Underwater Networking Basics

Unit II
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Underwater wireless communication
– Acoustic signals carry digital information through an
underwater channel.
– Electromagnetic waves are not used as they propagate
over short distances.
– Underwater communication is difficult due to factors like
• Multipath propagation
• Time variations of channel
• Small available bandwidth
• Strong signal attenuation
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• History
• The science of underwater acoustics began in 1490.
• In 1826, Daniel Colladon measured the elapsed time between
the flash of light and the sound of a submerged ship’s bell.
• They measured the sound speed 1435 meters per second over
a 17 kilometer distance.
• In 1877 Lord Rayleigh wrote the Theory of sound and
established modern acoustic theory.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Study of propagation of sound in water and
interaction of the mechanical waves.
• Frequencies: 10 Hz to 1 MHz
• Also known as Hydro acoustics.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Wired vs Wireless:
• Wired underwater is not feasible in all
situations ..
– Temporary experiments
– Breaking of wires
– Significant cost of deployment
– Experiment over long distances
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Challenges:
• Radio waves do not propagate well underwater due
to the high energy absorption of water.
• Communication based on acoustic links
• Acoustic channels have low bandwidth.
• Characteristics of communication channel:
– Long and variable propagation delays
– Multi-path problems
– High-bit error rate
– Low speed of sound propagation
– Underwater sensors are prone to failures because of
corrosion, etc..
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Underwater Wireless Sensor Network
– A device that receives and responds to a signal or
stimuli.
– As human we perceive the world via senses (we
can hear, taste, touch, see and smell)
– Machine senses through sensors like temperature
sensors, pressure sensors and light sensors.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Underwater Wireless Sensor Network
– Sensor networks are dense wireless networks of
small, low-cost sensors, which collect and
disseminate environmental data.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Underwater Wireless Sensor Network
• Key technologies that enable sensor network:
– Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
– Wireless communications
– Digital electronics
• Terrestrial sensor network
– It typically consists of hundreds to thousands of
inexpensive wireless sensor nodes deployed in a given
area, either in ad hoc or in a preplanned manner.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Underwater Wireless Sensor Network
• Underwater sensor network have the potential to enable
unexplored applications and to enhance our ability to observe
and predict the ocean.
• Unmanned or Autonomous Underwater vehicles (UUVs,
AUVs), equipped with underwater sensors are also envisioned
to find application in exploration of natural underwater
resources and gathering of scientific data in collaborative
monitoring missions.
 Underwater Acoustics Infrastructure
• Applications
• Environmental Monitoring
• Undersea Explorations
• Disaster Prevention
• Equipment Monitoring
• Assisted Navigation
• Distributed Tactical Surveillance
Underwater Acoustic Infrastructure
• Many traditional approaches to network design are based on
the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model or its variants.
• We define an underwater networking framework loosely
based on the OSI model – the Underwater Network
Architecture (UNA).
• The primary goal of the initiative is to define a layered
architecture for underwater networking research.
Underwater Networking Architecture

• Architecture definition specifies the primitives that define

communication between layers.
• Additionally, a UNA Framework Application Programming
Interface (FAPI) is defined to enable layer implementations to
be easily incorporated into various stacks.
• To ensure flexibility, the architecture also defines an extension
framework so that the architecture can be expanded and
cross-layer optimization can be taken into account.
Underwater Networking Architecture

• The UNA is based on a five-layer model.

• The application layer is not defined in the UNA specifications,
but is rather a client of the four layers (transport, network,
data link and physical) defined in the UNA.
• The UNA does not define the algorithms used in each of the
four layers.
• It only defines the service access point interface (SAPI) to be
implemented by each of the layers.
Underwater Networking Architecture

• Each layer is described by a SAPI.

