HISTORY IAS Mains Q&A

2009-2023 Topic-wise PYQ Solved Papers

1995-2008 Topic-wise Previous Years’ Solved Papers are

available on https://www.chronicleindia.in/upsc-online-book

The Papers have been Solved according to UPSC Civil

Services Optional Syllabus. Also Useful for All State
Public Service Commissions’ and Other Examinations

n Answers Written Exactly as per the Demands of the Questions, Containing

Additional Information related to All Aspects of the Topics.
n Answers Cover All Dimensions, not Necessarily Adhering to the Prescribed
Word Limit, to Enrich Your Knowledge and Help You Write Better Answers
in Future.

Editor - N.N. Ojha

Solved by - Chronicle Editorial Team
 .....CONTENTS

yy History Mains Exam 2023 Solved PAPER-I ------------------------------------------------------------- 1-16

yy History Mains Exam 2023 Solved PAPER-II------------------------------------------------------------17-32

PAPER – I
Map Section..............................................................................................................................................................1-36

1. Sources.............................................................................................................................................................37-43
• Archaeological Sources: Exploration, excavation, epigraphy, numismatics, monuments
• Literary Sources: Indigenous: Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional
languages, religious literature.
• Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

2. Pre-history and Proto-history.....................................................................................................................44-46

• Geographical factors; hunting and gathering (paleolithic and mesolithic); Beginning of agriculture (neolithic and
chalcolithic).

3. Indus Valley Civilization............................................................................................................................47-52

• Origin, date, extent, characteristics, decline, survival and significance, art and architecture.

4. Megalithic Cultures......................................................................................................................................53-55
• Distribution of pastoral and farming cultures outside the Indus, Development of community life, Settlements,
Development of agriculture, Crafts, Pottery, and Iron industry.

5. Aryans and Vedic Period.............................................................................................................................56-67

• Expansions of Aryans in India. Vedic Period: Religious and philosophic literature; Transformation from Rig Vedic
period to the later Vedic period; Political, social and economical life; Significance of the Vedic Age; Evolution of
Monarchy and Varna system.

6. Period of Mahajanapadas............................................................................................................................68-75
• Formation of States (Mahajanapada): Republics and monarchies; Rise of urban centres; Trade routes; Economic
growth; Introduction of coinage; Spread of Jainism and Buddhism; Rise of Magadha and Nandas. Iranian and
Macedonian invasions and their impact.

7. Mauryan Empire............................................................................................................................................76-81
• Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthashastra; Ashoka; Concept of Dharma;
Edicts; Polity, Administration; Economy; Art, architecture and sculpture; External contacts; Religion; Spread of
religion; Literature.
• Disintegration of the empire; Sungas and Kanvas.

8. Post - Mauryan Period (Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas)...............................82-87

• Contact with outside world; growth of urban centres, economy, coinage, development of religions,
Mahayana, social conditions, art, architecture, culture, literature and science.

9. Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India...................................................88-93
• Kharavela, The Satavahanas, Tamil States of the Sangam Age; Administration, economy, land grants, coinage, trade
guilds and urban centres; Buddhist centres; Sangam literature and culture; Art and architecture.
10. Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas...........................................................................................................94-99
• Polity and administration, Economic conditions, Coinage of the Guptas, Land grants, Decline of urban centres,
Indian feudalism, Caste system, Position of women, Education and educational institutions; Nalanda, Vikramshila
and Vallabhi, Literature, scientific literature, art and architecture.

11. Regional States during Gupta Era.........................................................................................................100-107

• The Kadambas, Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami; Polity and Administration, Trade guilds, Literature; growth of
Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya; Vedanta; Institutions of temple and
temple architecture; Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas, Paramaras, Polity and administration; Cultural aspects. Arab
conquest of Sind; Alberuni, The Chalukyas of Kalyana, Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas; Polity and Administration;
local Government; Growth of art and architecture, religious sects, Institution of temple and Mathas, Agraharas,
education and literature, economy and society.

12. Themes in Early Indian Cultural History............................................................................................108-112

• Languages and texts, major stages in the evolution of art and architecture, major philosophical thinkers and schools,
ideas in Science and Mathematics.

13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200..............................................................................................................113-122

• Polity: Major political developments in Northern India and the Peninsula, origin and the rise of Rajputs;
• The Cholas: administration, village economy and society; “Indian Feudalism”;
• Agrarian economy and urban settlements;
• Trade and commerce;
• Society: the status of the Brahman and the new social order;
• Condition of women;
• Indian science and technology

14. Cultural Traditions in India, 750-1200..................................................................................................123-133

• Philosophy: Skankaracharya and Vedanta, Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita, Madhva and Brahma-Mimansa;
• Religion: Forms and features of religion, Tamil devotional cult, growth of Bhakti, Islam and its arrival in India,
Sufism;
• Literature: Literature in Sanskrit, growth of Tamil literature, literature in the newly developing languages, Kalhan’s
Rajtarangini, Alberuni’s India;
• Art and Architecture: Temple architecture, sculpture, painting
15. The Thirteenth Century...........................................................................................................................134-144
• Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate: The Ghurian invasions – factors behind Ghurian success;
• Economic, social and cultural consequences;
• Foundation of Delhi Sultanate and early Turkish Sultans;
• Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban
16. The Fourteenth Century...........................................................................................................................145-153
• “The Khalji Revolution”;
• Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and territorial expansion, agrarian and economic measures;
• Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq;
• Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public works, decline of the Sultanate,
foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account;
17. Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries..............................154-160
• Society: composition of rural society, ruling classes, town dwellers, women, religious classes, caste and slavery
under the Sultanate, Bhakti movement, Sufi movement;
• Culture: Persian literature, literature in the regional languages of North India, literature in the languages of South
India, Sultanate architecture and new structural forms, painting, evolution of a composite culture;
• Economy: Agricultural production, rise of urban economy and non-agricultural production, trade and commerce

18. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century - Political Developments and Economy................161-173
• Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Bengal, Kashmir (Zainul Abedin), Gujarat,
 • Malwa, Bahmanids;
• The Vijayanagra Empire;
• Lodis; Mughal Empire, First phase: Babur and Humayun;
• The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s administration;
• Portuguese Colonial enterprise; Bhakti and Sufi Movements

19. The Fifteenth and early Sixteenth Century - Society and Culture.................................................174-178
• Regional cultural specificities;
• Literary traditions;
• Provincial architecture;
• Society, culture, literature and the arts in Vijayanagara Empire.
20. Akbar...........................................................................................................................................................179-184
• Conquests and consolidation of the Empire;
• Establishment of Jagir and Mansab systems;
• Rajput policy;
• Evolution of religious and social outlook, theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy;
• Court patronage of art and technology

21. Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century......................................................................................185-192

• Major administrative policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb;
• The Empire and the Zamindars;
• Religious policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb;
• Nature of the Mughal State;
• Late Seventeenth century crisis and the revolts;
• The Ahom Kingdom;
• Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom.

22. Economy and Society in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries..............................................193-198

• Population, agricultural production, craft production;
• Towns, commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies : a trade revolution;
• Indian mercantile classes, banking, insurance and credit systems;
• Condition of peasants, condition of women;
• Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth
23. Culture in the Mughal Empire...............................................................................................................199-205
• Persian histories and other literature;
• Hindi and other religious literature;
• Mughal architecture;
• Mughal painting;
• Provincial architecture and painting;
• Classical music;
• Science and technology

24. The Eighteenth Century...........................................................................................................................206-214

• Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire;
• The regional principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh;
• Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas;
• The Maratha fiscal and financial system;
• Emergence of Afghan Power, Battle of Panipat: 1761;
• State of politics, culture and economy on the eve of the British conquest
 PAPER – II
1. European Penetration into India............................................................................................................215-218
• The Early European Settlements; The Portuguese and the Dutch; The English and the French East India Companies;
Their struggle for supremacy; Carnatic Wars; Bengal -The conflict between the English and the Nawabs of Bengal;
Siraj and the English; The Battle of Plassey; Significance of Plassey.

2. British Expansion in India......................................................................................................................219-227

• Bengal – Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim; The Battle of Buxar; Mysore; The Marathas; The three Anglo-Maratha Wars;
The Punjab.

3. Early Structure of the British Raj..........................................................................................................228-232

• The early administrative structure; From diarchy to direct control; The Regulating Act (1773); The Pitt’s India Act
(1784); The Charter Act (1833); The voice of free trade and the changing character of British colonial rule; The
English utilitarian and India.

4. Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule..........................................................................................233-246

(a) Land revenue settlements in British India; The Permanent Settlement; Ryotwari Settlement; Mahalwari Settlement;
Economic impact of the revenue; arrangements; Commercialization of agriculture; Rise of landless agrarian labourers;
Impoverishment of the rural society;
(b) Dislocation of traditional trade and commerce; De-industrialisation; Decline of traditional crafts; Drain of wealth;
Economic transformation of India; Railroad and communication network including telegraph and postal services;
Famine and poverty in the rural interior; European business enterprise and its limitations.

5. Social and Cultural Developments.......................................................................................................247-257

• The state of indigenous education, its dislocation; Orientalist - Anglicist controversy, The introduction of western
education in India; The rise of press, literature and public opinion; The rise of modern vernacular literature; Progress
of science; Christian missionary activities in India.

6. Social and Religious Reform movements in Bengal and Other Areas.........................................258-264

• Ram Mohan Roy, The Brahmo Movement; Devendranath Tagore; Iswarchandra Vidyasagar; The Young Bengal
Movement; Dayanada Saraswati; The social reform movements in India including Sati, widow remarriage, child
marriage etc.; The contribution of Indian renaissance to the growth of modern India; Islamic revivalism – the Feraizi
and Wahabi Movements.

7. Indian Response to British Rule............................................................................................................265-277

• Peasant movements and tribal uprisings in the 18th and 19th centuries including the Rangpur Dhing (1783), the
Kol Rebellion (1832), the Mopla Rebellion in Malabar (1841-1920), the Santal Hul (1855), Indigo Rebellion (1859-60),
Deccan Uprising (1875) and the Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900); The Great Revolt of 1857 - Origin, character, causes
of failure, the consequences; The shift in the character of peasant uprisings in the post-1857 period; the peasant
movements of the 1920s and 1930s.

8. Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism...........................................................................278-289

• Politics of Association; The Foundation of the Indian National Congress; The Safety-valve thesis relating to the birth
of the Congress; Programme and objectives of Early Congress; the social composition of early Congress leadership;
the Moderates and Extremists; The Partition of Bengal (1905); The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal; the economic
and political aspects of Swadeshi Movement; The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India.

9. Rise of Gandhi...........................................................................................................................................290-296
• Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhi’s popular appeal; Rowlatt Satyagraha; the Khilafat Movement; the
Non-cooperation Movement; National politics from the end of the Non-cooperation movement to the beginning of
the Civil Disobedience movement; the two phases of the Civil Disobedience Movement; Simon Commission; The
Nehru Report; the Round Table Conferences; Nationalism and the Peasant Movements; Nationalism and Working
class movements; Women and Indian youth and students in Indian politics (1885-1947); the election of 1937 and
the formation of ministries; Cripps Mission; the Quit India Movement; the Wavell Plan; The Cabinet Mission.

10. Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India (1858–1935)...................................................297-300

11. Other strands in the National Movement............................................................................................301-304
• The Revolutionaries: Bengal, the Punjab, Maharashtra, U.P, the Madras Presidency, Outside India. The Left; The
Left within the Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, the Congress Socialist Party; the Communist
Party of India, other left parties.

12. Politics of Separatism...............................................................................................................................305-306

• The Muslim League; the Hindu Mahasabha; Communalism and the politics of partition; Transfer of power;
Independence.

13. Consolidation as a Nation.......................................................................................................................307-317

• Nehru’s Foreign Policy; India and her neighbours (1947-1964); The linguistic reorganisation of States (1935-1947);
Regionalism and regional inequality; Integration of Princely States; Princes in electoral politics; the Question of
National Language.

