Syllabus

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Frequency Domain Representation

➢ Analysis of a signal is more convenient in the frequency domain.

➢ There are 3 important classes of transformation methods available for continuous
time signals and systems.

1. Fourier Series
2. Fourier Transform
3. Laplace Transform

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Fourier Series

➢ Fourier Series is applicable to only periodic signals.

➢ The main 2 important methods of Fourier series representation are

1. Trigonometric Form
2. Exponential Form

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 Trigonometric Form of Fourier Series

2𝜋
➢ A periodic signal x(t) with fundamental time period 𝑇 = can be represented as
𝜔0
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=0
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=1
➢ The infinite series of sine and cosine terms of frequencies 0, 𝜔0 , 2 𝜔0 ,…is known as
trigonometric form of Fourier series.
➢ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 are constants, the coefficient 𝑎0 is called the dc component, 𝜔0 is the
fundamental frequency, 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 is the first harmonic, 𝑎2 cos 2𝜔0 𝑡 +
𝑏2 sin 2𝜔0 𝑡 is the second harmonic as so on.

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➢ 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 are called the trigonometric Fourier series coefficients.

1
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑇

2
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑇

2
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑇

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Q. Find the Fourier series expansion of the half wave rectified sine wave shown

Soln: The periodic waveform shown is half of a

sine wave with period 2𝜋
Fundamental period T= 2𝜋
2𝜋
Fundamental frequency 𝜔0 = =1
T

𝐴 sin𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

2𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇 0 0

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 𝐴 𝜋
−𝐴 𝐴
𝑎0 = −cos 𝑡 0 = [cos 𝜋 − cos 0] =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋
2 2
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝐴
= න 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 + sin(1 − n) 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2𝜋
0 0
𝜋
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 cos 1 − n 𝑡 −𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝜋 − cos 0 cos 1 − n 𝜋 − cos 0
= − − = +
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
0

−𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0 cos 𝜋 − n𝜋 − cos 0

= +
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛

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 −𝐴 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 − 1 −cos n𝜋 −1 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 + 1 cos n𝜋 +1
= + = +
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 + 1 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛 + cos n𝜋 + 1 + 𝑛 cos n𝜋 + 𝑛
=
2𝜋 1 − 𝑛2
𝐴 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 + 2 𝐴 2(−1)𝑛 +2
= =
2𝜋 1−𝑛 2 2𝜋 1 − 𝑛2
𝐴 2(−1)+2
For odd n, 𝑎𝑛 = =0
2𝜋 1−𝑛2
𝐴 2(1)+2 2𝐴
For even n, 𝑎𝑛 = =
2𝜋 1−𝑛2 𝜋(1−𝑛2 )
2𝜋
2 2
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇 0

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 𝜋 𝜋
1 𝐴
= න 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − cos(1 + n) 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2𝜋
0 0
𝜋
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 sin 1 + n 𝑡 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 − sin 0 sin 1 + n 𝜋 − sin 0
= − = −
2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛
0

𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 − 𝑛𝜋 − sin 0 sin 𝜋 + n𝜋 − sin 0

= −
2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛

𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 −sin n𝜋 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋

= − =
2𝜋 1 − 𝑛 1+𝑛 2𝜋 1 − 𝑛2

𝐴 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= =
2𝜋 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋 1 − 𝑛2
For all values of n, except for n=1, 𝑏𝑛 = 0

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 𝜋 𝜋
2 2𝐴
For n=1, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑏1 = න 𝐴 sin 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න sin 𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
0 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐴 𝐴 1 − cos 2𝑡 𝐴 sin 2𝑡 𝐴 𝐴
2
𝑏1 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡− = 𝜋=
𝜋 𝜋 2 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2
0 0 0
The trigonometric Fourier series is
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=1
∞

= 𝑎0 + 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝑡
𝑛=1
∞
𝐴 𝐴 2𝐴
= + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 + ෍ 2
cos 𝑛 𝑡
𝜋 2 𝜋(1 − 𝑛 )
𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

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Q. Find the Fourier series expansion of the waveform shown

Soln:
Fundamental period T= 2𝜋
2𝜋
Fundamental frequency 𝜔0 = = 1
T
𝐴
𝑥 𝑡 = ൝ 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
2𝜋

2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1 𝐴 𝐴
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑇 0 0
2𝜋
𝐴 𝑡2 𝐴 4𝜋 2 𝐴
𝑎0 = 2 = 2. =
4𝜋 2 0
4𝜋 2 2

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 2𝜋
2 2
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇 0
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 𝐴 𝐴
= න 𝑡. cos 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 න 𝑡. cos 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
0 0
2𝜋
𝐴 sin 𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 𝐴 2𝜋. sin 𝑛2𝜋 − 0 cos 𝑛2𝜋 − cos 0
= 2 𝑡. + = +
2𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 2𝜋 2 𝑛 𝑛2
0

𝐴
𝑎𝑛 = 0 =0
2𝜋 2
2𝜋
2 2
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇 0

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 2𝜋 2𝜋
1 𝐴 𝐴
= න 𝑡. sin 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 න 𝑡. sin 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
0 0
2𝜋
𝐴 cos 𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝐴 −(2𝜋. cos 𝑛2𝜋 − 0) sin 𝑛2𝜋 − sin 0
= 2 −𝑡. + = 2 +
2𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
2𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2

−𝐴 2𝜋 𝐴
𝑏𝑛 = 2 =−
2𝜋 𝑛 𝑛𝜋
The trigonometric Fourier series is
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=1
∞
𝐴 𝐴
= +෍− sin 𝑛 𝑡
2 𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1

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Wave Symmetry

➢ 4 types of symmetry: Even, Odd, Half Wave & Quarter Wave Symmetry.