• The SAPI is defined in terms of messages being passed to and from the layer.
• The clients (usually higher layers) of a layer invoke the layer via a request (REQ).
• The layer responds to each REQ by a response (RSP).
• Errors are reported via an ERR RSP with error codes.
• If the layer needs to send unsolicited messages to the client, it does so via a
notification (NTF).
• A layer communicates logically with its peer layer via protocol data units (PDU).
• As the peer-to-peer communication is symmetric, a layer may send a REQ PDU to
its peer layer at any time.
• It would optionally respond to such a PDU with a RSP PDU.
• This is logically depicted in Fig. 2.
Underwater Networking Architecture
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,
angle, or velocity of objects.
• It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.
• The term "Radar" itself was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy, as
an acronym for "RAdio Detection And Ranging."
• RADAR is fundamentally an electromagnetic sensor used to detect and
locate objects.
• Radio waves are radiated out from the radar into free space.
• Some of the radio waves will be intercepted by reflecting objects (targets).
• The intercepted radio waves that hit the target are reflected back in many
different directions.
• Radars can be classified into the following two types based on
the type of signal with which Radar can be operated.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Pulse Radar.
• Continuous Wave Radar.
• Radars can be used for various applications on
ground, on sea and in space. The applications of
Radars are listed below.
• Controlling the Air Traffic
• Ship safety
• Sensing the remote places
• Military applications
RADAR NETWORKS
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Basic Principle of Radar
• Radar is used for detecting the objects and finding their location.
We can understand the basic principle of Radar from the following
figure.
• As shown in the figure, Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a
receiver.
• It uses the same Antenna for both transmitting and receiving the
signals.
• The function of the transmitter is to transmit the Radar signal in the
direction of the target present.
• Target reflects this received signal in various directions.
• The signal, which is reflected back towards the Antenna gets
received by the receiver.
•
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Marine radars are X band or S band radars on ships,
used to detect other ships and land obstacles, to
provide bearing and distance for collision
avoidance and navigation at sea.
• They are electronic navigation instruments that use
a rotating antenna to sweep a narrow beam
of microwaves around the water surface surrounding
the ship to the horizon, detecting targets by
microwaves reflected from them, generating a
picture of the ship's surroundings on a display
screen.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Radar is a vital navigation component for safety at
sea and near the shore.
• Captains need to be able to maneuver their ships
within feet in the worst of conditions and to be able
to navigate "blind", when there is no visibility at
night or due to bad weather.
• In addition to vessel-based marine radars, in port or
in harbour, shore-based vessel traffic service radar
systems are used by harbor masters and coast
guard to monitor and regulate ship movements in
busy waters.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• In commercial ships, radars are integrated into a full
suite of marine instruments
including chartplotters, sonar, two-way marine radio,
satellite navigation (GNSS) receivers such as the
US Global Positioning System (GPS), and emergency
locators (SART).
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Although radar and sonar rely on two fundamentally different types
of wave transmission, Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR) and
Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR) both are remote sensing
systems with important military, scientific, and commercial
applications.
• RADAR sends out electromagnetic waves, while active SONAR
transmits acoustic (i.e., sound) waves.
• In both systems, these waves return echoes from certain features