14. Caste and Ethnicity after 1947................................................................................................................318-321

• Backward castes and tribes in postcolonial electoral politics; Dalit movements.

15. Economic development and political change.....................................................................................322-325

• Land reforms; the politics of planning and rural reconstruction; Ecology and environmental policy in post - colonial
India; Progress of science.

16. Enlightenment and Modern Ideas.........................................................................................................326-335

(i) Major ideas of Enlightenment: Kant, Rousseau;
(ii) Spread of Enlightenment in the colonies;
(iii) Rise of socialist ideas (up to Marx); spread of Marxian Socialism.

17. Origins of Modern Politics.....................................................................................................................336-355

(i) European States System;
(ii) American Revolution and the Constitution;
(iii) French revolution and aftermath, 1789- 1815;
(iv) American Civil War with reference to Abraham Lincoln and the abolition of slavery;
(v) British Democratic Politics, 1815- 1850 : Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists.

18. Industrialization........................................................................................................................................356-361
(i) English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society;
(ii) Industrialization in other countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan;
(iii) Industrialization and Globalization.

19. Nation-State System.................................................................................................................................362-369

(i) Rise of Nationalism in 19th century;
(ii) Nationalism: state-building in Germany and Italy;
(iii) Disintegration of Empires in the face of the emergence of nationalities across the world.

20. Imperialism and Colonialism.................................................................................................................370-375

(i) South and South-East Asia;
(ii) Latin America and South Africa;
(iii) Australia;
(iv) Imperialism and free trade: Rise of neo-imperialism.

21. Revolution and Counter-Revolution.....................................................................................................376-387

(i) 19th Century European revolutions,
(ii) The Russian Revolution of 1917- 1921,
(iii) Fascist Counter-Revolution, Italy and Germany;
(iv) The Chinese Revolution of 1949
22. World Wars.................................................................................................................................................388-394
(i) 1st and 2nd World Wars as Total Wars: Societal implications;
(ii) World War I: Causes and consequences;
(iii) World War II: Causes and consequence

23. The World after World War II................................................................................................................395-404

(i) Emergence of two power blocs;
(ii) Emergence of Third World and non-alignment;
(iii) UNO and the global disputes.

24. Liberation from Colonial Rule...............................................................................................................405-417

(i) Latin America-Bolivar;
(ii) Arab World-Egypt;
(iii) Africa-Apartheid to Democracy;
(iv) South-East Asia-Vietnam

25. Decolonization and Underdevelopment..............................................................................................418-422

(i) Factors constraining development: Latin America, Africa

26. Unification of Europe...............................................................................................................................423-427

(i) Post War Foundations: NATO and European Community;
(ii) Consolidation and Expansion of European Community;
(iii) European Union.

27. Disintegration of Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World...........................................428-436
(i) Factors leading to the collapse of Soviet communism and the Soviet Union, 1985-1991;
(ii) Political Changes in Eastern Europe 1989-2001;
(iii) End of the cold war and US ascendancy in the World as the lone superpower.


 CIVIL SERVICES (MAIN) EXAM 2023

HISTORY
PAPER-I

Map Section (vii) Capital of Maitraka dynasty

(viii) Dockyard
(ix) Rock shelter
Q. Identify the following places marked on the
(x) Stone axe factory
map and write a short note of about 30 words (xi) Satavahana inscription site
on each of them. Locational hints for each (xii) Minor rock inscription of Asoka
of the places marked on the map are given (xiii) Buddhist Stupa
below seriatim: (xiv) Mesolithic site
(i) Neolithic site (xv) Iron smelting workshop
(ii) Site of Mother and Child Terracotta Figure (xvi) Megalithic site
(iii) Hoard of Gupta Coin (xvii) Temple site dedicated to Surya
(iv) Site of Botanical remains (xviii) Roman factory site
(v) Harappan site with mud–brick platform (xix) Site of Muvar Koil (Temple of Three)
(vi) Mauryan reservoir site (xx) Megalith stone site
 CIVIL SERVICES (MAIN) EXAM 2023

HISTORY
PAPER-II

European Penetration into India French power in South India. The British East India
Company’s superior military prowess, strategic
alliances, and exploitation of internal French weaknesses
Q. The Carnatic Wars, the Anglo-Mysore Wars
led to their dominance in the region. The French were
and the Anglo-Maratha Wars had virtually relegated to mere trading outposts, paving the way for
eliminated the French from the contest of unchallenged British control.
supremacy in South India. Discuss.
Ans: The Carnatic Wars (1740s-1760s), the Anglo- Early Structure of the British Raj
Mysore Wars (1767-1799), and the Anglo-Maratha Wars
(1775-1818) witnessed a significant decline in French
Q. While introducing the Indian Councils
influence in South India, paving the way for eventual
British dominance.
Bill of 1861, the British thought that the
only Government suitable for India ‘is a
Weakening the French Position despotism controlled from home’. Comment.
•• Military Defeats: Repeated defeats in the Carnatic
Ans: The Indian Councils Act of 1861, despite
Wars, particularly at Madras (1746) and Wandiwash
introducing a semblance of Indian participation
(1760), crippled French military power in the
in governance, must be understood within the
region. Their alliances with Indian rulers proved
context of continued British colonial control. The
unreliable, and their supply lines were vulnerable.
statement “the only Government suitable for India
•• British Ascendancy: Conversely, the British East
‘is a despotism controlled from home” accurately
India Company (BEIC) emerged stronger after each
reflects the underlying anxieties and objectives of the
conflict. Victories like Plassey (1757) and Buxar
British.
(1764) solidified their military might and political
•• A Hesitant Step towards Consultation: While the
influence. The British East India Company’s
Act certainly didn’t dismantle British control, it did
superior resources and strategic alliances with local
mark a cautious shift towards a more consultative
powers allowed them to outmanoeuvre the French.
approach.
•• Loss of Prestige and Territory: French defeats
 Limited Legislative Council: The Act
eroded their prestige among Indian rulers,
introduced a rudimentary legislative council
making it difficult to find new allies. Treaties
within the Governor-General’s Council. This,
like Pondicherry and Paris forced them to cede
however limited, marked a departure from
territories and restrict their military presence.
absolute despotism. While these councils
The Role of Indian Powers primarily included nominated Indians with
•• Shifting Alliances: Indian powers like Mysore and restricted power, it represented a nascent form
the Marathas initially used the French to counter of consultation.
British expansion. However, as the tide turned,  Balancing Control with Appeasement:
they increasingly sided with the victors, further However, it’s crucial to recognize the
isolating the French. limitations. The British dominated these
•• Internal Conflicts: Internal political squabbles councils, and the Viceroy retained veto power
within French settlements like Pondicherry over any legislation deemed against British
hampered their ability to mount a unified defence interests. Additionally, the Act established a
against the British. separate Executive Council solely composed
The Carnatic, Anglo-Mysore and Anglo-Maratha of British officials, highlighting the focus on
Wars ultimately resulted in the marginalization of maintaining ultimate control.
 MAP SECTION  1

PAPER-I

MAP SECTION
Q. Identify the following places marked on the •• The name Didwana used to be ‘Deen Dewana’ a
map and write a short note about 30 words mystic lord of Islamic Sufi movement.
on each of them. Locational hints for each •• Akbar made Qila masjid in memory of footsteps
of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti.
of the places marked on the map are given
below seriatim. (CSE 2022) (ii) Mesolithic site with burials – Damadama/ Sarai
Nahar Rai
(i) Palaeolithic site
(ii) Mesolithic site with burials •• Both these sites are in Pratapgarh district of Uttar
(iii) Neolithic pit-dwelling Pradesh.
(iv) Early village settlement •• Sarai Nahar Rai dates back to 8400 to 150 BCE,
whereas Damadama dates back to 7000BCE.
(v) Neolithic site
 Sarai Nahar Rai: 11 human burials in oblong
(vi) Neolithic-Chalcolithic site
pit with grave goods like tools, shells, animal
(vii) Harappan UNESCO site
bones found here. Multiple graves i.e. 4 per-
(viii) Megalithic Burial site
sons in one grave also found.
(ix) Place of Second Sangam
 Damadama: It is on Sai River. Geometric mi-
(x) Earliest Satavahana capital
croliths along with shells and animal bones
(xi) Place of inscribed statue of Ashoka have been found here. 41 human burials with
(xii) First Gupta hoard of coins 4 multiple burials found here. Damadama also
(xiii) Hoard of metal sculptures gave evidence of domesticated rice recently.
(xiv) Ancient port
(xv) Oldest Jesuit church
(xvi) Centre of Gandhara Art
(xvii) Buddhist monastery
(xviii) Place of earliest Vishnu
temple
(xix) Shiva and Buddhist
temple complex
(xx) Earliest Chaitya Griha
Ans. (i) Palaeolithic site – Did-
wana
•• Situated in Nagaur district of
western Rajasthan.
•• Excavation has shown a se-
quence running from lower
to middle Palaeolithic.
•• At a 50km stretch from Did-
wana to Javal, several Acheu-
lean sites have been found.
•• City is famous for its Hindu
traditional culture and phi-
losophy and the Mathas and
the Mathura Das ji ka Jaav i.e.
a well built in 12th century.
 SOURCES  37

1
SOURCES
Q. Foreign accounts as a source of ancient Indian (b) Policies: Example: Fahien accounts that Gupta
history may have some advantages but also administration was mild in comparison to
have a few shortcomings. Citing appropriate Mauryas.
examples examine the statement. 2. Social
(CSE 2022) (a) Composition of Society: Megasthenes men-
Ans. India was visited by many foreign travellers tions of 7 castes in Mauryan society.
from Greece, China, Turkey, etc. (b) Religious Ideas: Foreigners were getting
•• (Here we have to ancient Indian history from themselves converted into indigenous religion.
prehistory – 700AD / 11th – 12th AD for history of •• Example: Besanagar pillar inscription of Heliodorous.
south of India) 3. Economical
Different Foreign Accounts (a) Decline of Trade: In Natural Historica, Pliny
(A) Greeks criticized Roman trade with India as unneces-
•• Herodotus: He mentions about Indian soldiers
sary, as all the gold Roman Empire was drain-
fighting in Persian wars during 6th BC. ing in India merely for cotton and spices.
•• Megasthenes: His Indica gives information about
(b) Trade Routes: All the trade happened between
Maurya dynasty. Red Sea and Bharuch was given wholesomely.
Example: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
•• Economic history of 2nd BC – 2nd AD is available
in Pliny’s Natural Historica, Ptolemy, and Periplus Advantages of Foreign Sources
of the Erythraean Sea, etc. •• Unbiased Opinion: Mostly they were not patron-
(B) Chinese ized by the kings of that time, so these sources are
•• Fa hien: He visited India during Chandragupta II’s bias-free in nature mostly.
period in order to visit places associated with Buddha. •• Example: Robbery across the empire was men-
•• Hiuen Tsang: He visited during the reign of Har- tioned by Hiuen Tsang, but Banabhatta writes that
shavardhan. Although he was a student, he wrote empire was safe.
a lot about India. •• Corroboration: It means the similarity and dif-
•• I Tsing: He also came as student at Nalanda and ferences between indigenous sources and foreign
then wrote many informative instances about that sources.
period of India. •• Example: Evidence for Mauryan Empire from In-
(C) Arabs dica as well as Arthashastra.
•• Suleiman: He basically came from Iran to India •• Informative in Nature: Provide sufficient informa-
in 9th AD. He was a traveller, merchant and writer tion about that period.
and. He came in the court of Amoghvarsha. He •• Example: Purushpur (modern Peshawar) has 13
gave information about Pala and Pratihara. storeyed Buddhist hub writes Fahien.
•• Al Masudi: He talked about Rashtrakutas during •• Geographical Knowledge: People of the subcon-
941 – 943 AD. tinent at that time had elaborative geographical
knowledge. They also sent embassies to countries
Information from Foreign Sources
like China.
1. Political
•• Example: Overland and overseas trade routes by
(a) Neutrality: Example: Hiuen Tsang’s visit to Pliny.
Pulkeshin II when he says Harsha couldn’t
defeat him, whereas Banbhatt’s Harshcharit Disadvantages
didn’t mention it. However Aihole inscription •• Hearsay: Foreign writers also wrote hearsays in
supports Hiuen Tsang. their description which were nowhere to be found.
44  HISTORY Q & A