1. Even Symmetry
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑇/2
2
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑇/2
4
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑏𝑛 = 0

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2. Odd Symmetry

𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 −𝑡
𝑎0 = 0
𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑇/2
4
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

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3. Half Wave Symmetry
𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 ±
2
𝑎0 = 0,

When n is even: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 = 0,

When n is odd
𝑇/2
4
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑇/2
4
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

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4. Quarter Wave Symmetry
𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 −𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 ±
2
𝑇
Case :1 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 −𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 ±
2
𝑎0 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑇/4
8
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (when n is odd)
𝑇
0
𝑇
Case: 2 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 ±
2
𝑇/4
8
𝑎0 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑏𝑛 = 0 (when n is even)

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Q. Find the Fourier series expansion of the waveform shown

Soln:
Fundamental period T= 2𝜋
2𝜋
Fundamental frequency 𝜔0 = = 1
T

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Q. Obtain the Fourier components of the periodic rectangular waveform.

𝐴, −𝑇/4 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/4
𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 0, − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −𝑇/4
2
0, 𝑇/4 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2
2𝜋
Fundamental time period =T, 𝑤0 =
𝑇
The waveform has even symmetry, x(t)=x(-t). Take interval –T/2 to T/2
𝑇/2 𝑇/2
2 4
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, 𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝑇 𝑇
0 0
𝑇/2 𝑇/4 𝑇/4
2 2 2𝐴 2𝐴 2𝐴 𝑇 𝐴
𝑇/4 =
𝑎0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 = න 1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 0
= . 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 4
0 0 0

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 𝑇/4
𝑇/2 𝑇/4 𝑛2𝜋
4 4 𝑛2𝜋 4𝐴 sin 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑛2𝜋
0 0 𝑇 0
𝑛2𝜋
4𝐴 sin 𝑇/4 2𝐴 𝑛𝜋
= . 𝑇 = . sin
𝑇 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑇
The trigonometric Fourier series is
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=1

∞
𝐴 2𝐴 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2𝜋
= +෍ . sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
2 𝑛𝜋 2 𝑇
𝑛=1

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HWQ. Obtain the Fourier components of the periodic waveform.

2
𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ 𝑡 = 𝑡, −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
2
Fundamental time period T=2
2𝜋
𝑤0 = =𝜋
𝑇
The waveform has odd symmetry, x(t)=-x(-t). Take interval -1 to 1.
𝑇/2
4
𝑎0 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = 0, 𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

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 Exponential Fourier Series

2𝜋
➢ A periodic signal x(t) with fundamental time period 𝑇 = can be represented as
𝜔0
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝑛=−∞ ∞
−1 ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ (𝐶−𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 )

𝑛=1
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=1

➢ The infinite series is known as exponential form of Fourier series.

1 1
𝐶0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇

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Relation between Exponential & Trigonometric Fourier Series

𝐶0 = 𝑎0
𝑎𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 + 𝐶−𝑛
1
𝐶𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛 ) 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑗(𝐶𝑛 − 𝐶−𝑛 )
2
1
𝐶−𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑗𝑏𝑛 )
2
Fourier Spectrum

➢ Fourier spectrum of a periodic signal is a plot of its Fourier coefficients versus

frequency.
➢ 2 parts- amplitude spectrum & phase spectrum

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Q. Find the Exponential Fourier series expansion of the waveform shown &
plot the frequency spectrum, magnitude and phase spectrum.

Soln:
Fundamental period T= 2𝜋
2𝜋
Fundamental frequency 𝜔0 = = 1
T
𝐴
𝑥 𝑡 = ൝ 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
2𝜋

2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1 𝐴 𝐴
𝐶0 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑇 0 0
2𝜋
𝐴 𝑡2 𝐴 4𝜋 2 𝐴
𝐶0 = 2 = 2. =
4𝜋 2 0
4𝜋 2 2

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 2𝜋
1 1 𝐴 −𝑗𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇 0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐴 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡
= 2 න 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑡. + 2
4𝜋 4𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 𝑛
0 0

𝐴 2𝜋. 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 − 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −1 𝐴 2𝜋 1 −1

= 2 + = 2 + 2
4𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 𝑛2 4𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 𝑛

𝐴 𝐴
𝐶𝑛 = − =𝑗
𝑗2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑛
∞ ∞ ∞
𝐴 𝐴 𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 = + ෍ 𝑗 𝑒 = +𝑗 ෍
𝑛=−∞
2 𝑛=−∞ 2𝜋𝑛 2 2𝜋 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛
𝑛≠0 𝑛≠0 𝑛≠0

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Magnitude and Phase Spectrum

𝐴
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑗
2𝜋𝑛
n=0, 𝐶0 =A/2
𝐴 𝐴
n=1, 𝐶1 = j , n = −1, 𝐶−1 = −j
2𝜋 2𝜋

𝐴 𝐴
n=2, 𝐶2 = j ,𝑛 = −2, 𝐶−2 = −j
4𝜋 4𝜋

𝐴 𝐴
n=3, 𝐶3 = j ,𝑛 = −3, 𝐶−3 = −j
6𝜋 6𝜋

Frequency Spectrum

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Magnitude Spectrum
n=0, |𝐶0 |=A/2
𝐴 𝐴
n=1, 𝐶1 = j , 𝐶1 =
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
n = −1, 𝐶−1 = −j , |𝐶−1 | =
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
n =2, 𝐶2 = j , 𝐶2 =
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
𝑛 = −2, 𝐶−2 = −j , |𝐶−2 | =
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
n=3, 𝐶3 = j , |𝐶3 | =
6𝜋 6𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
𝑛 = −3, 𝐶−3 = −j , |𝐶−3 | =
6𝜋 6𝜋
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Phase Spectrum

n=0, 𝐶0 =A/2, ∠𝐶0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0 = 0

𝐴
𝐴 2𝜋 = 𝜋
n=1, 𝐶1 = j , ∠𝐶1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
2𝜋 0 2
𝐴
𝐴 − 2𝜋 𝜋
n = −1, 𝐶−1 = −j , ∠𝐶−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =−
2𝜋 0 2
𝐴
𝐴 𝜋
n =2, 𝐶2 = j , ∠𝐶2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4𝜋
=
4𝜋 0 2
𝐴
𝐴 − 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑛 = −2, 𝐶−2 = −j , ∠𝐶−2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =−
4𝜋 0 2

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Q. Find the exponential Fourier Series of a full wave rectified sine wave
and plot the frequency spectrum.