or targets that allow the determination of important properties and
attributes of the target (i.e., shape, size, speed, distance, etc.).
• Because electromagnetic waves are strongly attenuated
(diminished) in water, RADAR signals are mostly used for ground or
atmospheric observation.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• India Meteorological Department (IMD) adopted radar
technology for meterological applications in the early
fifties.
• The first indigeneously designed and manufactured X-band
storm detection radar was installed in 1970 at New Delhi.
• An integrated upper air sounding system comprising X-Band
weather-cum-windfinding MULTIMET radar and radiosonde
system (401 MHz), designed and produced indegeniously,
was introduced in IMD in 1975.
• The first S-Band cyclone detection radar became
operational at Vishakapatnam in 1970.
• The first Indian made S-band cyclone detection radar was
commissioned at Mumbai in 1980.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• IMD now has a network of 10 S-band cyclone
detection radars covering the Indian coast-line. IMD’s
operational network of X-band radars consists of 9
storm detection radars and 8 radars with dual
capability.
• Ten X-Band radars, which had outlived their lives
were replaced by digital X-band radars in 1996.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Radar networks in underwater
• The catch is that radar uses radio waves in the
microwave frequency range, or approximately one
centimeter in wavelength.
• This wavelength range is used because it is easier to
direct the waves with small antennas in narrow
beams.
• Unfortunately, Microwaves are strongly absorbed by
sea water within feet of their transmission.
• This renders radar unusable underwater.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Radar networks in underwater
• The reason is mainly because radar has a harder time penetrating
large volumes of water.
• Contacts made by submarines are often dozens of miles away, and
radar would have to be EXTREMELY powerful to reach that far in
water, while sound (a mechanical wave) can make it that far.
• Also, radar is only an active system allowing for your detection by
passive sensors.
• Whereas sonar can be both passive and active.
• You can listen to sounds made by other subs' propulsion without
giving away your position.
• That is very important in Anti-Submarine Warfare, and is why
quieter submarines have an edge on survivability.
 RADAR NETWORKS
• Radar networks in underwater
• Then there's the prospects of electromagnetic jamming.
• Sonar jamming wouldn't be practical, because it would reveal your position and wouldn't mask
your propulsion signature very well.
• The only way to mask your engine using audio countermeasures would be to generate a negative
waveform of your signature and produce it in real time, which is very hard and also impractical.
• Sonar is much cheaper and works just as well for their purpose of mapping the ocean floor or
whatever they do with it.
• Also, there is not really much advantage to having a faster wave.
• Sound travels very fast in water compared to air, so you can hear things at distance in near real-
time.
• It is also easier to measure the doppler effect with sound than radio.
• Radar is just too impractical to use underwater observations.
• Because SONAR signals easily penetrate water, they are ideal for navigation and measurement
under water.
• The networking of radars and networking of sonars are two emerging research areas, known as
radar sensor networks and underwater sensor networks.
 Data Handling
• Increasing interest in acquiring oceanographic
data
• Navigation, fishing, ecology, weather influence
and support for petroleum offshore
exploration
• the oceans are not well known due to their
dimensions, difficulties of data acquisition and
the high costs of maritime equipment and
operations.
• Drawbacks:
– it is limited to one point of survey
– it does not allow the monitoring of data quality
during the mission
– it has limited storage capacity
– the acquisition parameters must be established at
the beginning of operation and must remain
unchanged until the end of the mission
– not possible to guarantee the sensors health
during the mission
Correlation receivers