2 PRE-HISTORY &
PROTO-HISTORY
Q. “ T h e e m e r g e n c e o f N o n - H a r a p p a n New Stone Age. This period is considered as one of the
Chalcolithic cultures in Central India and significant cultural stages when man started producing
the Deccan mark a change not only in the food and shifted to production economy from their
subsistence pattern of people but an overall previous hunting-gathering stage. Man started making
transition from pre to proto history period.” specialized tools to suit this economic behaviour and
also modified their social behavior in a large extent
Critically analyse.  (CSE, 2017)
which is reflected in the material record. Stratigraphic
Ans. In India, Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases evidences supported by radio- carbon dates suggest
are counted as the proto-historic. The first chalcolithic that the Neolithic culture in India flourished in different
cultures of Central India and Deccan were actually areas between the mid third millennium BC and the
the first village settlements that practiced agriculture. beginning of the historical period. On the basis of
But, they didn’t meet all the criteria of being a proto- distributions and cluster of sites, the development of
historic phase. Neolithic pattern in India may broadly be divided into
Microliths have been found in the river valleys of three main broad groups: (i) Eastern Group (Vindhyan
Tapi, Narmada and Godavari, etc. But, the beginning region, middle Ganga plain, Chotanagpur plateau of
of settled village life in Central India and northern Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha and Northeast
Deccan is associated with the chalcolithic phase rather India) (ii) Southern Group (South India) (iii) Northern
than the Neolithic phase. Bagor, a Mesolithic type site Group (Kashmir Valley)
shows transition to the chalcolithic phase and then to
North-Western: The earliest evidence of the
the Iron Age. Mesolithic cultures were basically hunter-
cultivation of wheat and barley has been found
gatherers, living in semi-permanent settlements. Ahar
in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Punjab,
culture, Kayatha culture and Savalda culture were
Kashmir, West-Pakistan, and Afghanistan were
the earliest non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures in the
the original places of bread-wheat and spelt-wheat
Central India and Deccan. Settlements showed some
cultivation. Excavations at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan
kind of social hierarchy. Animal husbandry became
have revealed the evidence of cultures ranging from
more feasible due to the settlements. Copper implements
pre-pottery Neolithic to the mature Harappan period.
like bangles, rings, knife blades, axes were used. Black
and red ware and chocolate coloured pottery, etc. were The Neolithic levels at Mehrgarh have been
used. But, it is hard to conclude that these cultures classified into two phases: (i) the early aceramic without
practiced writing, even if un-deciphered; which is an pottery (Period I); and (ii) the later phase (Period ll).
important criterion to qualify as proto-historic in India. The cereals at the site included two varieties of barley
and three varieties of wheat. Plum and date seeds
Also, only some of these village settlements expanded
have also been found. The beginning of the pre-pottery
into proto-urban center later Malwa culture and Jorwe
settlement phase in Mehrgarh has been fixed at about
Culture. The chalcolithic cultures in Central India and
6000 BC. Period II represents the Chalcolithic phase
Deccan brought the Mesolithic period to an end and
(5000 BC). It is assumed that the Harappans inherited
started the proto-historic phase. Though, they may not
the knowledge of wheat, barley, and cotton cultivation
have tradition of writing.
from their ancestors in Mehrgarh.
Kashmir: Burzahom and Gufkral in the
Q. Delineate and account for the regional Kashmir valley, where village settlements appeared
characteristics of the Neolithic period in by about 2500 BC, are other important Neolithic sites
India. (CSE, 2016) in Kashmir.
Ans. The term Neolithic has been derived from The Neolithic culture in the valley is characterised
two Latin words i.e. “Neo” meaning New and “lithic” by pit-dwellings with well made floors smeared with
meaning stone, hence Neolithic period is also known as red-ochre, and dwellings in the open. The eastern
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION  47

3
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Q. The urban character of the Harappan Regional Socio-Economic Factors influencing Harap-
Civilization was a result neither of any pan Urbanization
outside influence nor a sudden act but a 1. Grain Production: Surplus of agriculture leads to
gradual evolution of regional socio-economic division of labour in society, emergence of non-
factors. Comment (CSE 2022) agrarian classes which further leads to urbanization.
Ans. The Indus Valley Civilization was the earliest Increased agriculture à increased urbanization
known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent—one •• Evidence: Large granaries in Mohenjodaro and
of the world’s three earliest civilizations, along with Harappa.
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. The nuclear dates 2. Non-Farming Specialization: This arises due to
of the civilization appear to be about 2500–1700 BCE. surplus of agriculture. So, trade relations can be
The Indus Valley Civilization interestingly declined developed for improving economy. Evidence for
around 1800 BCE without leaving any clear reasons for this was given by emperor Sargon of Akkad of
its demise, leaving scholars debating about the causes Sumerian kingdom (modern day Tigris Euphrates
that resulted in the civilization’s decline. Many such region), who wrote about Meluha in 2100BC has
theories include Aryan invasion, climate change, drying been identified by ‘Harappa’.
of the Saraswati River, while others conclude that a 3. Conflict: Harappa was a transitioning community.
great flood struck the area. Earlier people were Neolithic-chalcolithic,
The end of the cities however did not mean the end aboriginal people in nature. Harappan were
of the Harappan tradition. The Harappan communities agrarian in nature. It led conflict and hence
which continued after the urban phase retained their urbanization.
older tradition which is evident through various •• Evidence: Burnt town of Kotdiji and Kalibangan
examples such. (defensive wall).
4. Specialized Town: Indigenous socio-economic
Influence of Outside Factors on Urban Character
development led to specialized towns like:
•• Metallurgy: Harappa was a Bronze Age civilization  Mohenjodaro à temple town, large fire altars,
as majority of equity were of bronze (found near bearded man, etc.
Punjab, Afghanistan and Rajasthan region). Bronze
 Chanhudroà manufacturing hub
is an alloy of tin and copper. Tin is not available in
India but Afghanistan. Other Factors
•• Trading Town: There was lots of trading town in 1. Political: Evidences of centralized polity have been
and outside Harappa. For example, Sutkagendor, found, which developed internally.
Surkotda and Shortughai (in current day Pakistan). Example: Same proportioned bricks throughout the
They were outpost of Harappa to carry out trade region, city planning; citadel and lower town.
with other areas. 2. Social: Society was cosmopolitan.
•• Shift: Harappa is divided into 3 phase; pre, mature Example: Archaeologists found symmetry H
(2200-1800BC) and late (1800-1500 BCE). There is culture in Harappa which was all different from
a gradual shift in mature and late phase. During other burial sites.
mature phase civilization concentrated near Indus 3. Economic: Non-agricultural town i.e. trading
river belt i.e. Punjab region. But towards the end towns also aided urbanization by flourishing trade
of mature and beginning of later phase, it started activities.
shifting to Bahawalpur area. It signifies declining Example: Rangpur, Lothal, Chanhudaro, Dholavira,
trade. etc.
 MEGALITHIC CULTURES  53

4
MEGALITHIC CULTURES
Q. Will it be proper to consider the megaliths Paiyampalli and a few others. Recently, a large
to represent a single, homogeneous or habitation site along with scores of stone circles
contemporaneous culture? What kind of has been discovered at Naikund near Nagpur in
material life and culture system is revealed Maharastra.
in the Megalithic Culture? (CSE 2021) Material Life and Cultural System during Megalithic
Ans: A megalith is a stone which is larger in Culture
size and has been used to construct a monument Burial Rituals: In the Vidarbha region, different
or a structure. The monument or the structure is burial traditions could indicate different social and
constructed either alone or together with other stones. ethnic groups, but so far no fixed regional conventions
‘Megalithic’ has been used to describe stone structures regarding orientation of the bodies or the graves have
built by people from many parts of the world living been observed. The burials vary from total to only
in many different times. The construction of this type fractional. Horses were buried with the dead, possibly
of structures took place mainly in the Neolithic and after sacrifice, and this may have been a local ethnic
continued into the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and tradition.
Iron Age. Social Organization: It appears that communities
According to recent studies, it is obvious that may have comprised different professional groups,
these Megalithic Complexes are not exclusive of each such as smiths, warriors, goldsmiths, agriculturists
other. Some common elements can be traced among and carpenters. This may be deduced from the types
the cultures. Similarities and dissimilarities of ceramic of grave goods offered.
fabrics and typology, presence and absence of iron, and Ethnic Affinity and Origins: The origin of
concentration or otherwise of certain megalithic types Megalithic culture in India is not clear. No satisfactory
in certain regions are all problems -for which widely answer is yet found. Some early European scholars
diverging views are available. put forward a view that the builders were Celts or
Interestingly, unlike in the South, the Allahabad Scythians. Rivett-Carnac related them to Central
megaliths reflect the cultural change. The basic types- Asian tribes. Other scholars tried to relate them to the
cairns, stone circles and cists remain the same, but the Dravidians. Practice of erection of megaliths are still
grave goods consist instead, of microliths, iron objects found among some tribes in India in the southern,
like sickle, adze, arrowhead and dagger. There was a central, eastern and north-eastern parts of the country.
significant variation in the livelihood pattern between The skeletal remains found especially from Brahmagiri,
the two zones. Yeleswaram and Adichanallur show that people were
Iron had replaced stone and copper and, as the of a mixed racial type. According to Sarkar (1960),
evidence from Kotia in Allahabad shows, these were the Brahmagiri skeletal remains were probably of
made locally by iron-smiths. Scythians or Iranian stock. Gupta and Dutta (1962)
On the opposite bank of the River Belan at Koldihwa concluded that similar trend is noticed for Yeleswaram
and Khajuri megaliths belonging to chalcolithic cultures remains, but Adichanallur skull shows different
were found, lying between cultures of Varanasi and affinities.
Kotia of Allahabad. In the former iron is absent, and Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions
microliths are scarce while in the latter fragments dating before the advent of written history are found
of iron are associated with microliths. These types in huge numbers in all parts of India. The monuments
of megalithic cultures have also been observed in are usually found in granitic areas. We still do not
Mirzapur and Banda districts. know exactly who the megalithic people were,
Habitation sites are rarely found in association whether they represent an immigrant group, or a local
with the megaliths, excepting at Maski, Tekalghat, development.
56  HISTORY Q & A