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 Q. Determine the complex exponential Fourier series representation of the
𝜋
signal, 𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 + cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + )
4

Fundamental frequency is 𝜔𝑜 . Expand x(t) in terms of complex exponentials.

𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 + cos(2𝜔0 𝑡 + )
4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑗(2𝜔𝑜 𝑡+ ) −𝑗(2𝜔𝑜 𝑡+ )
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡
− 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡
+ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑒 4 𝑒 4
𝑥 𝑡 =1+ +2 +
2𝑗 2 2
1 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 1 −𝑗𝜔 𝑡 1 𝑗𝜋 𝑗2𝜔 𝑡 1 −𝑗𝜋 −𝑗2𝜔 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 =1+ 1+ 𝑒 𝑜 + 1− 𝑒 𝑜 + 𝑒 4 𝑒 𝑜 + 𝑒 4 𝑒 𝑜
2𝑗 2𝑗 2 2
∞
The exponential Fourier series is given by 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
𝑛≠0

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Comparing these 2 equations we get, Magnitude Spectrum

𝐶0 = 1 |𝐶0 | = 1
1 𝑗
𝐶1 = 1 + = 1 − 2
2𝑗 2 2
1
𝐶1 = 1 + − = 5/4
1 𝑗 2
𝐶−1 = 1 − = 1 +
2𝑗 2 2
1
1 𝑗𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 2 |𝐶−1 | = 1 +2 = 5/4
𝐶2 = 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 = (1 + 𝑗) 2
2 2 4 4 4
1 −𝑗𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 2 2 2
𝐶−2 = 𝑒 4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑗) 2 2 2 1
2 2 4 4 4 𝐶2 = + = =
4 4 4 2
2 2
2 2 1
|𝐶−2 | = + − =
4 4 2

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Phase Spectrum

𝐶0 = 1, ∠𝐶0 = 0
1
𝑗 −
𝐶1 = 1 − , ∠𝐶1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2 = −26.560
2 1
1
𝑗
𝐶−1 = 1 + , ∠𝐶−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2 = 26.560
2 1
2
𝐶2 = 1 + 𝑗 , ∠𝐶2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 = 450
4
2
𝐶−2 = 1 − 𝑗 , ∠𝐶−2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −1 = −450
4

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Q. Determine the complex exponential Fourier series representation of the
signal, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝑡 . Also plot magnitude and phase spectrum

To find fundamental frequency, find the fundamental time period

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔1 = 4, 𝑇1 = = =
𝜔1 4 2
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔2 = 6 , 𝑇2 = = =
𝜔2 6 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
Fundamental Period= LCM(𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ) = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 , = = 𝜋/1= 𝜋
2 3 𝐻𝐶𝐹 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
2𝜋
Fundamental frequency, 𝑤0 = =2
𝑇

𝑒 𝑗4𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗4𝑡 𝑒 𝑗6𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗6𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝑡 = +
2𝑗 2

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 1 𝑗4𝑡 1 −𝑗4𝑡 1 𝑗6𝑡 1 −𝑗6𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
2𝑗 2𝑗 2 2 ∞

The exponential Fourier series is given by 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡

𝑛=−∞
𝑛≠0
1 𝑗(2)(2)𝑡 1 𝑗(−2)(2)𝑡 1 𝑗(3)(2)𝑡 1 𝑗(−3)(2)𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
2𝑗 2𝑗 2 2

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑗(2)(2)𝑡 + 𝐶−2 𝑒 𝑗(−2)(2)𝑡 + 𝐶3 𝑒 𝑗(3)(2)𝑡 + 𝐶−3 𝑒 𝑗(−3)(2)𝑡

1 𝑗 1 𝑗 1 1
𝐶2 = = − , 𝐶−2 =− = , 𝐶3 = , 𝐶−3 =
2𝑗 2 2𝑗 2 2 2

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Properties of Fourier Series
Property Time Domain Fourier Series
Linearity Property 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝐶𝑛 , 𝐷𝑛
A𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑥2 (𝑡) A𝐶𝑛 + 𝐵𝐷𝑛

Time Shifting Property 𝑥 𝑡 𝐶𝑛

𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑤0𝑡0 𝐶𝑛
Time Reversal Property 𝑥 −𝑡 𝐶−𝑛

Time Scaling Property 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑛

Time Differentiation Property 𝑑 𝑗𝑛𝑤0 𝐶𝑛
𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝐶𝑛
Time Integration Property
න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
𝑗𝑛𝑤0
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Convolution Property 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝐶𝑛 , 𝐷𝑛
𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑇. 𝐶𝑛 𝐷𝑛
∞
Modulation or Multiplication 𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑥2 (𝑡)
෍ 𝐶𝑙 𝐷𝑛−𝑙
Property 𝑙=−∞

Conjugate Symmetry Property 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) ∗

𝐶−𝑛

Parseval’s Theorem 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝐶𝑛 , 𝐷𝑛

∞
1 ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝐷𝑛∗
න 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2∗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑛=−∞
𝑇 𝑇
∞
1 ෍ |𝐶𝑛 |2
න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝑛=−∞
𝑇 𝑇

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Existence of Fourier Series

➢ For the Fourier Series to exist for a periodic signal, it must satisfy certain conditions.
➢ These conditions are called Dirichlet’s conditions. They are:

➢ In each period

1. The function x(t) must be a single valued function.

2. The function x(t) has only a finite number of maxima and minima.
3. The function x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities.
𝑇
4. The function x(t) is absolutely integrable over one period, ‫𝑥| 𝑜׬‬ 𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞.

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 Gibbs Phenomenon

➢ For a periodic signal with discontinuities, if the signal is reconstructed by adding the
Fourier Series, overshoots appear around the edges.
➢ These overshoots decay outwards in a damped oscillatory manner away from the
edges. This is called Gibbs Phenomenon.

➢ As the number of terms added in the

series increases, the frequency increases,
overshoots get sharper, but adjoining
oscillation amplitude reduces, ie, the
error between the original signal x(t) and
the truncated signal 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) reduces.