• Coherent receivers – knows what data type

they receive – strictly concerned with time
• Non-coherent receivers – do not know what
data type they receive
• Simple receiver
– Low-pass filter
– Sampler that will select values at certain points in
the wave
– which then interpolated the data to get smooth
curve
– Cheap but have performance issues
 Automated Decision Making
• Automated Decision Support, or ADS, systems
are rule-based systems that are able to
automatically provide solutions to repetitive
management problems.
• They are very closely related to business
informatics and business analytics.
• based on business rules – created and operated
by business analytics
• business rules can trigger an automatic decision
that is part of the business informatics
• required knowledge and relevant decision criteria
must be very clearly defined and structured
 Types of Signals
• Data in UN are in the form of signals from
sensors which are converted into digital for
processing
• the Data types is classified as
– Analog Signals
– Digital Data
• Analog signals
– They are electronic signals
– Time-varying signals (the quantity usually is
voltage)
– They are passed between devices to send and
receive information (audio, video or encoded
data)
– Passed through guided or unguided media
• analog signal should be smooth and continuous
• signals may be limited to a range of maximum
and minimum values, there are still an infinite
number of possible values within that range
• wall socket might be clamped between -120V and
+120V.
• But, as you increase the resolution more and
more, you discover an infinite number of values
that the signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V,
64.424V, and infinite, increasingly precise values).
• Digital Signals
– Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values.
– The number of values in the set can be anywhere
between two and a-very-large-number-that’s-not-
infinity.
– Most commonly digital signals will be one of two
values – like either 0V or 5V.
– Timing graphs of these signals look like square waves.
• a digital signal might be a discrete
representation of an analog waveform.
• Viewed from afar, the wave function below
may seem smooth and analog, but when you
look closely there are tiny discrete steps as the
signal tries to approximate values
• Example Digital Signals
– HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface)for
video (and audio)
– MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, I2S
(International Imaging system) , or AC'97 (Audio
CODEC) for audio are all digitally transmitted
• Analog to Digital Conversion
• If you want to attach an analogue input device to a digital
device such as a computer, you will need an analogue to
digital convertor (ADC).
• A good example of a computer peripheral that requires an
ADC is a microphone.
• When you plug a microphone into a computer, you are
actually plugging it into an ADC which converts the analogue
signals from the microphone into digital data that the
computer can then process.
 Data Storage
• The application of wireless sensor networks to the under-water domain has
huge potential for monitoring the health of river and marine environments.
• Monitoring these environments is difficult and costly for humans:
• Divers are regulated in the hours and depths at which they can work,
• and require a boat on the surface that is costly to operate and subject to
weather conditions.
• A sensor network deployed underwater could monitor physical variables such
as water temperature and pressure as well as variables such as conductivity,
turbidity and certain pollutants.
• Imaging sensors could be used to measure visible change in the environment
or count, and perhaps even classify species.
• The unique features of underwater environments and recent advances in
storage devices render data-centric storage (DCS) a promising solution for
underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASN).
• DCS has been introduced to develop protocol with reduced energy
consumption and improved storage uniformity.
Indexing
• The underwater sensor network facilitate the study of complex underwater
systems by regulating and automating data collection.
• The static sensor nodes enable systematic recording of data.
• The mobile nodes enable efficient data muling and integration,
• data delivery to a surface base station independent of the physical location of the
sensors,
• and long-term underwater operations of the sensor nodes at fixed locations.
• The sensor network consists of static and mobile underwater sensor nodes.
• The nodes communicate point-to-point using a novel high-speed optical
communication system integrated into the TinyOS stack,
• and they broadcast using an acoustic protocol integrated in the TinyOS stack.
• The nodes have a variety of sensing capabilities, including cameras, water
temperature, and pressure.
• The mobile nodes can locate and hover above the static nodes for data muling,
and they can perform network maintenance functions such as deployment,
relocation, and recovery.
• The mobile node will maximize the lifetime and storage utilization for affixed
configuration underwater sensor network.
