COC 2:

SET UP
COMPUTER
NETWORKS
IDENTIFY TYPES OF NETWORK CABLES AND
CONNECTORS
BRIEF

You're expected to know the basic concepts of networking as well as the

different types of cabling that can be used. For the latter, you should be able
to identify connectors and cables from figures even if those figures are crude
line art (think shadows) appearing in pop-up boxes.

There are three specific types network cables, and the connectors associated
with each, that you must know for this exam: fiber, twisted pair, and coaxial.
Fiber is the most expensive of the three and can run the longest distance. A
number of types of connectors can work with fiber, but three you must know
are SC, ST, and LC.

Twisted pair is commonly used in office settings to connect workstations to

hubs or switches. It comes in two varieties: unshielded (UTP) and shielded
(STP), the two types of connectors commonly used are RJ-11 (four wires and
popular with telephones), and RJ-45 (eight wires and used with xBaseT
networks—100BaseT, 1000BaseT, and so forth). Two common wiring
standards are T568A and T568B.

Coaxial cabling is not as popular as it once was, but it's still used with cable
television and some legacy networks. The two most regularly used connectors
are F-connectors (television cabling) and BNC (10Base2, and so on).
 Fiber-optic cabling is the most expensive type of those discussed for this
exam. Although it's an excellent medium, it's often not used because of the
cost of implementing it. It has a glass core within a rubber outer coating and
uses beams of light rather than electrical signals to relay data. Because light
doesn't diminish over distance the way electrical signals do, this cabling can
run for distances measured in kilometers with transmission speeds from 100
Mbps up to 1 Gbps higher.

Connectors: SC, ST, and LC

Often, fiber is used to connect runs to wiring closets where they break out
into UTP or other cabling types, or as other types of backbones. Fiber-optic
cable can use either ST, SC, or LC connector. ST is a barrel-shaped
connector, whereas SC is squared and easier to connect in small spaces. The
LC connector looks similar to SC but adds a flange on the top (much like an
RJ-45 connector) to keep it securely connected.
Note: In addition to these listed in the A + objectives, other connectors are
used with fiber. FC connectors may also be used but are not as common. MT-
RJ is a popular connector for two fibers in a small form factor.

TWISTED PAIR

There are two primary types of twisted-pair cabling (with categories beneath
cach that are shielded twisted pair (STP) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
In both cases, the cabling is made up of pairs of wires twisted around each
other.

UTP offers no shielding (hence the name) and is the network cabling type
most prone to outside interference. The interference can be from a fluorescent
light ballast, electrical motor, or other such source (known as electromagnetic
interference [EMI]) or from wires being too close together and signals
jumping across them (known as crosstalk), STP adds a foil shield around the
twisted wires to protect against EMI.

Connectors: RJ-11, RJ-45

STP cable uses IBM data connector (IDC) or universal data connector (UDC)
ends and connects to token ring networks. While you need to know STP for
the exam, you are not required to have any knowledge of the connectors
associated with it. You must, however, know that most UTP cable uses RJ-45
connectors, which look like telephone connectors (RJ-11) but have eight
wires instead of four.

Wiring standards: T568A, T568B

Two wiring standards are commonly used with twisted-pair cabling: T568A
and T568B (sometimes referred to simply as 568A and 568B). These are
telecommunications standards from TIA and EIA that specify the pin
arrangements for the RJ-45 connectors on UTP or STP cables. The number
568 refers to the order in which the wires within the Category 5 cable are
terminated and attached to the connector. The signal is identical for both.

T568A was the first standard, released in 1991. Ten years later, in 2001,
T568B was released. Pin numbers are read left to right, with the connector tab
facing down. Notice that the pin-outs stay the same, and the only difference is
in the color coding of the wiring.
Note: Mixing cables can cause communication problems on the network.
Before installing a network or adding a new component to it, make sure the
cable being used is in the correct wiring standard.

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Network and Sharing Center

Window 7 has a special place where we can view our network information
and set up connections. It’s called Network and Sharing Center and we can
find it in Control Panel > Network and Internet > Network and Sharing
Center. This is a central location where we can perform all networking and
sharing tasks.

The first thing we should be aware of is the location of our network

connection. For each network connection we choose a network location. The
location identifies the type of network we are connecting to. This controls
firewall and security settings, and controls enabled services. The location
types are:
  Domain – in this case computers are connected to an Active Directory
domain. This location type will be selected automatically when we
join our computer to the domain.
 Public – this location means that we are on untrusted network.
 Home – this location is a trusted (also called private) local area
network
 Work – this location is a trusted (private) local area network. This
option is typically used when domain is not implemented in work
environment.
When we connect to a new network, we will get a prompt to choose the
location for our network connection. We can always change this later, if we
need to.