5
ARYANS & VEDIC PERIOD
Q. Do you consider that the Upanishadic Critical Arguments about Upanishads as Vedic Re-
principles embody the high point of Vedic ligious Thoughts
religious thought? Comment (CSE 2021) The Upanishads are often thought as anti-sacrifice
Ans: The word ‘Upanishad’ is usually understood and anti-brahman. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
as referring to pupils sitting near around their teacher. states that the performance of sacrifice leads to the
The knowledge that was to be imparted and absorbed world of the fathers (pitriyana), but knowledge leads
was no ordinary knowledge. to the world of the gods.
It was all encompassing the key to liberation from The connection between Upanishads and Vedic
the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Sometimes it was religious texts is the Vedic religious sacrifice which is
only to be taught to select or deserving pupils. It was not rejected by Upanishads. However Upanishads were
revealed through discussion, debate and contest among included in the Vedic corpus as a part of Shruti.
seekers. The Upanishads did not reject the rituals but
Following are the explanations which contain the emphasis had certainly shifted to be attainment
about Upanishadic principles that embody the high of a new kind of knowledge like the horse and horse
point of Vedic religious thought: sacrifice that took a new symbolic meaning.
Upanishads were the work of many different
people living in various part of north India over many Q. Puranas were the innovative genre of
centuries. literature to popularise and revive Vedic
They deal many issues but fundamentally contain religion. Elaborate with examples.(CSE, 2020)
about the ‘atman’ and ‘brahma’.
Ans: The Puranas or Smriti or Itihasa were written
Chandogya Upanishad describes – ‘atman’ is lying
to illustrate and expound the truth of the Vedas. The
deep within the heart smaller than the grain of rice.
fundamental abstruse philosophical and religious truths
Upanishads explain the word ‘brahma’ which means
are expounded through popular legends or mythological
something that grants prosperity and a vital force that
stories. Nothing can exert grater credence on the human
strengthens and animate.
mind than when it is described as having happened.
The ‘Satpatha Brahman’ states that those who do
not perform the sacrificial rites correctly will be born Vedic Religion and Literature
again and suffer death again. It also talks of a world Vedic Religion contains a treasury of spiritual
where material pleasure are enjoyed by those who laws that were discovered and realized by unknown
perform the sacrifice and of a hell where evil doers are number of sages and saints over many millennia and
punished. was compiled into the Vedas and Upanishads and later
Some of the Upanishads explain the doctrine of in many additional books in the form of explanations
transmigration of soul. Death and rebirth are connected and stories as the situation and time demanded.
with ignorance and desire and can be attained through The spiritual knowledge that became the Vedas and
knowledge. Vedic literature are part of the Shabda Brahman, or the
The goal of Upanishadic thought is the realization spiritual vibration that exists eternally, within and without
of ‘brahma’. Liberation from the cycle of samsara could the material energy and manifestation, and before, during,
be achieved through knowledge and knowledge could and after the creation and annihilation of the cosmic
be attained from intellectual exertion. manifestation. Sages who were and are capable of entering
In later times, there were many different that spiritual dimension, or have glimpses into that strata,
explanations of Upanishad - which came to be known can easily realize and imbibe the knowledge that exists
as Vedanta. Upanishadic thought reflects different ideas in that realm and then prescribe or compose them for the
about atman, brahma and the world. benefit of all of humanity.
68  HISTORY Q & A

6
PERIOD OF MAHAJANAPADAS
Q. Though some of the ideas of Buddhism may Bhakti and not based upon sacrificial rituals. It was
have had their origin in Vedic – Upanishadic also called urban religion.
traditions but it was an altogether new •• Idea of Institutions: Buddhism propounded
religion with its own specific principles institutions like Sangha, Vihar and Chaitya. These
institutions were not available to earlier religion.
and institutions. Discuss
•• New Philosophy: Concept of Tripitaka.
(CSE 2022)
•• Heterodox Sect: As it was anti sacrificial religion
Ans. Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years it also criticised Veda and Varna.
ago as a way life that had the potential of transforming
a person. It is one of the important religions of South Conclusion
and South-Eastern Asian countries. The religion is Although having similarities and differences,
based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Buddhism served as a completely new religion.
Siddhartha Gautam, born circa 563 BCE. Different sections of the society attracted towards it.
Buddhist Principles It asked them only for Bhakti, meditation and yoga.
•• Four Noble Truths: sorrow à cause desireàto end On the other hand Vedic religion still focussed on
desire àAshtangika marg sacrificial rituals. Buddhism was more suitable for that
•• Ashtangika Marg: To attain salvation (nirvana) time and was propagated and flourished through the
new elements of it.
•• Buddhist Triratna: Core of Buddhism: Buddha
(himself i.e. his principles)
•• Dhamma (principles) Q. “The political and economic needs of ruler,
•• Sangha (order of monks and nuns) combined with economic and status needs
•• Belief in God and Varna: Rejected by Buddha of merchant class, together provide the
•• Lifestyle: Madhyam Marg receptive cultural milieu in which Buddhism
Buddhist Institutions flourished”. Comment (CSE 2021)
•• Chaitya, Vihar, Stupa Ans: Religions developed against the backdrop of
•• These institutions were not present in Vedic period. certain political systems, political philosophy, economic
So these institutions were new to society i. e. a and social order, and practising of particular religious
new religion. activities in ancient India. Buddhism created the vision
of an alternative society, the possibility of organising
Similarities between Buddhism and Vedic Religion
society on different principles from the hierarchical, and
•• Theory of Karma and Rebirth: Buddhism talks
in egalitarian ideology and practices that had begun to
about nirvana, rebirth as they talk about following
gain ground.
Ashtangika Marg to attain mahaparinirvan. Both
Buddhism represented the most serious and
the religion i.e. Vedic as well as Buddhist talk about
most comprehensive attempt to analyse the rapidly
karma and rebirth.
changing society in which it originated and to provide
•• Yogic Practice: Started by sage Patanjali, yoga and
an enduring social philosophy for mankind.
meditation forms basic tenets of both the religion.
Example: Buddha’s different mudras. The rise of a new wealthy class in villages and
towns caused economic inequalities which further
•• Both the religion supported asceticism, monasticism
liquidated the tribal ideas of kingship. Many tribes of
and concept of moksha.
the Vedic period were affected by the concentration of
Dissimilarities private property in the hands of a few persons. This
•• New Concept of Religion: This new religion in naturally tended to strengthen the fourfold division
comparison to older Vedic religion expounded of society.
76  HISTORY Q & A

7
MAURYAN EMPIRE
Q. Ashoka’s Dhamma was propagated not just •• Paterntistic State: Measures of social welfare etc.
for moral upliftment and social harmony but •• Peaceful co-existence
also for the expansion of the state’s authority. •• State propaganda, etc.
Analyse the statement. (CSE 2022) Conclusion
Ans. Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma was a way of Socio-economic condition, use of iron, the growth
life and code of conduct that was to be adopted by the of commerce, and urban centres demanded a flexible
people at large. Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed social organization but the society was sharply divided
by Ashoka to teach people about dhamma. They were by the caste system. Fourteen pillars of Ashoka tell
even sent to other countries to propagate the dhamma. us that what were the instruction given by the state
•• Historian Romila Thapar presents a view that to citizens to follow. Hence even though the policy
Dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka consisted of code for social order and moral values, it
to weld and consolidate his far-flung empire. It was nothing but a propaganda of the state against the
was aimed at political integration through social citizen to maintain its hegemony.
harmony and integration among different sects.
To continue political hegemony he also placed 14 Q. How do you characterize the nature of
rock edicts throughout the empire. Mauryan state on the basis of Kautaliya’s
Need for the Policy of Dhamma Arthasastra? (CSE 2021)
•• Extent of the Empire: Mauryan Empire attained Ans: The Mauryan Empire marks a watershed
its zenith during Ashoka and Kalinga was the last juncture in Indian history. For the first time in the
territory to be conquered. So, when they achieved history of India, a large portion of the subcontinent,
it, they left with no other territorial task. Now extending up to the far north-west, was under a single
they focussed on consolidation part by initiating paramount power. According to uncritical reading of
Dhamma philosophy. Kautaliya’s Arthasastra, Mauryan Empire assumes the
•• Cosmopolitan Society: To maintain supremacy, image of a highly centralized one which represents
political authority in a diverse society as Magadha, State control of the people and produces resources on
a common policy was required. its domain with all-encompassing and robotic precision.
•• Authority of Magadha: In order to maintain state’s The Mauryan state was a monarchy with a
authority, power of emperor Ashoka laid down powerful king at the centre of the political system.
14 principles under peaceful policy of Dhamma. Monarchy is assumed to be the norm in the Arthasastra
In those principles it was mentioned; what should and its teaching is addressed to the king.
do, what to follow, what not to do and so on. Not The king in the Arthasastra lives in a vulnerable
following these could bring severe punishment world and has to exercise extreme vigilance to
from the emperor himself. safeguard his life and position. Kautilya gives detailed
•• Elaborate Administrative Machinery: To exploit instruction on how the palace should be provided with
revenue as much as possible. multiple secret emergency exits.
The Arthasastra is the first Indian text to define
Significance of Dhamma a State. Its concept of ‘Saptang Siddhant’ considers
•• Moral Upliftment: Tolerance among sects; the state as consisting of seven inter-related and
prohibition of animal sacrifices (rock edict), etc. interlocking constituent limbs or elements. The
•• Social Harmony: Respect towards Brahmans, administrative structure involved a division of the
dhammghosha and not bherighosaha, no social empire into provinces, each under the direct governance
ceremonies (rock edict IX), etc. of a prince (kumara) or a member of the royal family.
82  HISTORY Q & A

8 POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
(Indo-Greeks, Sakas,
Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas)
Q. Analyze the significance of external Caves Architecture
influences and indigenous development of The next stage of architecture was the caves and
post-Mauryan art. (CSE 2021) built mainly in the Western Ghats region. These caves
served as a Vihara or shrine for the Buddhist monks.
Ans: The Post-Mauryan Schools of Art and
Majority of the caves were built by the patronage of
Architecture include those of Gandhara, Mathura,
Satavahana and Kshtrapa kings; for example, the Karle
Amaravati, etc. and also the cave traditions that existed
Chaitya Hall has inscription mentioned about the
during the period.
Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana.
This post-Mauryan art also deals with some of the
The rock-cut Buddhist monasteries have two
important architectural sites such as Sanchi, Ajanta,
storeys of monastic cells. There were rock-cut beds and
Ellora, etc.
sometimes a rock-cut pillow and open verandah.
During post-Mauryan period, increasing
institutionalization of religious activity and its ability Terracotta Art
to elicit patronage from different section of society led Profuse use of terracotta of this period has been
to the beginning of tradition of more permanent and found at sites such as Chandraketugarh, Mathura, and
elaborate religious structures. Most of the surviving Kaushambi. They reflect the existence of number of
sculptures and architecture is religious in nature. regional styles and techniques and a great variety of
Early Hindu Temples and Sculpture as a post- decorative motifs.
Mauryan Indigenous Art External influence in post-Mauryan Art
Archaeological excavation outside the main mound Gandhara School of Art: Style of Buddhist visual
of Atranjikhera found remains of a temple belonging to art that developed in what is now North-Western
the late Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) phase. Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan between the 1st
Nagari in Chittorgarh refers to the building of stone century BCE and the 7th century CE. The style, of
enclosure. Graeco-Roman origin, seems to have flourished largely
The site of Nagarjunakonda represents the ancient during the Kushana dynasty.
site of Vijyapuri, capital of the Ikshavaku dynasty. The materials used for Gandhara sculpture were
Excavation in the Arashu-Rameshwara temle at green phyllite and gray-blue mica schist which in
Gudimallam revealed the history of Shiva temple from general, belong to an earlier phase, and stucco, which
2nd century onwards. was used increasingly after the 3rd century CE. The
The evidence of Hindu temples of this period sculptures were originally painted and gilded. The
consists mostly of ground plans revealed by Gandhara craftsmen made a lasting contribution to
archaeological excavations. Amongst the earliest are Buddhist art in their composition of the events of the
vestiges of what must have been a Vishnu temple in the Buddha’s life into set scenes.
vicinity of the Heliodorous Pillar at Vidisha. During post-Mauryan period state formation and
Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture urbanization spread to many parts of the subcontinent
and thus it lead to the emergence of sophisticated
The post-Mauryan period saw expansion in
sculpture and architecture style reflecting the cultural
the number of Buddhist monastic complexes which vitality and versatility of this period.
includes the dwellings of monks, stupas and shrines.
The stupa-monastery complexes were located close
to urban centres along major trade and pilgrimage Q. Evaluate the significant political features of
routes. Some marked places connected with important the Post Mauryan Northern India. What are
events in the life of Buddha. Most of the major stupa- the main sources of it?  (CSE, 2020)
monastery complexes were located in Sanchi, Amravati, Ans: In around 187 BC, the Mauryan Empire which
Bharhut, Nagarjunakonda, Taxila, Vidisha, etc. was spread over a large part of the Indian sub-continent
88  HISTORY Q & A