Analysis
• Data summaries – bind the storage at the remote sensor and the index at
the proxy.
• Each update from a sensor to the proxy includes - The summary, Time
period corresponding to the summary, The start and end offsets for the
flash archive.
 Underwater Cables
• A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed
between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals
across stretches of ocean and sea.
• The first submarine communications cables laid beginning in the
1850s carried telegraphy traffic (long distance transmission of
textual messages).
• The first instant telecommunications links between continents as
transatlantic telegraph was established on 16 August 1858.
• Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then
data communications traffic.
• Modern cables use optical fiber technology to carry digital data,
which includes telephone, Internet and private data traffic.
 Underwater Cables
• Modern cables are typically about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter
and weigh around 2.5 tons per mile (1.4 tonnes per km) for
the deep-sea sections which comprise the majority of the run,
although larger and heavier cables are used for shallow-water
sections near shore.
• Submarine cables first connected all the world's continents
(except Antarctica).
 Underwater Cables
• Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited
formidable electrical problems.
• Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did
not allow for in-line repeater amplifiers in the cable.
• Large voltages were used to attempt to overcome the
electrical resistance of their tremendous length.
• But the cables' distributed capacitance and inductance
combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing
the cable's bandwidth, severely limiting the data rate for
telegraph operation to 10–12 words per minute
 Underwater Cables
• The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were
completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to Hawaii in
1902 and Guam to the Philippines in 1903.
• Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902
with the trans-Pacific segment of the All Red Line.
• Japan was connected into the system in 1906.
• The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan
in 1964, with an extension from Guam to The Philippines.
• Also in 1964, the Commonwealth Pacific (COMPAC) cable, with 80
telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic from Sydney to
Vancouver, and in 1967, the South East Asia Commonwealth
(SEACOM) system, with 160 telephone channel capacity, opened for
traffic.
 Underwater Cables
• In the 1980s, fiber optic cables were developed.
• The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-
8, which went into operation in 1988.
• A fiber-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibers.
• Each pair has one fiber in each direction.
• TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair.
• Modern optical fiber repeaters use a solid-state optical amplifier,
usually an Erbium-doped fiber amplifier.
• Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fiber.
• These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls.
• A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fiber.
• As the light passes through the fiber, it is amplified.
• This system also permits wavelength-division multiplexing, which
dramatically increases the capacity of the fiber.
 Underwater Cables
• Cables can be broken by fishing trawlers, anchors, earthquakes, turbidity
currents, and even shark bites.
• Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it
was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to
natural events.
• In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of
cable burial has developed.
• The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per 1,000 km per year from
1959 to 1979.
• That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due
to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980.
Underwater Cables
Underwater Cables
 Modems
• An acoustic modem is used to transmit data underwater,
much as telephone modems are used to transmit data over
phone lines.
• An acoustic modem converts digital data into special
underwater sound signals.
• These signals are then received by a second acoustic modem
and converted back into digital data.
• Acoustic modems can be used for
– underwater telemetry
– ROV and AUV command and control
– diver communications
– underwater monitoring and data logging
 Modems
• The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Deep-
ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) program uses
acoustic modems to transmit data and provide coastal communities in the
Pacific, Atlantic, Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico with faster and more
accurate tsunami warnings.
• Tsunami waves are generated when an earthquake causes the seafloor to
move.
• They can cause great damage when the waves build as they come ashore.
• Pressure sensors that are deployed on the seafloor can detect tsunamis.
• Pressure data are transmitted to a near-by surface buoy via an acoustic
data link using underwater modems.
• The data are then relayed to scientists on land in real-time via satellite.
