
— Mitä sanot?
*****
Illallista syötäessä ei Margarccta rouva ollut saapuvilla.
Naispalvelija ilmotti hänen aikaisin menneen levolle. Tämä ei ollut
mitään uutta; hän teki nyttemmin aina niin, ja hän tarvitsi sen. Hän,
niin tottunut onneen, oli jo kauvan elellyt aikojaan, saamatta
sielulleen päivänpaistetta. Kesken talonaskareita, jotka muuten
tuottivat hänelle huvia saman verran kuin työtäkin, istahti hän usein
itkemään ja käsiänsä vääntelemään, kun ei kukaan nähnyt. Mikä
vaivasikaan Gudmundia? Sitä hän kyseli. Hän oli toivonut tälle
elonsyksyä ihanaa kuin kaunis takasuvi. Hän oli toivonut hänelle
uuden kevään elpymistä siinä lämpimässä ja valossa, joka säteili
pojan pontevasta toimesta ja Jumalalle altistuneesta innosta. Eikö
tämä poika ollut kuin Libanonin seetri määrätty pylväänä Siionin
templiä kannattamaan? Eikö kaikki mitä hän tahtoi ollut harkittu
kaukaa ennalta näkevällä älyllä ja eikö se tähdännyt ainoastaan
hyvään päämäärään? Ja kuitenkin — pojan palattua kotiin vanheni
Gudmund silminnähtävästi päivä päivältä, hän ei viihtynyt enää
missään, paitsi maalarimajassaan, karttoi mikäli mahdollista pojan
läheisyyttä, ei osottanut sitä isällistä leppeyttä, joka on omalle pojalle
annettava, ja, vaikka olikin ainoastaan koulua käymätön
käsityöläinen, väitteli hän oppinutta vastaan, tämän selittäessä
Jumalan sanan oikeaa käsittämistä, olipa äskettäin kohdellut häntä
varsin sopimattomastikin. Ja kuitenkin oli Lauri menetellyt niin
maltillisesti, jättäen niin kauvan kuin suinkin toimeenpanematta
milloin minkin tarkoin mietityn parannuspuuhan, eikä suinkaan
väkirynnäköllä ajanut käännytystyötä, vaan koetti pikemmin
viittauksilla ohjata isää perikadon tieltä pelastuksen tielle. Mikä
vaivasi hänen Gudmundiaan? Sitä rouva ei saanut selville.
Margit oli eilisestä asti itsekseen hautonut uutista, joka hänen piti
ilmottaa isälleen, jotta tämä aikanaan ehtisi estää aijotun
toimenpiteen. Mutta sopivaa tilaisuutta ilmottamiselleen hän ei vielä
ollut saanut, ja nykyhetki ei ensinkään siihen sopinut. Lauri oli näet
hänen kuullensa lohduttanut äitiään sillä että tuo pakanallinen
tulitupa, josta he molemmat välisti olivat kuulleet kummallisia ääniä,
ennen pitkää tulisi revittäväksi. Hän ei muka enää aikonut isälle sen
enempää asiasta puhua, sillä Jumalan edessä oli hänellä oikeus,
mutta jos häneltä puuttui maallista oikeutta, niin voisihan isä
haastattaa hänet tuomioistuimen eteen. Lisäksi oli hän päättänyt,
isältä lupaa pyytämättä, siirtää kirjansa maalarinmajaan ja sisustaa
sen itselleen lukukammioksi. Jos isää sitten haluttaisi istua siellä
tuhrimassa, olkoon se hänen vallassaan, kunhan vaan luopuu
paavilaisista kuvailuksista. Lauri oli tuonut Saksasta kymmenittäin
Martti Lutherin kuvia, tehtyjä karkean, törkeän ja kaikittain
onnistumattoman puupiirroksen mukaan, sekä sitä paitse uuden,
melkoisesti parannetun puupiirroksen tuosta merkillisestä, Tiberistä
saadusta paavikalasta, siitäkin useita kappaleita. Nämä aikoi Lauri
antaa isänsä väritettäväksi. Siten tuhrailu ei ainakaan vahingoittaisi
hänen sieluansa.
*****
*****
Lauri ei sanonut mitään, mutta ajatus että hän tuhrisi väreillä tuntui
hänestä liian hävyttömältä.