EARLY STATE & SOCIETY

9 IN EASTERN INDIA,
DECCAN & SOUTH INDIA

Q. What were ‘Brahmadeya’ grants? How do you •• Often new irrigation sources were constructed
account for the large number of such grants when Brahmadeya were created, especially in
in the early mediaeval period? (CSE 2022) areas dependent on rains and in arid and semi-
arid regions.
Ans. ‘Brahmdeya’ represents a grant of land
•• When located in areas of intensive agriculture in
either in individual plots or whole villages given
the river valleys, they served to integrate other
away to Brahmana - making them landowner or land
settlements of a subsistence level production.
controller. It was meant either to bring virgin land
Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed
under cultivation or to integrate existing agricultural
together to form a Brahmadeya or an Agrahara.
(or peasant) settlements into the new economic order
dominated by a Brahmana proprietor. These Brahmana Impacts of Brahmdeya Grants
donees played a major role in integrating various socio- •• R o y a l P a t r o n a g e : A l o n g w i t h p o l i t i c a l
economic groups into the new order, through service fragmentation it diversified i.e. Gurjar-Pratihara,
tenures and caste grouping under the Varna System. Pala, Rashtrakutas, Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
Features of these Grants •• Ideological Support: Kshatriyas wanted support
from Brahamanas, so royal coronation by
•• Started by Satvahanas but never gave ownership
Brahamanas.
rights of land; they were only given revenue rights.
However during Guptas, ownership rights were •• Political Acceptability: For this, Brahamanas were
also awarded clearing the way for feudalism. revived once again.
•• Exemptions to Brahmanas from taxation, which •• Also was to revive Vedic Hinduism, which
over a period of time made them so strong that simultaneously increased Brahamanas position.
they revolted against the king. Guptas themselves Conclusion
were the feudatories of Kushanas. From the beginning to end of mediaeval period,
•• The practice of land grants as Brahmadeya was land grants as an institution entrenched into Indian
initiated by the ruling dynasties and subsequently political, economic, and societal aspect. Therefore we
followed by chiefs, feudatories, etc. Brahmadeya can say it motivated proliferation of land grants across
facilitated agrarian expansion because they were: the country.
 Exempted from various taxes or dues either
entirely or at least in the initial stages of Q. Discuss the salient features of cultural
settlement(e.g. for 12 years);
traditions of South India as reflected in
 Also, endowed with ever-growing privileges
Sangam Literature. (CSE, 2020)
(padharm), the ruling families derived
economic advantage in the form of the Ans: The period roughly between the 3rd century
extension of the resource base. Moreover, B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area
by creating Brahmadeya they also gained lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra)
ideological support for their political power. is known as Sangam Period. It has been named after
•• Lands were given as Brahmadeya either to a single the Sangam academies held during that period that
Brahmana or to several Brahmana families which flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya
ranged from a few to several hundreds or even kings of Madurai.
more than a thousand, as seen in the South Indian At the sangams eminent scholars assembled
context. and functioned as the board of censors and the
•• Brahmdeya were invariably located near major choicest literature was rendered in the nature of
irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. anthologies.
94  HISTORY Q & A

10 GUPTAS, VAKATAKAS &

VARDHANAS
Q. The economic achievements of Guptas were Coinage
the culmination of a process which began •• Guptas issued gold, silver and copper coins.
during the Kushanas. Comment (CSE 2022) Negative Economic Development
Ans. The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian •• Land Grants: This system was started during
empire that ruled from the early fourth to the late Satavahanas and through Kushanas, Guptas
sixth centuries CE. It spanned much of the Indian succeed it. It started feudalism elaborately.
subcontinent at its peak, from around 319 to 467 CE. •• Decline of Towns: It already started from Kushanas
Historians refer to this time period as India’s Golden period and reached zenith during Guptas, feudalism
age. was at its peak. Towns like Mathura, Ujjain, Paithan,
etc. all were in their declining phase.
Positive Economic Development of Guptas •• Trade Declined, Agriculture Raised: Romans banned
Agriculture trade in 1st century during Kushanas which set the
•• Land Measurements: Kulyavapa and Dronavapa agrarian economy to be primary during Guptas.
units were used in Bengal region. These were
Conclusion
important as for taxation.
•• As we went through the above developments i.e.
•• Division of Land: Land was divided on the basis
positive and negative economic development,
of productivity: Khila (cultivable) and Kshetra
seeks that from the Kushanas period, economy of
(uncultivable).
subcontinent started fatal decline and ultimately
Irrigation
by the time of Guptas, decline reached its
•• Evidence for Sudarshan lake repaired during the
zenith. However despite declining economy
times of Skandgupta, a state sponsored scheme.
they successfully mastered the art of economy
•• East à Pond irrigation, Peninsular à Tank throughout North India for around hundred years.
irrigation
•• Some tool development also happened at this
Q. How did the Varnashrama Dharma manifest
time. Example: The ghati yantra is also described
as “cakka – vattaka” in the Panchtantra and in the increasing social complexities in the
Rajataringini. Gupta and post-Gupta period arising from
social and economic developments?
Buying and Selling
 (CSE 2021)
•• Usually during the period of Mauryan and pre-
Ans: According to the scheme of society conceived
Gupta, land was considered property of state.
by the Brahmanas, society was divided into four Varnas
However during Gupta buying and selling of land
(Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra) with each
started. Example: Bengal inscription.
varna performing the set of functions prescribed for
•• Other than land, slaves were also purchased.
it and enjoying whatever rights were given to it. This
Evidences of maltreatment of female slaves have
was the ideal social order and the state was expected
been found through literary sources.
to preserve it. This means that when even a small state
Trade
emerged in some corner of the country, the King of
•• Earthenware, furniture and baskets for domestic that state was expected to recognize this as the ideal
use social order. There were many types of craftsmen and
•• Jewellery of gold and silver, ivory work, etc. as they were not all identical either in wealth or in social
luxurious items status. For example, there was vast difference between
•• Silk clothing e.g. Kausheya (Amarkosha) a goldsmith and his family with a shop in a city like
•• Shrenis, nagarshreshthi and sarthavraha. Ujjayini and a family of basket makers in a village.
100  HISTORY Q & A

11 REGIONAL STATES DURING

GUPTA ERA
Q. Evaluate the importance of tripartite struggle Importance of Kannauj
for the domination over North India during •• Rule on North India without capturing Kannauj
the eighth and ninth centuries. (CSE 2022) was meaningless.
•• Ans. During the 8th century AD, a struggle for •• Strategic importance of Kannauj as it was situated
control over the Kannauj took place among three centrally and was important for Palas to capture
major empires of India namely the Palas, the Central India and Punjab.
Pratiharas and the Rastrakutas. The Palas ruled •• For Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas its possession was
the eastern parts of India while the Pratiharas important for their conquest of Gangetic plain.
controlled the western India (Avanti-Jalaor region).
•• The fertile land of Ganga-Yamuna doab was a
The Rastrakutas ruled over the Deccan region of
source of good revenue.
India. The struggle for control over Kannuj among
these three dynasties is known as the tripartite •• Its possession was also important for any power
struggle in Indian history. to control Gangetic trade route.
 EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO INDIA  215

PAPER-II

1 EUROPEAN PENETRATION
INTO INDIA
Q. Can you explain how, after acquiring Diwani, He appointed Syed Muhammad Reza Khan as
the government of the East India Company Naib Diwan and Naib Nazim of Bengal. As Naib Nazim
functioned like ‘an Indian ruler’?(CSE 2022) he was to represent the Nawab and as Naib Diwan he
was to represent the Company. The system that Clive
Ans. Function of East India Company after
evolved was called Double Government. The Double
acquiring Diwani
Government under Reza Khan worked well as long as
As an active trader in Bengal, the British East India
Clive was there to support him as the governor at Fort
Company had witnessed the autonomous power of the
William. With Clive’s final departure in 1767, Reza
centrally appointed diwans whom they then gave, to
Khan’s influence declined. The Company officials began
earn their favour, peshkash on their appointment.
plundering the country in the name of private trade.
They also knew that the autonomous nawabs could
The consequence was the collapse of the economy,
make the institution obsolete because of the weakness
leading to the great famine of 1769-70. To save the new
of the centre.
kingdom from ruin and also to save the Company from
Robert Clive, who came in 1765 for the second complete collapse through recurring losses, the court of
time to lead the affairs of the Company in Bengal, directors resolved in 1772 to stand forth as Diwan and
took advantage of the situation and met the homeless advised Warren Hastings, the governor, to abolish the
emperor, Shah Alam at Allahabad. The needy emperor Clive’s Double Government system. Hastings sacked
was persuaded that appointing the East India Company Reza Khan and assumed the diwani administration
the diwan of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa could revive the directly in his hand and with that began the second phase
post of the centrally controlled diwan. The Company, as of the establishment of the British colonial state in India.
diwan, would be pleased to remit him a fixed amount of As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial
tribute as regularly as it was done in the good old days. administrator of the territory under its control. The
The proposal sounded very attractive to the Company needed to administer the land and organize
emperor, who was not receiving any tribute from its revenue resources. It needed to be done in a way
Bengal for a long time, and thus he agreed to the that could yield enough revenue to meet the growing
proposal of Clive. Accordingly a treaty was signed. The expenses of the Company.
emperor issued a farman (12 August 1765) appointing Based on the terms of the agreement, Alam granted
the Company Diwan of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa with the East India Company Diwani rights, or the right to
the condition that the Company would remit an annual collect taxes on behalf of the Emperor from the eastern
tribute of twenty-six lakhs of rupees to the emperor. province of Bengal-Bihar-Orissa. These rights allowed
Another agreement (30 September, 1765) was the Company to collect revenue directly from the
signed with the minor nawab of the Suba Bangla, people of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
Nazmuddaula, under which the Company agreed to
pay an annual sum of fifty-three lakhs of rupees to the
Q. "It was Dupleix who had first showed the
nawab to defray the costs of nizamat administration
way of intervening in disputes of the Indian
and the nawab’s household. All these dues would
be paid from the revenues collected from the subah
rulers and thereby acquiring political control
and the surpluses after payment of all stipulated dues over vast territories — a technique which
would be considered as the profit of the Company. was later perfected by the English East India
Clive did not choose to make the Company Company." Elaborate. (CSE, 2020)
rulers of the country straightaway. Many practical Ans: Dupleix was an influential governor-general
considerations led him to run the diwani administration (1742–1754) of the French East India Company
through native agencies. during his three decades in India. He expanded the
 2 BRITISH EXPANSION
IN INDIA
Q. ‘The Battle of Plassey (1757) was a skirmish was sent from Madras to overthrow Nawab and
while Battle of Buxar (1764) was a real war’. strengthen the British position in Bengal.
Critically examine (CSE 2022) •• The discontented followers of the Nawab, such as
Mir Jafar and other Bengali generals, were bribed
Ans.
to forge an alliance with the British.
Battle of Plassey
•• Mir Jafar, a kin of Siraj was promised the throne
The Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757 in the
in return for supporting the British.
Plassey (or Palashi) region of West Bengal, on the east
of Bhagirathi river. Troops of the British East India Course of War
Company, led by Robert Clive, came up against the •• Clive’s army was confronted by the Nawab’s army
forces of Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab at Plassey (Palashi) along with the French soldiers
of Bengal, and his French allies. on their side. The Nawab’s army of 50,000 soldiers
outnumbered Clive’s force of just 3000.
Background
•• However, the secret alliance of the British with
Siraj-ud-Daulah, the then Nawab of Bengal
the conspirators strengthened the British foothold
succeeded his grandfather Alavardi Khan after his
in the battle.
death. Alavardi Khan was the Deputy Governor of
•• Moreover, Mir Jafar, with around one-third of
Bihar who assumed the throne after killing Sarfaraz
the Bengali army, did not join the battle and
Khan, an incapable son of Murshiq Quli Khan, Dewan
contributed to Nawab’s defeat.
of Bengal. Siraj-ud-Daulah was surrounded by a
•• Under compelling circumstances, the Nawab tried
number of rivals in his own court who helped the
to escape with his army but was killed by Miran,
British in winning the Battle of Plassey.
the son of Mir Jafar.
Events Preceding the Battle Significance: The Battle is regarding a historic
•• The British victory in the Carnatic had already turning point for British in India; it established political
made Siraj apprehensive of the growing power of and military supremacy of the British in Bengal.
the East India Company. Moreover, the officials of Post-War
the Company made rampant misuse of its trade •• After the Battle of Plassey, Clive proclaimed Mir
privileges that adversely affected the Nawab’s Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and placed him on
finances. the throne of Murshidabad.
•• The British also fortified Calcutta without the •• Mir Jafar in order to satisfy the British as per the
Nawab’s permission which the Nawab took as agreement gave the Zamindari of 24 Parganas
ignorance to his sovereign power. The infuriated (group of villages) of Bengal to the Company.
Nawab marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort •• However, this could not satisfy the British and
William in June 1756. consequently he was removed from the throne and
•• Shortly after Fort William’s surrender, on June 20, his son-in-law Mir Kasim was placed on the throne
175, Siraj confined 146 British prisoners in a small as the new Nawab of Bengal.
dungeon in Calcutta, out of which 123 prisoners
Battle of Buxar
died of suffocation. It is infamously known as the
The Battle of Buxar was fought between the forces
‘Black Hole of Calcutta’. This event brought the
under the command of the British East India Company,
hostility of the British in the open.
led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir
The Battle Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1763; Shuja-ud-Daulah,
•• Following this tragic defeat of British by the the Nawab of Awadh; and the Mughal Emperor Shah
Nawab of Bengal, a strong force under Robert Clive Alam II.
228  HISTORY Q & A