• Scientists can also request real-time data independent of the automatic
detection system.
• The data are used to provide early warnings of a tsunami before it comes
ashore.
 Modems
• Teledyne Benthos Underwater Acoustic Modems are used
worldwide in subsea applications to transmit your data
wirelessly through water.
• The Teledyne Benthos ATM-900 series Acoustic Modems are a
major enhancement to previous modem lines offered.
• The new ATM-900 series provides a long list of special
purpose, flexible extensions supporting multiple capabilities
beyond “just” underwater communications.
• Each surface unit can operate using cables from 2m to 200m
with a mating transducer for each cable.
 Modems
• Benthos modems are rated for varying depths and can
operate in shallow or deep water environments depending on
the modem chosen.
• Modem applications
– remote monitoring of oceanographic sensors
– control of wellhead and pipeline valves
– command of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)
– positioning and subsea networking
• Benthos modems are designed to meet both high data rate
requirements and higher reliability, lower data rate
requirements.
• Benthos also offers Customer Integrated Electronics (CIE)
packages for integration in a customer’s housing or platform.
 Antennas
• Acoustic waves are used in underwater
communication.
• But acoustics limits the data rates and also
distance of communication.
• Sound waves propagate at very lower speed
therefore the channel latency increases and
hence higher data rates with acoustic waves
cannot achieved.
• Acoustic waves are more sensitive to the
reflection and refraction than Electro-Magnetic
waves.
 Antennas
• Radio waves travel with the speed of light, and hence
provide higher data rates and bandwidth.
• Electro-Magnetic waves perform better in shallow
waters and air-water interface than acoustics.
• To operate with Electro-Magnetic waves in underwater,
the foremost requirement is antenna with high gain.
• Preferable antennas for underwater communication
are loop antennas, long wires and bow-tie antenna.
• Bow-tie antenna is a wide band micro-strip antenna
which are compatible with Integrate Circuits(IC), hence
highly robust, compact and relatively light.
 Antennas
• The bow-tie antenna is popular for frequencies ranging
from Ultra High Frequency (UHF), from 300 MHz to 3 GHz,
up to the millimeter wave range, from 30 GHz to 300 GHz.
• Its performance is not sensitive to small parameter
variations, improving robustness to manufacturing
tolerances and minor changes within its environment.
• Although the bow-tie antenna provides reasonable wide-
band performance, this is not a high performance antenna;
thus demanding applications may call for more complex
designs.
• The resistively bow-tie antenna is a practical candidate for
pulse radiation
Antennas
 Antennas
• The non-insulated antenna has a very good
performance (better than the insulated one)
when working in air.
• The strength of the received signal fell almost
linear of the order of 0.5dB/cm up to 70 cm.
• The best performance measured at 50 cm and
90 cm where the signal strength was -30dBm
and -35dBm respectively.
 Antennas
• The insulated antenna has better performance for
distances up to 38 cm which indicates the need to
take into account the properties of the medium and
in particular its conductivity, at the design stage.
 Buoys
• Buoys are floating aids to navigation.
• They mark channels, indicate shoals and obstructions, and warn the
mariner of dangers.
• By their color, shape, topmark, number, and light characteristics, buoys
indicate to the mariner how to avoid hazards and stay in safe water.
• The federal buoyage system in the U.S. is maintained by the Coast Guard.
• There are five types of buoys maintained by the Coast Guard. They are:
– Lateral marks
– Isolated danger marks
– Safe water marks
– Special marks
– Information/regulatory marks
 Buoys
• A lighted buoy is a floating hull with a tower on which a light is mounted.
• Batteries for the light are in watertight pockets in the buoy hull or in
watertight boxes mounted on the buoy hull.
• To keep the buoy in an upright position, a counterweight is attached to the
hull below the water’s surface.
• A radar reflector is built into the buoy tower.
• The largest of the typical U.S. Coast Guard buoys can be moored in up to
190 feet of water, limited by the weight of chain the hull can support.
• The focal plane of the light is 15 to 20 feet high.
• The designed nominal visual range is 3.8 miles, and the radar range 4
miles.
• Some are made of plastic and weigh only 40 pounds.
• Specially designed buoys are used for fast current, ice, and other
environmental conditions.
 Buoys
• Special purpose buoys are owned by other governmental organizations:
– St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation
– NOAA
– Department of Defense.
• A special class of buoy, the Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODAS) buoy,
is moored or floats free in offshore waters.
– Air temperature
– Atmospheric pressure at sea level
– Wind direction
– Wind speed
– Sea state
– Wave height
– Sea surface temperature
 Buoys