Network Location Prompt

When it comes to sharing, we should first check settings on the “Change

advanced sharing settings” option in our Network and Sharing Center.
 Advanced Sharing Options

Advanced Sharing Settings

Here we fill find advanced sharing options, which are configured for each
network profile. A separate network profile is created for each network we
use. For different profiles we can have different sharing options depending on
the network we are connected to.

Different Network Profiles

In our case we are currently connected to our work network, so let’s check
out options in that profile. The first option is “Network discovery”. Network
discovery option enables our computer to discover (to see) other computers
on the network, and other computers will be able to discover our computer.
 Work Profile Part 1

Keep in mind that if we disable Network discovery, we don’t disable other

forms of sharing. As you can see on the picture, File and printer sharing is
another option. When we enable file and printer sharing, files and printers
that we have shared on our computer can be accessed by other users on the
network. With this type of sharing we have more control over who we share
our files with on the network.

The Public folder sharing option enables network users to access our public
folder. Public folders can be read and written to by all users. Even network
users will be able to write files to our public folder. Files shared with public
folder sharing are found in the C:\Users\Public folders. Public folder sharing
is more simple and quicker, but we can’t set permissions for individual users
(all users have access).

Another option is Media streaming. When media streaming is on, people and
devices on the network will be able to access pictures, music and videos on
our computer. Also, our computer will be able to find media resources on the
network. In Media streaming options we will be able to name our media
library, choose on which networks to share, and what type of media to share.

Media Streaming

Media Streaming Options

File sharing connections option allows us to protect share connections using a

128-bit encryption, or 40- or 56-bit encryption for legacy devices.
 Work Profile Part 2

The Password protected sharing option means that only users which have a
user account and password on our computer can access our shared files and
printers, and Public folders. If we want to give other users access, we’ll have
to turn off this option.

The HomeGroup connections option is only available in the Home Network

profile. It determines how authentication works for HomeGroup resources.
HomeGroup is a simple way to manage sharing and authentication on Home
networks running Windows 7. If all computers in the HomeGroup have been
configured with the same usernames and passwords, we should choose the
“Allow Windows to manage homegroup connections” option. However, if we
have different users and passwords on each computer, we should use the
second option.

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Windows Firewall
A firewall, at its most basic level, permits or denies communications between
computers, between networks, or between computers and networks (for
example, your home computer and the Internet) based on the firewall’s
configuration rules. You can access the settings for Windows Firewall
through the Network and Security section in the Control Panel.
Almost all computers and networks communicate by establishing connections
between two hosts using an IP address and a port. Although there are many
types of firewalls, the most common type of firewall (and the type used in
Windows 7, provided by Windows Firewall) permits or denies
communications based on IP address and port information.
Only connections that are explicitly allowed, using firewall rules, are
permitted. Windows Firewall, by default, allows all outbound connections,
and permits only established inbound connections (that is, an inbound
connection that is in direct response to an outbound connection initiated from
your computer or network).
There are firewalls protecting Microsoft’s Web servers and your ISP’s DNS
servers. In order for your computer to connect to Microsoft’s Web servers,
Microsoft must first create firewall rules to allow the communication. This is
accomplished by creating a firewall rule that essentially says to allow any
inbound IP address to connect to 207.46.232.182 (Microsoft’s Web server) on
port 80 (HTTP). Your ISP must create a similar rule on their firewall that
essentially says to allow any inbound IP address to connect to its DNS servers
on port 53 — which is the standard port for DNS.
Windows Firewall permits your outbound DNS request to your ISP’s DNS
server, and your computer’s outbound HTTP request to Microsoft’s Web
server. In your outbound request, your computer first sends the DNS request
to your ISP’s DNS server on port 53, and tells your ISP’s DNS server on
what port it will be listening for a response.
Your computer selects a random port number between 49,152 and 65,535,
and Windows Firewall automatically creates a temporary rule that allows an
inbound connection from the IP address of your ISP’s DNS server to the IP
address of your computer, on that random port number.
After the response is received (or if a response is not received within a
specified period of time, say 30 seconds), the rule is automatically deleted
from the firewall and the connection is again blocked. A similar process is
then repeated to connect to Microsoft’s Web server.
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security/what-are-windows-firewall-and-windows-defender/

COMMAND PROMPT
Command Prompt is a command line interpreter application available in most
Windows operating systems. It's used to execute entered commands. Most of
those commands automate tasks via scripts and batch files, perform advanced
administrative functions, and troubleshoot or solve certain kinds of Windows
issues.