3 EARLY STRUCTURE OF THE

BRITISH RAJ
Q. How did English utilitarian thinking impact Indian civilization was said to be lacking in the
India in the British era? (CSE 2021) values of rational thought and individualism. A critical
attitude towards Indian education and learning was
Ans: Utilitarianism, a tradition which has stemmed
adopted. This resulted in undermining the traditional
from the late 18th and 19th-century English philosophers
knowledge, culture and learning methods. Western
and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
ideas and models of education were enforced on the
The principle states that an action is right only if it
Indian population without any regard for the unequal
tends to promote the happiness of everyone affected
capacities and access to such education system, etc.
by the act.
There were also substantial differences between
The influence of utilitarianism has been widespread
the modes of thinking in the Orientalist construction
and its significance in law, politics is especially notable.
of India or the Evangelical drive to save 'native' souls,
Utilitarians typically advocate democracy as a means
or the Utilitarian calculus of the 'greatest goods' in
of making government interests align with the general
terms of moral and material improvement. Yet, in
interest; they have advocated for the greatest freedom
this diversity of ideas an over-arching conception of
of the individual together with equal freedom for others
Britain's 'mission' in India provided unity in action.
because each individual is usually the best judge of his
Objectively these ideas and men all served to build the
welfare, and they have believed in the potential and
British Empire in India.
desirability of radical social change through peaceful
political processes.
The popular interpretation of Utilitarian Q. “An ideology of paternalistic benevolence,
jurisprudence, on the one hand, is historical and occasionally combined with talk of
opposes the reworking of the criminal justice system trusteeship and training towards self-
that prevailed in Britain during the late 18th and early government, thinly veiled the realities of a
19th centuries. Utilitarianism and its influence are Raj uncompromisingly white and despotic.”
especially seen in the creation of a penal code, and a  (CSE, 2018)
code of criminal and civil procedure in India. Ans. The overtly publicised reason for the British
In economic policy, the early utilitarians had rule in India was the Benthamite model - it was for the
tended to reject governmental intervention in trade and spread of civilization among the uncivilised people of
industry on the premise that if left intact, the economy the world.
would control itself for the greater welfare; however, To this end, the British constructed a narrative
later utilitarians lost trust in private enterprise’s social of paternalism whereby they were portrayed as the
efficiency and were willing to see governmental power Mai-Baap of the common peasant. This was done by
and administration used to correct their violations. institutions like the courts, the revenue collectors, the
Utilitarian philosohy justifies colonialism by police and also the army. Traditional forms of rule and
arguing the paternalistic colonial governance of conflict resolution were abhorred in favour of the more
indigenous people is required until they matured and British ones.
acceded to rational thoughts and self-government. Indian history too was re-imagined and the coming
Indians were to be taught the virtue of self-governance. of the British was seen as deliverance for the common
It contributed to ‘legal particularism’, its emphasis folk. Added to this, the British principle of trusteeship,
on difference/pluralism, and its concomitant advocacy which essentially followed the assumption that the
of personal laws for India’s religious communities. Indian population was not fit to rule itself and that it
Bentham’s utilitarianism and its influence are especially needed a strong set of laws and time in which to get
seen in the creation of a penal code, and a code of used to this system allowed for justification of British
criminal and civil procedure in India. rule in India.
 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIAL RULE  233

4 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF
BRITISH COLONIAL RULE
Q. ‘Famines were not just because of foodgrain The large-scale loss of life due to the series of famines
scarcity, but were a direct result of colonial between 1860 and 1877 was the cause of political controversy.
economic policies’. Critically examine Attitude of Viceroys
(CSE 2022) •• Curzon stated that such philanthropy would be
Ans. India was hit by recurrent famine from criticised, but not doing so would be a crime.
1760 AD to till 1943 AD. As per British sources, there He also cut back rations that he characterised as
were more than 85 million Indians died in these “dangerously high,” and stiffened relief eligibility
famines which were in reality genocides done by the by reinstating the Temple tests. Between 1.25 and
British Raj. 10 million people died in the famine.
Infrastructure
Apathy of British Rulers was evident in their Policies
•• The failure to provide food to the millions who
The famines were a product both of uneven rainfall were hungry during the famines of the 1870s has
and British economic and administrative policies. been blamed both on the absence of adequate rail
•• Colonial policies implicated include rack-renting, infrastructure and the incorporation of grain into
levies for war, free trade policies, the expansion the world market through rail and telegraph.
of export agriculture, and neglect of agricultural
Famine Codes
investment.
•• British Codes were explicit in casting a duty on
•• During the Bengal famine of 1770, East India
public officials to spend the minimum that was
Company raised taxes disastrously and exacerbated
necessary, only to prevent the loss of lives, and
it, even if the famine was not caused by the British
nothing beyond that.
colonial government.
•• The Famine Codes of the past recognised that non-
•• Indian exports of opium, rice, wheat, indigo, jute,
farm rural poor persons, like artisans and weavers,
and cotton were a key component of the economy
may be very hard hit by famine, but did little to
of the British Empire, generating vital foreign
address their food needs, although they were not
currency, primarily from China, and stabilising
equipped physically and culturally to participate
low prices in the British grain market.
in the kind of manual labour that is required in
•• Policy lapses such as prioritising distribution of
public relief works.
vital supplies to the military, civil services and
•• Those who are most vulnerable in times of food
others as well as stopping rice imports
scarcity are old people, single women, disabled
Policy of Laissez-faire people and children. Colonial Codes contained
•• The government’s policy of laissez-faire in the niggardly provisions for them of “gratuitous relief”
trade of grain; for example, two of the worst The above conditions were worsened by rapidly
famine-afflicted areas in the Madras Presidency, the growing population, increasing household debt,
districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, continued to stagnant agricultural productivity, increased social
export grains throughout the famine. stratification, and alienation of the peasant class from
•• Export crops displaced millions of acres that could their landholdings. The natural disasters like cyclone,
have been used for domestic subsistence, and floods and droughts wreaked havoc at times. During
increased the vulnerability of Indians to food crises. episodes of food scarcity caused by drought and failure of
•• Others dispute that exports were a major cause the rains of the kind that looms over large parts of India
of the famine, pointing out that trade did have a today, district authorities in India are still substantially
stabilising influence on India’s food consumption, guided by updated versions of Famine Codes that were
albeit a small one. initially developed by colonial administrators.
 SOCIAL & CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS  247

5 SOCIAL & CULTURAL

DEVELOPMENTS
Q. Was the western education a harbinger of •• The British planned to educate a small section of
cultural awakening or an instrument of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class
colonial hegemony? Discuss (CSE 2022) “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes,
in opinions, in morals and in intellect” who would
Ans. The introduction of a modern system of
act as interpreters between the government and
education afforded opportunities for assimilation
masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which
of modern Western ideas. This, in turn, gave a new
knowledge of western sciences and literature
direction to Indian political thinking, although the
would reach the masses.
English system of education had been conceived by
the rulers in the self-interest of efficient administration. •• Wood’s Despatch of 1854: Wood’s Despatch
The liberal and radical thought of European writers suggested that primary schools must adopt
like Milton, Shelley, John Stuart Mill, Rousseau, Paine, vernacular languages. It suggested that high
Spencer and Voltaire helped many Indians imbibe schools use Anglo-vernacular medium and
modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist that English should be the medium for college-
ideas. level education. Hence, the Wood’s Despatch is
considered as ‘Magna-Carta’ of English Education
Educational Policies of British India in India.
•• Anglicises- orientalist conflict: The Orientalists led
Western Education as an Instrument of Colonial
by Dr. H.H. Wilson and H.T. Princep advocated
Hegemony
in favour of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as
the medium of education. In this context, the •• It promoted racism amongst masses showing
establishment of the Calcutta Madrasa by English as a superior language. So, Englishmen or
Warren Hastings in 1781, the Benares Sanskrit the ‘goras’ were preferred over “brown” people
College by Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and the on their land.
Asiatic Society of Bengal by William Jones in 1784 •• It changed the entire administrative machinery
are noteworthy. from Persian to English. Indians were familiar with
•• The Anglicists led by Charles Trevelyan, Persian since 12th century. Indians were posted
Elphinstone advocated the imparting of western even on the higher posts till Persian administration.
education through the medium of English. The However, a change in English resulted in
Anglicists were supported by most advanced English superiority over higher pots/positions
Indians of the time, like Raja Ram Mohan Roy who and Indians were merely posted on secondary or
advocated for the study of western education as the lower posts.
“key to the treasures of scientific and democratic •• English language also led to codification of laws.
thought of the modern west.” For example, Indian Penal Code (1860), CrPC, etc.
•• Macaulay’s Minute of 1835: Lord Macaulay was Many of the laws made during colonial era were
of the view that “Indian learning was inferior followed even in the independent India. Though
to European learning”, which was true as far as time and then they are being eradicated.
physical and social sciences in the contemporary •• It also negatively promoted division of the country
stage were concerned. The Government soon on language and prompted English speakers
made English as the medium of instruction in its over native speakers. It can be seen even in the
schools and colleges and opened a few English first phase of Indian National Congress (INC)
schools and colleges instead of a large number where English oriented urban educated leaders
of elementary schools, thus neglecting mass subservient to Britishers were on front. It changed
education. to mass politics after arise of Tilak.
258  HISTORY Q & A

SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS

6 REFORM MEVEMENTS IN
BENGAL & OTHER AREAS
Q. "In the initial stages, when Indian nationalism It derived its entire strength, especially after
was immature, just sprouting, it found 1918 from the militancy and self- sacrificing sprit of
expression in many liberal religio-reform the masses. Satyagraha as a form of struggle was
movements."(CSE-2020) based on the active participation of the people and on the
sympathy and support of the non-participating millions.
Ans: Nationalism is an idea and movement that
The ‘non-cooperation’ movement, the ‘civil
holds that the nation should be congruent with the
disobedience’ movement and the ‘Quit India’ movement
state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote
were the reflection of the popularity of the Congress.
the interests of a particular nation (as in a group
The Muslim League which formed in 1906 gradually
of people), especially with the aim of gaining and
widened its base. The move towards Pakistan became
maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance)
inevitable when Jinnah and the Muslim League came
over its homeland. Nationalism holds that each nation
with the theory that Hindu and Muslim were two
should govern itself, free from outside interference
nations which must have separate homeland and put
(self-determination), that a nation is a natural and
forward the demand for Pakistan. So, on 15th August
ideal basis for a polity and that the nation is the only
1947, a hard-earned, prized freedom were own after long,
rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty).
glorious years of struggle but a bloody, tragic partition
It further aims to build and maintain a single national
rent asunder the fabric of the emerging free nation.
identity, based on shared social characteristics of
culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, Contribution of Liberal Religio-Reform Movement in
politics (or the government), religion, traditions and Indian Nationalism
belief in a shared singular history, and to promote Religious perspective was universalistic. Raja Ram
national unity or solidarity. Mohan Roy considered different religion as national
Nationalism seeks to preserve and foster a embodiments of universal theism. The Brahmo Samaj
nation's traditional cultures and cultural revivals was initially conceived by him as a universalist church.
have been associated with nationalist movements. It He was a defender of the basic and universal principles
also encourages pride in national achievements and of all religions - the monotheism of the Vedas and the
is closely linked to patriotism. Nationalism can be Unitarianism of Christianity - and at the same time
combined with diverse political goals and ideologies attacked polytheism of Hinduism and the trinitarianism
such as conservatism (national conservatism) or of Christianity. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan echoed the
socialism (left-wing nationalism). same idea: all prophets had the same din (faith) and
every country and nation had different prophets.
Stages of Indian Nationalism
This perspective found clearer articulation in Kehsub
The Indian national movement was undoubtedly Chandra Sen’s ideas saying that our position is not that
one of the biggest mass movements of modern societies truths are to be found in all religions, but all established
has ever seen. It was also popular and multi-class religions of the world are true. He also gave expression
movement. It was basically the result of a fundamental to the social implication of this universalist perspective
contradiction between the interest of the Indian people saying that whosoever worships the True God daily
and that of British colonialism. The Indian people were must learn to recognize all his fellow countrymen as
able to see that India was regressing economically brethren. Caste would vanish in such a state of a society.
and undergoing a process of underdevelopment. This
anti-colonial ideology and critique of colonialism was Conclusion
disseminated during the mass phase of the movement. The socio religious reform movement, as a whole,
The Indian National Congress which emerged in 1885 was against backward element of traditional culture in
championed the cause of Indian people. terms of both religious and social evils.
 INDIAN RESPONSE TO BRITISH RULE  265

7 INDIAN RESPONSE TO
BRITISH RULE
Q. The British rule had differential impact on •• Since they worked against the interests of Indian
the Indian Society. Describe in what ways, trade and industry, Indian handicrafts completely
the Indians responded to the Revolt of collapsed.
1857. (CSE 2022) •• The Britishers also imposed heavy duties on Indian
made goods. Now they could reap huge profits as
Ans. The revolt of 1857 started on 10th May when
there was no competition for their goods. Thus,
the Company’s Indian soldiers at Meerut rebelled.
the British drained India of her wealth and her
Called the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ by the British, it is now
natural resources.
recognized as the First War of Independence against
the British rulers. •• The colonial policy of intensifying land revenue
This rebellion was a major anti-colonial movement demand led to a large number of peasants losing
against the aggressive imperialist policies of the British. their land.
In fact, it was an economic, political and social struggle •• Permanent Settlement of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
against the British rule. did not recognise the hereditary rights of the
peasants on land and if they failed to pay 10/11th
Oppressive Character and Policies of Colonial Rule of the entire produce, their property could be
in India sold off.
Policy of Annexation Social and Religious Interference
•• The nature of colonial expansion through •• Social reforms against ‘Sati’, female infanticide,
annexation became a major source of discontent widow re-marriage and education of woman, made
among the Indian rulers. Their policy of annexation many people unhappy. The Missionaries’ work
called Doctrine of Lapse led to a number of instilled apprehensions in masses.
independent kingdoms being annexed to the •• The religious sentiments of the sepoys were hurt
British Empire. These were states that were in 1806 in the Madras presidency. The Hindus
enjoying British protection but their rulers had were asked to remove their caste marks from their
died without leaving a natural heir to the throne. In foreheads and the Muslims were asked to trim
this manner Lord Dalhousie annexed the Maratha their beards.
States of Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi and several other
minor kingdoms. Discontent in the Army
•• This interference by the East India Company was •• Indian soldiers were not given posts above
disliked by many Indian rulers. The policy of that of subedars. Some sepoys wanted special
annexation also affected soldiers, crafts people and bhatta/allowance if sent on oversea duty.
even the nobles. Even the traditional scholarly and Sometimes they were paid, but most of the time
priestly classes lost the patronage which they were they were not.
getting from these rulers. •• They were paid salaries less than their English
counterparts. As a result, the morale of the Indian
Economic Policies sepoy was very low.
•• The British sold cheap, machine made clothes in
India which destroyed the Indian cottage industry. Administrative Character
It also left millions of craftsmen unemployed. •• R a m p a n t c o r r u p t i o n i n t h e C o m p a n y ’ s
•• It caused the disruption of the traditional Indian administration, especially among the police, petty
economy and its subordination to the British officials and lower law courts, was a major cause
economy. of the discontent.
278  HISTORY Q & A

FACTORS LEADING TO
8 THE BIRTH OF INDIAN
NATIONALISM
Q. Discuss the policies and programmes of the •• They made the people realise the economic content
early nationalists (moderates). To what extent and character of British colonialism. In doing so,
they were able to fulfill the aspirations of the they weakened the foundations of British rule in
people? (CSE 2022) India.
•• Their political and economic programmes
Ans. The Early Nationalists, also known as the established the idea that India must be ruled in
Moderates, were a group of political leaders in India the interest of the Indians.
active between 1885 and 1907. Their emergence marked •• The efforts of the Early Nationalists also led to the
the beginning of the organised national movement in implementation of various social reforms such as
India. Some of the important moderate leaders were the appointment of a Public Service Commission.
Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji. With A resolution of the House of Commons (1893)
members of the group drawn from educated middle- allowing for simultaneous examination for the
class professionals including lawyers, teachers and Indian Civil Service in London and India.
government officials, many of them were educated in •• Appointment of the Welby Commission on Indian
England. Expenditure (1895).
They are known as “Early Nationalists” because •• They also passed The Indian Councils Act of 1892.
they believed in demanding reforms while adopting These achievements served as the basis for nationalist
constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their movements in later years by extremist leaders.
aims. The Early Nationalists had full faith in the British Some of the younger elements within the
sense of justice, fair play, honesty, and integrity while Indian National Congress were dissatisfied with the
they believed that British rule was a boon for India. achievements of the Early Nationalists and vociferous
The Early Nationalists were staunch believers in open- critics of the methods of peaceful constitutional
minded and moderate politics. agitation that they promulgated.
Their successors, the “Assertives”, existed from Young members advocated the adoption of
1905 to 1919 and were followed by nationalists of the European revolutionary methods to counter British
Gandhian era, which existed from 1919 until Indian colonial rule while mainstream Early Nationalists
Independence in 1947. remained loyal to the Crown, with their desire to regain
In spite of their role as the most progressive force self-government lacking conviction.
of the time, the Early Nationalists received widespread The Early Nationalists failed to attain their
criticism over their lack of success. They were treated objectives, giving rise to another group of leaders
with contempt by the colonial administration and their known as Assertive or Extremist Nationalists. The
demands were not fulfilled. most prominent leaders of the Assertive Nationalists
In spite of such criticism, the Early Nationalists did were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin
achieve some of their goals. Chandra Pal.
•• They created a national awakening among the
Q. Analyse how the revolutionaries taught
people that made Indians conscious of the bonds of
common political, economic, and cultural interests people self-confidence and widened the
that united them. social base of the freedom movement.
•• They also trained people in politics by popularising (CSE 2022)
the ideas of democracy, civil liberties, secularism Ans.
and nationalism. Contribution of Revolutionaries during India’s Free-
•• The Early Nationalists did pioneering work by dom Movement
exposing the true nature of British rule in India. A group of Congress broke out from the party and
 FACTORS LEADING TO THE BIRTH OF INDIAN NATIONALISM  279
formed a revolutionary group. They were great patriots. Impacts of Revolutionary Movements
They adopted harsher and terroristic manner to achieve •• The era of revolutionary terrorism began and very
their goal. They were impatient and great heroes, they soon secret societies of the revolutionaries came
presented a supreme picture of sacrifice. up all over the country. The Anusilan Samiti, the
They were active when the moderate leaders most famous and long lasting secret society, with
were arrested and jailed. They proved to be a source its headquarters at Calcutta created revolutionary
of inspiration for the masses and helped to develop centres all over India.
nationalist feeling. •• Their activities took two forms- the assassination
The revolutionaries believed that political of oppressive officials, traitors and informers, and
rights cannot be achieved through non-violent and dacoities to raise funds for the purchase of arms,
constitutional means. The revolutionaries were of the etc.
view that independence and self-rule can be achieved •• It had its impact on the Congress strategy to
by violence and threats to British rule. To achieve involve the youths in the short-term programme
these objectives, the revolutionaries formed secret of rural reconstruction.
organizations of revolutionaries, gave military training, •• Their sacrifices aroused the emotions of the Indian
collected arms and ammunition, and propagated people and thus helped the building up of the
revolutionary ideology through newspapers and other national consciousness which certainly contributed
means. to gaining independence.
The Revolutionary Movement •• It could not mobilize the masses. In fact, it had no
The emergence of revolutionary ideology in India base among the people. They believed in individual
during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century heroism.
was the result of several internal and external influences •• This movement failed to achieve its object of
working on the minds of the youth. independence. With the death of Chandrasekhar
Early phase of revolutionary movement in India Azad in a shooting encounter in a public park
was in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, U.P., Orissa, Bihar at Allahabad in February 1931, the revolutionary
and Madras provinces, but it predominantly operated movement virtually came to an end in Punjab, U.P.
in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab as these regions and Bihar.
were more politically active than other parts of the •• Surya Sen’s martyrdom also marked an end to the
country. terrorist activity in Bengal. A process of rethinking
on the part of the revolutionaries lodged in jails
The reasons behind rise of Revolutionary Terrorism and in Andaman began. A large number of
•• Nationalism among Youth: Most vital factor which revolutionaries turned to Marxism.
contributed to amplify the spirit of nationalism
among the countrymen was the ‘economic Decline of Revolutionaries Post-1930’s
exploitation’ of Indians by the British Government Despite gaining popularity and a dedicated
and the Partition of Bengal. following, both the terrorist and the revolutionary
•• Failure of Moderate and Extremist Congress: movements could not achieve their objectives of freeing
Younger element was not ready to retreat after India from the British. This was because
the decline of national militancy phase. Fallout •• There was no central, all-India level organization
of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was the which could control the activities in an organised
immediate reason. manner;
•• Leadership’s failure to tap revolutionary energies •• These movements appealed to the youngsters who
of the youth. had faced the hostilities of the British rule, but the
•• Government repression left no peaceful avenues mass following in the rural belt was unavailable;
open for the protest. •• Germany, which promised arms and funds to be
•• Inspired from the individual heroic action on the used against Britain could not deliver;
lines of Irish nationalists or Russian nihilists. •• The US entry and its subsequent dominance in the
•• Ideological appeal of Ideas: Freedom through world war demoralised Germany and the allies to
revolution, heroic action, supreme sacrifice, be of help to the Indian cause;
Assassinate unpopular British officials, strike terror •• Montagu’s package of self-governance for the
in hearts of rulers and arouse people to expel the Indians took the fizz out of the revolutionary
British with force attracted the new nationalists. activists;
290  HISTORY Q & A