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Continuous Time Fourier Transform

➢ Analysis of a signal is more convenient in the frequency domain.

➢ There are 3 important classes of transformation methods available for continuous
time signals and systems.

1. Fourier Series
2. Fourier Transform
3. Laplace Transform

➢ Fourier Transform can be applicable to periodic as well as aperiodic signals.

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 Fourier Transform

➢ Fourier Transform of a signal x(t) is given by

∞

𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
➢ Inverse Fourier transform is given by
∞
1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝜔 = න 𝑋(𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
−∞
➢ 𝑋(𝜔) represents the frequency spectrum of x(t).

➢ 𝑋(𝜔) & x(t) are called Fourier Transform pairs and can be denoted as
FT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝜔)

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 Existence of Fourier Transforms

➢ Fourier Transform does not exist for all aperiodic functions.

➢ The condition for a function x(t) to have Fourier Transform, called Dirichlet’s
conditions are
1. x(t) is absolutely integrable over the interval −∞ to ∞, ie,
∞

න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
2. x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in every finite time interval. Further each of
these discontinuities must be finite.
3. x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima in every finite time interval.

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 Fourier Transform of Standard Signals

1. Unit Impulse Function :

∞, 𝑡=0
𝑥 𝑡 =𝛿 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡≠0
∞

𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞

= න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ ∞

Since 𝛿 𝑡 only exists at t=0, 𝑋 𝜔 = න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1

−∞
𝑋 𝜔 = 1 & ∠𝑋 𝜔 = 0

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2. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 . 𝒖(𝒕) ∞ 𝑋 𝜔 =
0−1
=
1
− 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −𝑎𝑡
1
∴𝐹 𝑒 . 𝑢(𝑡) =
∞ 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔
= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝜔 = = 2
−∞ (𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)(𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔) 𝑎 + 𝜔2
∞
𝑎 𝜔
= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 −𝑗 2
0
𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑎 + 𝜔2
∞
𝑎 2 𝜔 2
=න 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 |𝑋 𝜔 | = + 2
0
𝑎2 + 𝜔 2 𝑎 + 𝜔2
∞
− 𝑎+𝑗𝜔 𝑡
𝑒 𝑎2 + 𝜔 2 1
= 𝑋 𝜔 = 2 2 =
−(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔) 𝑎 +𝜔 𝑎2 + 𝜔 2
0

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∠𝑋 𝜔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −𝜔/𝑎 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔/𝑎

Taking a fixed value for a and substituting values of 𝜔 from −∞ to ∞, we get

magnitude and phase response as follows

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3. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂|𝒕| − 𝑎−𝑗𝜔 𝑡
∞
− 𝑎+𝑗𝜔 𝑡
∞
𝑒 𝑒
= +
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 , 𝑡≥0 −(𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔) −(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔)
x(t) = ቊ 𝑎𝑡 0 0
𝑒 , 𝑡≤0
∞ 1 1 2𝑎
𝑋 𝜔 = + = 2
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 + 𝜔2
−∞
0 ∞ 2𝑎
∴𝐹 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| = 2
= න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 + 𝜔2
−∞ 0
0 ∞ 2𝑎
|𝑋 𝜔 | = 2
= න 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 + 𝜔2
−∞ 0
0
∞ ∞ ∠𝑋 𝜔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =0
2𝑎
= න 𝑒 −(𝑎−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎2 + 𝜔 2
0 0

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Taking a fixed value for a and substituting values of 𝜔 from −∞ to ∞, we get
magnitude and phase response as follows

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 4. Signum function: 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒕) ∞

1, 𝑡>0 𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

sgn(t) = ቊ −∞
−1, 𝑡<0 ∞ ∞

= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑢(−𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞ −∞
∞ 0

= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0 −∞
This function is not absolutely integrable. So ∞ 0
Fourier Transform cannot be found directly. Hence = න 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
consider the function 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 , then 0 −∞
substitute the limit a→ 0, to obtain sgn(t).
∞ ∞

= න 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 −(𝑎−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
0 0

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 ∞ ∞
− 𝑎+𝑗𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑎−𝑗𝜔 𝑡
𝑒 𝑒
= −
−(𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔) −(𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔)
0 0
1 1 −2𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝜔 = − = 2
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 + 𝜔2

Substituting the limit a→ 0

−2𝑗𝜔 −2𝑗 2
𝑋 𝜔 = = =
𝜔2 𝜔 𝑗𝜔
2
|𝑋 𝜔 | =
𝜔 Note:
−2
F 1 = 2𝜋𝛿 𝜔
∠𝑋 𝜔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔
0 𝐹 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝛿 𝜔 − 𝜔0
𝜋 𝜋
= ,𝜔 < 0 & - ,𝜔 >0
2 2

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5. Unit Step function: 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒖(𝒕) 1
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = {F 1 + F sgn t }
2
1, 𝑡≥0
u(t) = ቊ 2
0, 𝑡<0 𝐹 1 = 2𝜋𝛿 𝜔 & 𝐹 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑡 =
𝑗𝜔
This function is not absolutely integrable. 1 2
So Fourier Transform cannot be found 𝐹 𝑢 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝛿 𝜔 +
2 𝑗𝜔
directly. Hence consider the signum
function . 1
𝐹 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 +
𝑗𝜔
1 1
𝑢 𝑡 = + sgn(𝑡)
2 2
1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 = (1 + sgn(𝑡))
2
1
𝑋 𝜔 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 (1 + sgn(𝑡))
2

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 6. Compute the Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse with unit amplitude and
width 𝝉 and centred around origin. Plot the Fourier transform in the frequency
domain.
𝝉/2 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝝉/2
t 𝑡 1, 𝑡 ≤ 𝜏/2 𝑒
x(t) = rect =𝜋 =ቊ = න 1𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝝉 𝝉 0, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 −𝝉/2
−𝝉/2

𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝝉/2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝝉/2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝝉/2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝝉/2