Command Prompt is officially called Windows Command Processor, but it's

also sometimes referred to as the command shell or cmd prompt, or even by
its filename, cmd.exe.

Command Prompt is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "the DOS prompt"

or as MS-DOS itself. Command Prompt is a Windows program that emulates
many of the command line abilities available in MS-DOS, but it's not MS-
DOS.
To use Command Prompt, you enter a valid Command Prompt
command along with any optional parameters. Command Prompt then
executes the command as entered and performs the task or function it's
designed to perform in Windows.

Commands must be entered into Command Prompt exactly. The

wrong syntax or a misspelling could cause the command to fail or worse; it
could execute the wrong command or the right command in the wrong way.
A comfort level with reading command syntax is recommended.

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2625840#:~:text=Command%20Prompt%20is%20a%20command,certain%20kinds
%20of%20Windows%20issues.

PING
Ping is a command-line utility, available on virtually any operating system
with network connectivity, that acts as a test to see if a networked device is
reachable.
The ping command sends a request over the network to a specific device. A
successful ping results in a response from the computer that was pinged back
to the originating computer.
What does Ping stand for?

According to the author, the name Ping comes from sonar terminology. In
sonar, a ping is an audible sound wave sent out to find an object. If the sound
hits the object, the sound waves will reflect, or echo, back to the source. The
distance and location of the object can be determined by measuring the time
and direction of the returning sound wave.
Similarly, the ping command sends out an echo request. If it finds the target
system, the remote host sends back an echo reply. The distance (number of
hops) to the remote system can be determined from the reply, as well as the
conditions in-between (packet loss and time to respond). While the author of
the ping utility said the name of the program was simply based on the sound
of sonar, others sometimes say that Ping is an acronym for Packet InterNet
Groper.

IP Address
An IP address (internet protocol address) is a numerical representation that
uniquely identifies a specific interface on the network.
Addresses in IPv4 are 32-bits long. This allows for a maximum of
4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses. Addresses in IPv6 are 128-bits, which
allows for 3.4 x 1038 (2128) unique addresses.
The total usable address pool of both versions is reduced by various reserved
addresses and other considerations.
IP addresses are binary numbers but are typically expressed in decimal form
(IPv4) or hexadecimal form (IPv6) to make reading and using them easier for
humans.
IP stands for Internet Protocol and describes a set of standards and
requirements for creating and transmitting data packets, or datagrams, across
networks. The Internet Protocol (IP) is part of the Internet layer of the
Internet protocol suite. In the OSI model, IP would be considered part of the
network layer. IP is traditionally used in conjunction with a higher-level
protocol, most notably TCP. The IP standard is governed by RFC 791.
IPv4 addresses are composed of two parts. The first numbers in the address
specify the network, while the latter numbers specify the specific host. A
subnet mask specifies which part of an address is the network part, and which
part addresses the specific host.
A packet with a destination address that is not on the same network as the
source address will be forwarded, or routed, to the appropriate network. Once
on the correct network, the host part of the address determines which
interface the packet gets delivered to.

Subnet masks
A single IP address identifies both a network, and a unique interface on that
network. A subnet mask can also be written in dotted decimal notation and
determines where the network part of an IP address ends, and the host portion
of the address begins.
When expressed in binary, any bit set to one means the corresponding bit in
the IP address is part of the network address. All the bits set to zero mark the
corresponding bits in the IP address as part of the host address.
The bits marking the subnet mask must be consecutive ones. Most subnet
masks start with 255. and continue on until the network mask ends. A Class C
subnet mask would be 255.255.255.0.
Class A
In a Class A network, the first eight bits, or the first dotted decimal, is the
network part of the address, with the remaining part of the address being the
host part of the address. There are 128 possible Class A networks.
0.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0

However, any address that begins with 127. is considered a loopback address.
Example for a Class A IP address:
2.134.213.2

Class B
In a Class B network, the first 16 bits are the network part of the address. All
Class B networks have their first bit set to 1 and the second bit set to 0. In
dotted decimal notation, that makes 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0 as Class B
networks. There are 16,384 possible Class B networks.
Example for a Class B IP address:
135.58.24.17