9
RISE OF GANDHI
Q. The same Gandhiji who withdrew the Second World War. And it was the people who truly
Non-Cooperation Movement on the issue nurtured the Quit India Movement.
of violence at Chauri Chaura refused to
condemn people’s violence during Quit India Q. Do you agree with the fact that the virtual
Movement. Do you think that he was losing failure of the Non-Cooperation Movement
and the gloom that descended on the
his faith in the efficiency of non-violence
nationalist scene, created conditions for
and was willing to deviate from this path?
revolutionary activities? Discuss.(CSE, 2020)
Elucidate (CSE 2021)
Ans: At the Nagpur session of the Indian National
Ans: Mahatma Gandhi reached shores of India Congress. The programme of Non-cooperation was
from South Africa on January 1915 and toured the endorsed. An important change made was, until
country before participating in freedom struggle. His now Congress sought to attain self-government
ways had a drastic change from non-violence, peaceful, through constitutional means as its goal. In Nagpur
non-passive resistance to direct confrontation during session the Congress decided to have the attainment
the last days of Independence. of Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means,
Why Gandhiji changed his attitude during Quit India thus committing itself to an extra constitutional mass
struggle. Gandhi declared that if the non-cooperation
Movement
programme was implemented completely, swaraj
The Quit India Movement was different from would be ushered in within a year.
the other two movements associated with Gandhian
leadership of the Congress. The resolution was passed Outline of Non-cooperation Movement
by Gandhi without the usual policy of slow escalation The start of 1920s disillusioned many Indians due to
following the declaration to break the law in order to the violent events like martial law in Punjab, Jallianwala
achieve political goals. The movement was a product Bag massacre by General Dyer and the Rowlatt bills.
of the steady disillusionment of Gandhi with British The Indian Muslims too were affected as the British had
policies during 1942 and the gravity of the Japanese promised fair treatment to Turkey after the War but had
threat to the security of the country. Gandhi did not reneged on it. Furthermore, the Hunter Commission to
advocate violence but he gave a powerful slogan “Do or investigate General Dyer's actions had exonerated him.
The Treaty of Sevres had completed the dismemberment
Die” that in the period of war and growing nationalist
of Turkey and so the Khilafat committee formed by
resentment was bound to have grave consequences.
Ali brothers Maulana Mohammad Ali and Shaukat
The movement was more of an outcome of the
Ali got a recommendation from Gandhiji to start a
failure of the Cripps Mission in March-April 1942 Satyagraha. The Khilafat movement was later merged
that changed the situation and led to the Quit India by Gandhiji with the Non-cooperation movement. The
Movement in August 1942. If the British government Congress too agreed to consider Non-cooperation with
had offered India the assurance of independence after the government as it too was disillusioned by the failed
the War, as the United States of America had done promises of reform of Montague Chelmsford committee
in the case of the Philippines, the cooperation of the 1919 (Govt of India Act, 1919). Strict Non-violence,
Indian National Congress during the War could have Hindu Muslim unity, opening of national schools and
been possible. panchayats were encouraged to solve disputes in the
The change in attitude of Gandhiji in Quit India movement. Revolutionary terrorists groups too agreed to
Movement is mainly because of the reluctant nature of support this movement. Subsequently all major leaders
British policy towards any constitutional development made the same declarations and the government was
even after the support of India to the British in the forced to ignore this incident.
 CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COLONIAL INDIA (1858–1935)  297

CONSTITUTIONAL
10 DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE COLONIAL INDIA
(1858–1935)
Q. D i s c u s s t h e m a j o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l • Indian Councils Act of 1909: This act is also known
developments in India after 1858 and their as the Morley-Minto Reforms after the Secretary
impact on Indian society and polity. of State for India (Lord Morley and the Viceroy
 (CSE 2021) Lord Minto). It changed the name of the Central
Legislative Council to the Imperial Legislative
Ans: The Revolt of 1857 brought about important Council. The act introduced a system of Communal
changes in the British administration in India. The representation for Muslims by accepting the
rule of the East India Company came to an end. The concept of 'separate electorate'.
administration of India came under the direct control
• Government of India Act of 1919: This act is
of the British Crown. These changes were announced in
also called Montegue-Chelmsford Reform after
the Government of India Act of 1858. The ‘Proclamation
the Secretary of State for India (Montegue) and
of Queen Victoria’ assured the Indians a benevolent
the Viceroy (Chelmsford). It introduced Dyarchy
administration. Thereafter, important developments
in the provinces, that is; division of subjects of
had taken place in constitutional history of India as a
administration into transferred and reserved.
result of the Indian National Movement.
Transferred subjects to be the responsibility
• Government of India Act of 1858: The British of Ministers responsible to the Legislative
Crown assumed sovereignty over India from the Council.
East India Company. It provided absolute imperial
• Government of India Act 1935: The act provided
control without any popular participation in the
for federation taking the Provinces and the Indian
administration of the country. This Act transferred
princely states as units. A federal court was to be
the Government, territories and revenues of India
established. Burma was separated from India. The
from the East India Company to the British Crown.
act divided the powers between the centre and the
The rule of Company was replaced by the rule of
units in terms of three lists, namely the Federal
Crown in India. The powers of the British Crown
List, the Provincial List and the Concurrent List. It
were to be exercised by the Secretary of State for
provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank
India.
of India to control the currency and credit of the
• Indian Councils Act of 1861: It introduced, for country.
the first time, the representative institutions in
India. It provided that the Governor General's Impact on Society
Executive Council should have some Indians The new policy of religious non-intervention was
as the non-official members while transacting born equally out of fear of recurring mutiny, which
the legislative businesses. The act initiated the many Britons believed had been triggered by orthodox
process of decentralization by restoring the Hindu and Muslim reaction against the secularizing
legislative powers to the Bombay and the Madras inroads of utilitarian positivism and the proselytizing
Presidencies. It accorded the statutory recognition of Christian missionaries. British liberal socio-religious
to the portfolio system. reform therefore came to a halt for more than three
• Indian Councils Act of 1892: The act introduced decades—essentially from the East India Company’s
the principle of elections but in an indirect manner. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act of 1856 to the Crown’s
It enlarged the functions of the Legislative Councils timid Age of Consent Act of 1891, which merely raised
and gave them the power of discussing the Budget the statutory age of sex for “consenting” Indian brides
and addressing questions to the Executive. from 10 years to 12.
322  HISTORY Q & A

15 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT &

POLITICAL CHANGE
Q. How did the popular movements help us the commercial and industrial interests to their forest
to understand the nature of environmental which was the main source of sustenance.
crisis in post-colonial India? (CSE 2022) Silent Valley Movement: Silent Valley Movement
in Kerala was against the construction of a hydroelectric
Ans. Environmental movement is a type of social
dam on the river Kunthipuzha under the Kudremukh
movement that involves an array of individuals,
project.
groups and coalitions that perceive a common interest
Tehri Dam Conflict: It is one of the most protracted
in environmental protection and act to bring about
environmental movements in recent years. The major
changes in environmental policies and practices.
issues of the movement include - seismic sensitivity
The genesis of environmental movement in India
of the region, submergence of forest areas along with
can be traced back to the early twentieth century when
Tehri town, etc. These environmental movements were
people protested against the commercialization of forest
mainly against the ecological concerns such as greater
resources during the British colonial period.
exploitation of the already depleted natural resources,
Major Environmental Movements in India construction of big dams, etc.
Bishnoi Movement: This movement was led by
Amrita Devi in which around 363 people sacrificed their Q. How did the introduction of Community
lives for the protection of their forests. This movement Development Programme and Panchayati Raj
was the first of its kind to have developed the strategy promote welfare of rural India? (CSE, 2019)
of hugging or embracing the trees for their protection
spontaneously. Ans: The Govt. of India, post-independence,
attempted towards the development of the impoverished
Chipko Movement: The Chipko movement was
villages, which saw frequent famines and poverty under
a non-violent agitation in 1973 that was aimed at the
the British rule. With the introduction of Community
protection and conservation of trees, but perhaps, it
Development Programme, the government made
is best remembered for the collective mobilisation of
concentrated efforts over a small area and then spread
women for the cause of preserving forests, which also
them out in the rest of the country. It sought the many
brought about a change in attitude regarding their own
sided development of rural life and thus improve the
status in society. The name of the movement ‘chipko’
Indian village life as a whole.
comes from the word ’embrace’, as the villagers hugged
the trees and encircled them to prevent being hacked. The programme was aimed at Self-Help i.e. the
impulse for rural development coming from the rural
Narmada Bachao Andolan: This movement is
people themselves. These projects provided a single
against the Narmada River Valley Project. It has drawn
multipurpose agency reaching the very doors of the
upon a multiplicity of discourses for protests such
farmers. Moreover, adequate financial and technical
as: displacement risks and resettlement provisions;
provisions were made to ensure their success.
environmental impact and sustainability issues;
financial implications of the project; forceful evictions The main items in the Community Development
and violations of civil liberties; issues pertaining to river Programme were:
valley planning and management, etc. l Improvement in farming techniques by using
Appiko Movement: Appiko Movement is one of scientific research, such as use of better varieties
the forest-based environmental movements in India. of crops, tools and use of fertilizers.
The movement took place in Uttara Kannada district l Exploring supplementary avenues of employment
of Karnataka in the Western Ghats. The movement such as development of village and cottage
created awareness among the villagers throughout the industries; as agriculture alone couldn't make a
Western Ghats about the ecological danger posed by farmer prosperous.
428  HISTORY Q & A

DISINTEGRATION OF SOVIET
27 UNION & THE RISE OF THE
UNIPOLAR WORLD
Q. Discuss, how the policies adopted by •• Pro-democracy Protests: When pro-democracy
Mikhail Gorbachev were responsible for the protests swept across the Soviet bloc nations
disintegration of the USSR? (CSE 2022) of communist Eastern Europe in 1989, he
refrained from using force unlike previous
Ans. Disintegration of the USSR was followed
Kremlin leaders who had sent tanks to crush
by a sequence of events that led to the dissolution
uprisings in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia
of the Soviet Union on December 31, 1991. The
in 1968.
former superpower was replaced by 15 independent
countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Other Causes for Disintegration of the USSR
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, •• Economic Weakness: The weakness of the economy
Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, was the major cause of dissatisfaction among
and Uzbekistan. the people in USSR. There was severe shortage
Gorbachev’s Policies responsible for the disintegra- of consumer items. Government investments
tion of the USSR were mainly done on huge military spending,
maintenance of satellite states in Eastern Europe,
•• He introduced the policies of “Glasnost” and
maintenance of the Central Asian Republics within
“Perestroika” which helped in freedom of speech
the USSR, etc.
and press and the economic expansion of the
•• Political Un-accountability: The communist
economy.
party regime (single party rule) for around 70
•• Perestroika means “restructuring,” specifically of
years turned authoritarian. There was widespread
the Communist economy and political system, by
corruption, nepotism and lack of transparency.
incorporating some features of a market economy
Gorbachev’s decision to allow elections with
into the Soviet economy. It also resulted in the
a multi-party system and create a presidency
decentralization of financial decision-making.
for the Soviet Union began a slow process of
•• Glasnost means “openness,” particularly openness
democratization that eventually destabilized
of information and began the democratization of
Communist control and contributed to the collapse
the Soviet Union.
of the Soviet Union.
•• Focused on Arms Reduction: He forged arms
•• Rise of Nationalism: Rise of nationalism among
reduction deals with the United States and
countries like Russia, Baltic republics (Estonia,
partnerships with Western powers to remove the
Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, etc. was
Iron Curtain that had divided Europe since World
the most important and immediate cause of
War Two and reunify Germany.
disintegration of the USSR.
•• Iron curtain is the political, military, and ideological
•• Gobrachev’s Reforms: Once people started
barrier erected by the Soviet Union after World
to enjoy freedom under Mikhail Gorbachev’s
War II to seal off itself and its dependent eastern
reforms, they demanded more. The demand grew
and central European allies from open contact with
into a big force which turned difficult to control.
the West and other non-communist areas.
The people wanted to catch up with the West
•• Ended the Cold War: Gorbachev is credited quickly.
with bringing the Cold War to an end, which
resulted in the dissolution of the USSR into Conclusion
separate countries. So, Gorbachev’s policies, economic weakness,
•• Afghan War: He ended the bloody Soviet war in political stubbornness, and the growth of nationalism
Afghanistan that had been raging since 1979. were the causes for the disintegration of the USSR.