= =
−𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔

𝝉 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝝉/2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝝉/2 𝝉
= ( ) = sin 𝜔𝝉/2
𝜔𝝉/2 2𝑗 𝜔𝝉/2
∞
𝜔𝝉
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 sin 𝜔𝝉
𝑋 𝜔 = 𝝉. 𝜔𝝉2 = 𝝉. sinc
−∞ 2
2

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Downloaded from Ktunotes.in
7. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝟎 (𝒕)
𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡 =
2
𝑋 𝜔 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡

𝑒 𝑗𝜔0𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0𝑡
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹
2
8. HW. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝟎 (𝒕)
1
= [𝐹 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0𝑡 } + 𝐹{𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0𝑡 ]
2
1
= [2𝜋𝛿 𝜔 − 𝜔0 + 2𝜋𝛿 𝜔 + 𝜔0 ]
2

𝑋 𝜔 = 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 − 𝜔0 + 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 + 𝜔0 ]

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9. Triangular Function

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Q. Find the Fourier Transform for the given waveform

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 Properties of Fourier Transform

1. Linearity Property 3. Frequency Shifting Property

FT
FT
𝑥1 𝑡 𝑋1 (𝜔) 𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝜔)
FT FT
𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋2 (𝜔) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 𝑥
𝑡 𝑋(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )
FT
4. Reversal Property
𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 𝑎𝑋1 𝜔 + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝜔)

2. Time Shifting Property

FT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝜔) 5. Time Scaling Property
FT
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡0 𝑋(𝜔)
FT 1 𝜔
𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑋( )
𝑎 𝑎
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6. Differentiation in Time Domain 9. Time Integration Property
FT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝜔)
𝑡
𝑑 FT FT 1
𝑥 𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝑋(𝜔) න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑋(𝜔)
𝑑𝑡 −∞ 𝑗𝜔

7. Differentiation in Frequency Domain 10. Convolution Property

FT 𝑑
𝑡𝑥 𝑡 𝑗 𝑋 (𝜔)
𝑑𝑤 FT
8. Duality Property 𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋1 𝜔 𝑋2 (𝜔)

FT
𝑋 𝑡 2π𝑥(−𝜔)

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 11. Multiplication Property 13. Parseval’s Theorem

FT
FT 1
𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋1 𝜔 ∗ 𝑋2 (𝜔) ∞
2π 1 ∞
න 𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑥2 ∗ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑋1 𝜔 . 𝑋2 ∗ (𝜔) 𝑑𝜔
12. Conjugation Property −∞ 2π −∞
∞ ∞
1
FT 𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = න |𝑋 𝜔 |2 𝑑𝜔
∗
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋 ∗ (−𝜔) −∞ 2π −∞

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Q. Find the Fourier transform of the following signals using properties.
𝟏. 𝒕𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 2. 𝒆−𝒂|𝒕−𝟐|
Property: frequency differentiation Property: Time shifting

1
𝐹 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = (𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) 2𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑋(ω) = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| = 2
1 𝑎 + 𝜔2
𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢
𝑡 = = 𝑋(ω)
2 + 𝑗𝜔 2𝑎
𝑑 1 𝐹 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡−2| = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔2 .
−2𝑡
𝐹 𝑡. 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑗 ( ) 𝑎2 + 𝜔 2
𝑑𝜔 2 + 𝑗𝜔
−1 𝑗 1
=𝑗 =
2 + 𝑗𝜔 2 2 + 𝑗𝜔 2

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3. 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 − 𝟐 4. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝟎 𝒕. 𝒖(𝒕)
Property: Time shifting 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡 =
2
1 𝑗𝜔 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 0 . 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡)
2
Modifying the function: 𝑒 −3 𝑡−2 −6 . 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 Property: Frequency shifting

= 𝑒 −6 . 𝑒 −3(𝑡−2) 𝑢 𝑡 − 2
1
𝐹 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = (𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 1
1 𝑋(ω) = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 +
𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = = 𝑋(ω) 𝑗𝜔
3 + 𝑗𝜔
1
−3(𝑡−2) −𝑗𝜔2
1 𝐹 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 − 𝜔0 +
𝐹 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡−2 =𝑒 . 𝑗(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )
3 + 𝑗𝜔
1
𝑒 −2(3+𝑗𝜔) 𝐹 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 + 𝜔0 +
Final Answer = 𝑗(𝜔 + 𝜔0 )
3+𝑗𝜔
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 1
𝐹{𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢 𝑡 } = 𝐹{𝑒 𝑗𝜔0𝑡 . 𝑢 𝑡 } + 𝐹{𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 . 𝑢 𝑡 } 𝐹 𝛿 𝑡+1 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 . 1
2
1 1 1 𝐹 𝛿 𝑡−1 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 . 1
= 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 − 𝜔0 + + 𝜋𝛿 𝜔 + 𝜔0 +
2 𝑗(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) 𝑗(𝜔 + 𝜔0 ) 𝐹 𝛿 𝑡−2 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔2 . 1

5. 𝜹 𝒕 + 𝟐 + 𝜹 𝒕 + 𝟏 + 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟏 + 𝜹(𝒕 − 𝟐) Fourier Transform is

𝑒 𝑗𝜔2 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔2

= 2 cos 2𝜔 + 2 cos 𝜔

𝐹 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹 𝛿 𝑡 =1

𝐹 𝛿 𝑡+2 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔2 . 1

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 𝒅
6. (𝒕𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 ) ∞ ∞
𝒅𝒕 1
= න 𝑒 −(2+𝑗 𝜔−5 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(2+𝑗 𝜔+5 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Let x(t) = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 2
0 0
2 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗5𝑡 𝑋 𝜔 =
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (2 + 𝑗𝜔) 2 +52
2
∞

𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐹{𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 )} = 𝑗

𝑑
(
2+𝑗𝜔
)
𝑑𝜔 (2+𝑗𝜔) 2 +52
−∞
∞
𝑒 𝑗5𝑡
+𝑒 −𝑗5𝑡 Let 𝑥1 (t) = t.𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
= න 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 𝑑
−∞ 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝑋1 (𝜔)
∞ ∞ 𝑑𝑡
1
= න 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗5𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐹
𝑑
𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑗𝜔[𝑗
𝑑
(
2+𝑗𝜔
)]
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜔 (2+𝑗𝜔) 2 +52
0 0