• Scientists at Michigan State University developed a “smart” buoy

– one that is able to detect and evaluate the quality of the water around
it.
• It functions through a combination of substance detection and statistical
models to determine if the water holds a higher level of a substance than
is safe.
• The sensors in the buoys gather the information from the water, such as
temperature and clarity, and upload the data to a land-based server.
• Determine beach is contaminated with large amounts of pathogenic
bacteria and that no one should go to the beach this summer in fear of
contracting numerous diseases
 Gliders
• An underwater glider is a type of autonomous
underwater vehicle.
• It employs variable-buoyancy propulsion instead of
traditional propellers or thrusters.
• Unlike a float, which can move only up and down, an
underwater glider is fitted with hydrofoils (underwater
wings) that allow it to glide forward while descending
through the water.
• At a certain depth, the glider switches to positive
buoyancy to climb back up and forward, and the cycle
is then repeated.
 Gliders
• The concept of an underwater glider was first explored in
the early 1960s with a prototype swimmer delivery
vehicle named Concept Whisper.
• The sawtooth glide pattern, stealth properties and the idea
of a buoyancy engine powered by the swimmer-passenger
was described by Ewan Fallon in his Hydroglider patent
submitted in 1960
• By 2003, not only had a working thermal-powered glider
(Slocum Thermal) been demonstrated by Webb Research
(founded by Doug Webb), but they and other institutions
had introduced battery-powered gliders with impressive
duration and efficiency, far exceeding that of traditional
survey-class AUVs.
 Yatch/Sailing Boats
• A yacht is a sail or power vessel used for pleasure, cruising,
or racing.
• There is no standard definition, so the term applies to such
vessels that have a cabin with amenities that accommodate
overnight use.
• To be termed a yacht, as opposed to a boat, such a
pleasure vessel is likely to be at least 33 feet (10 m) in
length and may have been judged to have good aesthetic
qualities.
• The Commercial Yacht Code classifies yachts 79 ft (24 m)
and over as large.
• Such yachts typically require a hired crew and have higher
construction standards.
 Yatch/Sailing Boats
• Further classifications for large yachts are:
– commercial—carrying no more than 12
– passengers, private—solely for the pleasure of the owner
and guests,
– or by flag, the country under which it is registered.
• A superyacht (sometimes megayacht) generally refers
to any yacht (sail or power) longer than 131 ft (40 m).
• Racing yachts are designed to emphasize performance
over comfort.
• Charter yachts are run as a business for profit.
• As of 2020 there were more than 15,000 yachts of
sufficient size to require a professional crew.
 Yatch/Sailing Boats
• Four communication devices that helps you to get
connected are:
– Garmin InReach Satellite Tracker
• Allow us to send coordinates of our location using the
Iridium satellite network.
• There is no capability to talk to people using this device, but
we could send and receive text messages with family, friends, and
work colleagues via email addresses—even from the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean—when other forms of communication were
impossible.
• Using the worldwide coverage of the Iridium satellite network,
these go-anywhere portable devices let you exchange text
messages with any cell phone number or email address, while
using GPS to track and share your journey’s progress.
 Yatch/Sailing Boats
• Thuraya Satsleeve Plus Satellite Phone System
– It helps in sending and receiving text-email
communications with our family and friends.
– SatSleeve + introduces a new voice routing system
that improves the sound quality.
– This device works like a hot spot and is easy to
use. It turns your mobile phone into a satellite
phone.
 Yatch/Sailing Boats
• Iridium GO Satellite Hotspot
– Iridium GO is a compact, rugged and portable device
that provides global SAT voice and data on up to five
different devices (smartphones, laptops, or tablets).
Operation is very simple—just flip up the antenna and
it auto connects to create a WiFi hotspot.
• Mobile Phone and Remote WiFi Boosting Hotspot
Device
– feature-heavy Winegard ConnecT
– basic Wave WiFi Rogue Wave.
 Networking of Submarines
• Submarine Networks
• A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea
bed between land-based stations to
carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean and sea.
• The first submarine communications cables laid beginning in the
1850s carried telegraphy traffic, establishing the first instant
telecommunications links between continents, such as the
first transatlantic telegraph cable which became operational on 16
August 1858.
• Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic,
then data communications traffic.
• Modern cables use optical fibre technology to carry digital data,
which includes telephone, Internet and private data traffic.
Networking of Submarines
 Networking of Submarines
• Submarine networks carry more than 95 percent of the world’s
intercontinental electronic communications traffic.
• It’s not long ago that submarine networks were seen as distinct
from terrestrial networks for historical, technological, and
geographic reasons.
• As such, they were treated differently than terrestrial networks,
which had seen significant technological advances.
• Recently though, the submarine networking industry has
undergone several technological evolutions, including the rapid
adoption of coherent detection modems originally developed for
terrestrial networks.
• Coherent detection modems changed how and how much capacity
was added to transoceanic corridors, extended the life of existing
wet plant assets, opened existing wet plants to best-of-breed
upgrade vendors, and completely changed legacy business models.
 Networking of Submarines
• Rolling out coherent technology over subsea cables was a
key step in uniting land, sea, and cloud networks.
• It enabled submarine networks to maintain pace with
voracious bandwidth demands by maximizing optical
spectrum efficiency, which optimized the monetization of
submerged network assets.
• It also guaranteed network availability by proactively and
reactively addressing network faults via software
intelligence and automation.
• Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it protected
revenues and margins by utilizing optimized network
designs that reduce the total cost of end-to-end network
ownership.
 Networking of Submarines
• Submarine cable operators can now mix and match building
blocks to create purpose-built end-to-end network
solutions.
• There’s also an openness movement in submarine
networking, similar to what’s happening in the terrestrial
networking space, that aims to make proprietary subsea
networks a thing of the past.
• Open submarine networks are a quantum leap for a market
that has traditionally been relatively static and highly
conservative.
• Open networks dramatically change the modeling, design,
deployment, and management of subsea networks.
 Networking of Submarines
• Ciena’s unique submarine network architecture—
GeoMesh Extreme—combines the best of our
hardware, software, and professional services,
allowing subsea cable operators to scale information-
carrying capabilities, protect multiple terabits of
traffic from inevitable cable faults, and lower the
total cost of network ownership to protect revenues
and margins.
 Electro-acoustic Transducer
• Transducers are devices that transform one
form of energy into another.
 Electro-acoustic Transducer