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 Q. Using Fourier Transform, find the convolution of the signals ∶
𝒙𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 & 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

Convolution Property: 1 𝐴 𝐵
𝑋1 𝜔 . 𝑋2 𝜔 = = +
(2 + 𝑗𝜔)(3 + 𝑗𝜔) 2 + 𝑗𝜔 3 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋1 𝜔 𝑋2 (𝜔)
Find A & B using partial fraction
𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
1
𝑋1 𝜔 = 1 1
2 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑋1 𝜔 . 𝑋2 𝜔 = −
2 + 𝑗𝜔 3 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
1
𝑋2 𝜔 = 𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋1 𝜔 . 𝑋2 𝜔
3 + 𝑗𝜔
1 1 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
𝑋1 𝜔 . 𝑋2 𝜔 = .
2 + 𝑗𝜔 3 + 𝑗𝜔

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 𝟏 𝟏
Q. Find the Fourier Transform of 𝐢 𝒊𝒊
𝒂+𝒋𝒕 𝒕

𝟏
(i) 𝟏
𝒂+𝒋𝒕 (ii)
𝒕
Duality Property: Duality Property:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑡)
2
𝑋 𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
1 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑋 𝜔 = 2 FT
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑋 𝑡 = 2πx(-ω) = 2π𝑠𝑔𝑛 −𝜔
𝑗𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
1 FT 1 FT
𝑋 𝑡 = 2πx(-ω) = 2π𝑒 𝑎𝜔 𝑢 −𝜔 jπ𝑠𝑔𝑛 −𝜔
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑡 𝑡

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Q. F𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟:

X(ω) = 2πδ(ω) + πδ(ω – 4π) + πδ(ω + 4π)

Duality Property: 𝑒 𝑗4π𝑡 2πδ(ω−4π)
1 𝑗4π𝑡
𝑒 πδ(ω−4π)
2
1 −𝑗4π𝑡
δ 𝑡 1 𝑒 πδ(ω+4π)
2
1 2πδ(−ω) = 2πδ(ω)
1 𝑗4π𝑡 1 −𝑗4π𝑡
x(t) = 1 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
2 2
Frequency Shifting Property
x(t) = 1 + cos 4π𝑡

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Q. F𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟: X(ω) = 𝒆−𝟐𝝎 u(ω)

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Q. Find the Inverse Fourier Transform for the given waveform

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Continuous Time Laplace Transform

➢ Analysis of a signal is more convenient in the frequency domain.

➢ There are 3 important classes of transformation methods available for continuous
time signals and systems.

1. Fourier Series
2. Fourier Transform
3. Laplace Transform

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 Laplace Transform

➢ Laplace Transform of a signal x(t) is given by

∞

 Bilateral Laplace Transform
X ( s ) =  x(t )e dt  
−𝑠𝑡 − st
𝑋 𝑠 =𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −  for non − causal signals
Where s is a complex variable 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

Unilateral Laplace Transform
➢ Inverse Fourier transform is given by X ( s ) =  x(t )e dt  
− st

∞ 0  for causal signals

1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑋(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋
−∞
➢ 𝑋(𝑠) & x(t) are called Laplace Transform pairs and can be denoted as
LT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠)

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 Relation between Laplace & Fourier Transform

➢ Fourier Transform is given by

∞

𝑋(𝜔) = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞
➢ Laplace transform is given by
∞

𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
➢ Fourier Transform can be obtained from Laplace Transform by
𝑋(𝜔) = 𝑋(𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔

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 Region of Convergence (ROC)

➢ s-plane: The xy-axis plane, where x-axis is the real axis and y-axis is the imaginary
axis, is called as s-plane.

➢ The set of values of s for which X(s) converges is called the region of convergence.

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 Laplace Transform of Standard Signals

1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 3. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢 𝑡 (𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑡. 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞ −∞ −∞ 0
∞
ROC: Entire s plane 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1
= 𝑡. − 2 = 2
−𝑠 𝑠 0
𝑠
2. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
∞ ∞ ROC: Re(s)>0
−𝑠𝑡 ∞
𝑒 1
𝑋 𝑠 = න𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =න 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = = 4. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝑢 𝑡
−𝑠 0
𝑠
−∞ 0 ∞ ∞

ROC: Re(s)>0 𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑡 2 . 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡 2 . 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞ 0

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 ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 2 5. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
= 𝑡2. − න 2𝑡. 𝑑𝑡 = 0 + න 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑠 0
−𝑠 𝑠 ∞ ∞
0 0

2 𝑒 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 ∞ 𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 𝑡. − 2 2
𝑠 −𝑠 𝑠 = 3 −∞
∞
0
0 𝑠 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡
∞
1
−(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡
=න𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = =
ROC: Re(s)>0 −(𝑠 + 𝑎) 0
𝑠+𝑎
0

𝑛! ROC: Re(s+a)>0, Re(s) > -a, 𝜎 > −𝑎

Note: L{𝑡 𝑛 𝑢 𝑡 }=
𝑠 𝑛+1 Im

-a Re

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6. 𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 7. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑋 𝑠 = න −𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞ 0
0 0 ∞ ∞
𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 1
= න −𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 −𝑠𝑡
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = න −𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =න 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = =
−(𝑠 − 𝑎) 0
𝑠−𝑎
−∞ −∞ 0
∞ ∞
𝑒 𝑠+𝑎 𝑡 1
=න− 𝑒 (𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =− = ROC: Re(s-a)>0, Re(s) > a, 𝜎 > 𝑎
− 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
0 0
ROC: Re(s)<-a, 𝜎 < −𝑎 Im
➢ Similarly Laplace Transform of -𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡
1
is also with ROC: 𝜎 < 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
-a Re

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Note:
1
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) > −a, 𝜎 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
−𝑎𝑡
1
𝐿 −𝑒 𝑢 −𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) < −a, 𝜎 < −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
𝑎𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) > a, 𝜎 > 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
𝑎𝑡
1
𝐿 −𝑒 𝑢 −𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) < a, 𝜎 < 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎

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8. 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
HW. 𝑥 𝑡 = si𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑒 +𝑒
cos 𝜔0 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 = cosℎ 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)
2
∞
1 𝑥 𝑡 = si𝑛ℎ 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑋 𝑠 = න (𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
−∞
∞
1
= න (𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 )𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
2 Hint: sin 𝜔0 𝑡 =
0 2𝑗
∞ ∞
1
= [න 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 𝑑𝑡] 𝑒 𝜔0 𝑡 +𝑒 −𝜔0 𝑡
2 cosℎ 𝜔0 𝑡 =
0 0 2
1 1 1 𝑠
= + = 2 𝑒 𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜔0 𝑡
2 𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔0 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔0 𝑠 + 𝜔0 2 sinℎ 𝜔0 𝑡 =
2
ROC: Re(s)>0

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Q. Find the Laplace Transform & ROC of 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂|𝒕| , 𝒂 > 𝟎
∞ ∞

𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∞ ∞

𝑒 (𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 1 1
−∞ −∞ = + = +
0 ∞ (𝑠 − 𝑎) 0
−(𝑠 + 𝑎) 0
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
= න 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 2𝑎
= 2
0 ∞ 𝑠 − 𝑎2
= න 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ROC: -a < Re(s) < a
−∞ 0
∞ ∞

= න 𝑒 (𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0

Converges only if Converges only if

Re(s-a)<0,ie, Re(s)<a Re(s+a)>0,ie, Re(s)>-a

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Q. Find the Laplace Transform & ROC of 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝟎 𝒕. 𝒖(𝒕)
∞

𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∞ ∞
1 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎−𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎+𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡
−∞ = −
2𝑗 −(𝑠 + 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔0 ) 0
−(𝑠 + 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔0 ) 0
∞

= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 1 1

= ( − )
−∞ 2𝑗 𝑠 + 𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔0 𝑠 + 𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔0
∞
𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑒
= න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜔0
2𝑗 =
0 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2 +𝜔0 2
∞ ∞
1
= (න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎−𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎+𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 𝑑𝑡)
2𝑗 ROC: Re(s) > - a
0 0

Converges only if Re(s+a- 𝑗𝜔0 ) Converges only if Re(s+a+ 𝑗𝜔0 )

> 0 ,ie, Re(s)> - a > 0 ,ie, Re(s)>-a

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 Q. Find the Laplace Transform of i 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(ii) x t = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)

i 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 2𝑠 + 5
∞ ∞ 𝑋(𝑠) = 2 ROC: Re(s) > -1
𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 4
𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞

= න 𝑒 −(𝑠+1)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑒 −(𝑠+4)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0

Converges only if Converges only if

Re(s+1)>0,ie, Re(s+4)>0,ie,
Re(s)>-1 Re(s)>-4
∞ ∞
𝑒 −(𝑠+1)𝑡 𝑒 −(𝑠+4)𝑡 1 1
= + = +
−(𝑠 + 1) 0
−(𝑠 + 4) 0
𝑠+1 𝑠+4

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(ii) x(t) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) 2𝑠 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)
∞ ∞ 𝑋(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏)
𝑋 𝑠 = න 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞ ROC: -a < Re(s) < -b
∞ 0

= න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑏)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 −∞
∞ ∞

= න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + න −𝑒 (𝑠+𝑏)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0

Converges only if Converges only if

Re(s+a)>0,ie, Re(s+b)<0,ie, Re(s)
Re(s)>-a <-b
∞
−(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 ∞ 𝑠+𝑏 𝑡
𝑒 𝑒 1 1
= = +
−(𝑠 + 𝑎) 0
− 𝑠+𝑏 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏
0

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Properties of ROC

Property 1: The ROC of X(s) consists of lines parallel to the jw-axis in the s-plane
Property 2: ROC does not contain any poles.
Property 3: ROC must be a connected region.
Property 4 :If x(t) is finite duration and is absolutely integrable then the ROC is the entire s-
plane.
Property 5: If x(t) is a right sided signal, then the ROC is the region in s-plane to the right of
the rightmost pole.
Property 6: If x(t) is a left sided signal, then the ROC is the region in s-plane to the left of the
leftmost pole.
Property 7: If x(t) is 2 sided, then ROC will be - 𝜎1 <Re(s)<𝜎2
Property 8: ROC of a stable system contains the imaginary axis.
Property 9: ROC of sum of 2 signals will be the intersection of the ROC’s of the individual
signals.

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 Properties of Laplace Transform

1. Linearity Property 3. Frequency Shifting Property

LT
LT
𝑥1 𝑡 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠)
LT LT
𝑎𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠 − 𝑎)
LT
4. Time Reversal Property
𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 𝑎𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝑠)

2. Time Shifting Property

LT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠) 5. Time Scaling Property
LT
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡0 𝑋(𝑠)
LT 1 𝑠
𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑋( )
𝑎 𝑎
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6. Differentiation in Time Domain 8. Time Integration Property
LT
𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡
LT1
𝑑 LT න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑥 𝑡 𝑠. 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑥(0− ) −∞ 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
9. Convolution Property
𝑑2 LT
2
𝑥 𝑡 𝑠 2 . 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥 0− − 𝑥′(0− )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛
𝑛
𝑥 𝑡 LT 𝑠 𝑛 . 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0−
𝑑𝑡 𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 LT
𝑋1 𝑠 𝑋2 (𝑠)
−𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑥 ′ 0− − ⋯
7. Differentiation in S Domain 10. Conjugation Property

LT
LT 𝑑 𝑥∗ 𝑡 𝑋 ∗ (𝑠 ∗ )
𝑡𝑥 𝑡 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
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 11. Multiplication Property

FT
LT 1
𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑋1 𝑠 ∗ 𝑋2 (𝑠)
2π𝑗
12. Initial Value Theorem

L𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 0 = L𝑡 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
13. Final Value Theorem

L𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 ∞ = L𝑡 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

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 −𝟓𝒔−𝟕
Q. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿 𝒔 = 𝒔+𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 𝒔+𝟐
;
𝑹𝑶𝑪: −𝟏 < 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < 𝟏

Partial Fraction Method Note:

−5𝑠 − 7 1
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) > −a, 𝜎 > −𝑎
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2 𝑠+𝑎
1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐿 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢
−𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) < −a, 𝜎 < −𝑎
= + + 𝑠+𝑎
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2 1
𝑎𝑡
𝐿 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) > a, 𝜎 > 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎
A=1, B=-2, C=1 1
𝑎𝑡 ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) < a, 𝜎 < 𝑎
1 −2 1 𝐿 −𝑒 𝑢 −𝑡 =
𝑋 𝑠 = + + 𝑠−𝑎
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2
ROC of X(s) is 𝑅𝑂𝐶: −1 < 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < 1 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 2𝑒 𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
So individual ROC’s must be
Re(s)>-1, Re(s) <1, Re(s)>-2

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 𝒔−𝟏
Q. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿 𝒔 = ;
𝒔+𝟏 (𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝒔+𝟓)

Partial Fraction Method Note:

𝑠−1 1
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑡 =
𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5) 𝑠+𝑎
𝑠
𝐿 cos 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡) = 2
𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝜔0 2
= + 2 𝜔0
𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5 𝐿 sin 𝜔0 𝑡. 𝑢(𝑡) = 2
𝑠 + 𝜔0 2
A=-1/2, B=1/2, C=3/2 𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝑎)
1 3
−1/2 𝑠+ 1 1 1 𝑠+1 1 2
𝑋 𝑠 = + 2 2 2 𝑋(𝑠) = − . + +
2 𝑠+1 2
2 𝑠+1 +22 2 𝑠 + 1 2 + 22
𝑠+1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5
1 3 1 −𝑡 1 −𝑡 1 −𝑡
1 1 𝑠+
=− . + 2 2 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑒 sin 2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
2 𝑠+1 (𝑠 + 1)2 +22 2 2 2

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 Pole-Zero Plot

𝑁 𝑠
➢ Given a Laplace transform: 𝑋 𝑠 =
𝐷 𝑠
➢ Poles of X(s): roots of D(s). For these values of s, X(s) is infinite.
➢ Zeros of X(s): roots of N(s). For these values of s, X(s) is zero.

s −1 Im s-plane
For Eg: X ( s) =
➢
(s + 2)(s + 1)
Poles of X(s): s = -2, -1 x x
-2 -1 1 Re
Zeros of X(s): s = 1

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 ROC from Poles

4 −t 1 2t
Q. Consider the signal: x(t ) =  (t ) − e u (t ) + e u (t ). Find Laplace Transform and
3 3
ROC.
Im
4 1 1 1
Soln: 𝑋 𝑠 = 1 − . + .
3 𝑠+1 3 𝑠−2

𝑠−1 2 x x
𝑋 𝑠 = -1 1 2 Re
𝑠+1 𝑠−2
Poles: s=-1, 2
Since x(t) is a right sided sequence ROC will be to the right of the right most pole.
∴ 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > 2

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 −𝟓𝒔−𝟕
Q. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿 𝒔 = 𝒔+𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 𝒔+𝟐
;
𝑹𝑶𝑪: −𝟏 < 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < 𝟏

Partial Fraction Method

−5𝑠 − 7
𝑋 𝑠 =
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 2𝑒 𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
= + +
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2

A=1, B=-2, C=1

1 −2 1
𝑋 𝑠 = + +
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠+2
ROC of X(s) is 𝑅𝑂𝐶: −1 < 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < 1
So individual ROC’s must be
Re(s)>-1, Re(s) <1, Re(s)>-2

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 𝟖−(𝒔+𝟐)(𝟒𝒔+𝟏𝟎)
Q. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿 𝒔 = 𝟐 ;
𝒔+𝟏 (𝒔 +𝟒𝒔+𝟒)
𝑹𝑶𝑪: 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < −𝟏

Partial Fraction Method

So individual ROC’s must be
8 − (𝑠 + 2)(4𝑠 + 10) Re(s)>-1, Re(s)>-2
𝑋 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 2)2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 Note:
= + +
𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 2)2 1
𝐿 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶: Re(s) > −a, 𝜎 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
A=2, B=-6, C=-8 𝑑
𝐿 𝑡𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝑠)
2 −6 −8 𝑑𝑠
𝑋 𝑠 = + + 𝑑 1
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 (𝑠 + 2)2 −𝑎𝑡
1
𝐿 𝑡𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = ( )=
Poles: s= -1,-2 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑎 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2

ROC of X(s) is 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > −1. Hence the

𝑥 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 6𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 8𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
signal is a right sided signal
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Causality & Stability in terms of ROC

Stability: ROC should include the entire jw-axis.

Causality : ROC will be to the right of the rightmost pole.
Stability & Causality: All the poles should lie in the left-half of the s-plane.

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 𝟐𝒔𝟐 +𝟗𝒔−𝟏𝟏
Q. Consider H 𝒔 = . Find h(t) if (i) h(t) is stable (ii) h(t) is causal
𝒔+𝟏 𝒔𝟐 +𝒔−𝟔

2𝑠 2 + 9𝑠 − 11 (i) For h(t) to be stable, the ROC must contain the

𝐻 𝑠 = jw axis and ROC should not contain any pole
𝑠 + 1 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 6
Im s-plane
2
2𝑠 + 9𝑠 − 11
=
𝑠 + 1 𝑠 − 2 (𝑠 + 3)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
x x x
-3 -1 2 Re
= + +
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠+3
𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 1, 𝐶 = −2
3 1 −2 Therefore the individual ROC’s must be
𝐻(𝑠) = + +
𝑠+1 𝑠−2 𝑠+3 Re(s)>-3, Re(s)>-1 & Re(s)<2 . ie, -1<Re(s)<2
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ∶ 𝑠 = −1, 𝑠 = 2, 𝑠 = −3 ∴ ℎ 𝑡 = 3. 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + −𝑒 2𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡

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