The microphone in the telephone converted the acoustical energy of the

human voice into electrical signals.
The earpiece in the telephone converted the electrical signals back into
acoustic energy so the voice of the person at the other end of the line can be
heard.
 Electro-acoustic Transducer

Phonograph
Microphone

Radio

Louspeaker
Transducer Modeling
• During the 1920's, electrical engineers began applying the concepts
of “equivalent circuits” to characterize acoustic transducers.
• The mechanical and acoustical portions of the transducer were
modeled by converting them to equivalent electric circuit
components of inductors, capacitors and resistors.
• These equivalent circuit elements of the acoustic portions were
coupled to the pure electrical portions of the transducer by means
of an electromechanical transformer.
• This modeling allowed the pioneering generation of electro-
acoustic engineers
– to better understand how transducers operated,
– to optimize transducer designs by using the well known methods of
electric circuit analysis.
Examples of electro-acoustic
transducers

Moving Coil Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

Examples of electro-acoustic
transducers
• Moving Coil Electrodynamic Loudspeaker
• The most common loudspeakers used in
stereo or public address systems are
electrodynamic transducers
– contain a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic
field.
– When an alternating electrical current is passed
through the coil, mechanical forces are developed
between the coil’s electromagnetic field and the
field in which it is mounted.
Moving Coil Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

• Working of Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

• The voice coil 5 is a coil of wire fashioned into a cylindrical tube.
• It is rigidly connected to a radiating diaphragm 1, which is resiliently
mounted to an enclosure 3.
• This holds the coil within the magnetic field produced by the permanent
magnet 4, but allows it to freely vibrate within this field.
• The magnet is shaped like a disk with a circular groove cut into the surface
facing the diaphragm.
• The tubular voice coil is mounted so that it is held within this groove.
• A varying electrical current in the coil produces proportional changes in its
electromagnetic field, which in turn modulates the magnetic forces
between the coil and the permanent magnet.
• This causes the coil to move back and forth, thus vibrating the diaphragm
and generating sound.
Condenser Microphone

• The condenser microphone produces a variation in its

electrical capacitance in the presence of an acoustic
wave.
• The stretched thin metallic membrane is separated
from the rigid back plate by a small air gap.
• When a sound wave vibrates the membrane, it causes
the air gap to change in thickness, producing a
variation in the electrical capacitance between it and
the back plate.
• This varying capacitance is converted into an electrical
signal that is proportional to the sound pressure wave.
Tonpilz Sonar Transducer

• A mass loaded vibratile transducer (Tonpilz

Transducer) is a common design used in Sonar.
• A ceramic cylinder 12, is cemented between a
light aluminum head mass 11, and a heavy steel
tail mass 15.
• The ceramic has electrodes on its two ends.
• This transducer resonates in much the same way
as a large mass attached to a spring. If the mass is
reduced, the resonant frequency will lower.
• If the stiffness of the spring increases, the
resonant frequency will be higher.
Tonpilz Sonar Transducer

• In operation the structure is encapsulated in waterproof material,

such as rubber, and the radiating head is acoustically coupled to the
water.
• When used as a transmitter, an oscillating electrical voltage is
connected across the electrodes of the ceramic causing it to
alternately lengthen and contract.
• This in turn causes the head mass, which is coupled to the water, to
vibrate large amplitudes and produce a sound pressure wave.
• As a receiver, a sound pressure wave pushes the head mass, causing
the transducer structure to vibrate.
• This in turn causes the length of the ceramic tube to alternately
contract and expand, which generates a voltage across the ceramic
stack.