Class C
In a Class C network, the first two bits are set to 1, and the third bit is set to 0.
That makes the first 24 bits of the address the network address and the
remainder as the host address. Class C network addresses range from
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0. There are over 2 million possible Class C
networks.
Example for a Class C IP address:
192.168.178.1

Class D
Class D addresses are used for multicasting applications. Unlike the previous
classes, the Class D is not used for "normal" networking operations. Class D
addresses have their first three bits set to “1” and their fourth bit set to “0”.
Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses, meaning that all the values
within the range of 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 are used to uniquely identify
multicast groups. There are no host addresses within the Class D address
space, since all the hosts within a group share the group’s IP address for
receiver purposes.
Example for a Class D IP address:
227.21.6.173

Class E
Class E networks are defined by having the first four network address bits as
1. That encompasses addresses from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. While this
class is reserved, its usage was never defined. As a result, most network
implementations discard these addresses as illegal or undefined. The
exception is 255.255.255.255, which is used as a broadcast address.
Example for a Class D IP address:
243.164.89.28

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Default Gateway
The default gateway is used as the destination of all traffic that is not on the
same subnet. The gateway is a layer 3 device such as a router or multi-layer
switch that is used to route traffic on a hop-by-hop basis. But for the purposes
of this discussion, the only thing the end device needs to know is whether the
data is on the same subnet. If it's not, the source device delivers traffic to the
end device through the default gateway.
The default gateway always resides in the same subnet as the end device IP.
The gateway can really be any unique address within the subnet itself, but
most network administrators designate the first number of the subnet as the
gateway. Therefore, 192.168.99.1 would be the default gateway of our source
device given the fact that we have a 255.255.255.0 subnet mask.
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masks-and-default-gateways/page/0/3

DNS Definition
The domain name system (DNS) connects URLs with their IP address. With
DNS, it’s possible to type words instead of a string of numbers into a
browser, allowing people to search for websites and send emails using
familiar names. When you search for a domain name in a browser, it sends a
query over the internet to match the domain with its corresponding IP. Once
located, it uses the IP to retrieve the website’s content. Most impressively,
this whole process takes just milliseconds.
It might seem like magic when you go online shopping, video chat across
continents, and stream videos or music to your phone, but this is all thanks to
the sophisticated engineering achievement that is the domain name system
(DNS). DNS is a powerful network that keeps billions of internet users and
over 300 million domain names connecting.

The DNS underpins the internet we use every day. This transparent network
runs in the background whenever you send an email, or load a website. DNS
is often likened to the internet’s version of a telephone book. To call
someone, you must first find their telephone number. To do so you look up a
contact name, similary, DNS converts email addresses and websites humans
read into computer-readable, numerical IP addresses.

DNS is a complicated topic with many aspects that affect your day to day life,
especially if you own a website. If you’re a domain owner, listen up, because
theDNS controls different aspects of your domain name. If you simply want
to broaden your knowledge of what’s going on behind the scenes of the world
wide web in general, stay with us.

In this article, we will discuss the ins and outs of the domain name system,
including the basics of how it works, why it exists and how the DNS relates
to your domain name.

What does DNS Mean

The DNS goes by many names, including name server, domain name system
server, and nameserver. Regardless of which name is used, all describe the
process of making domain names alphabetical. DNS also refers to the
hierarchical system used to search through the network of millions of IP
addresses, to locate the exact IP of your desired website.
How DNS Works
Everything that connects to the internet - websites, tablets, laptops, mobile
phones, Google Home, internet thermostats, and refrigerators has an IP
address. An internet protocol address by its full name is a unique string of
numbers that identifies each digital device to communicate via the world
wide web

Thanks to DNS, there is no need to maintain an address book of IP addresses.

Every time you use a domain name, the DNS service locates the website and
translates the name into its corresponding IP address. Alphabetic domain
names are easier to remember than IP address numbers, so when you
type www.google.com into a web browser, you only have to remember the
URL.

1. IP addresses help locate a computer on the internet and relay the

information (website data, emails etc) traveling between computers.
As soon as you type a domain name, for example, Amazon.com into
your browser, your browser, and computer check if one of them has
the domains related IP address in their memory.

2. If Amazon.com isn’t in your computer's local memory (cached

memory), it expands the search out to the internet where it queries the
DNS to determine if the domain exists in their DNS database. If the
first DNS doesn’t find it on its server, it sends it to the next server
until the right domain name server is found. For example, the URL for
Amazon.com is associated with servers run by Amazon Web Services.
The domain name system allows you to reach Amazon’s servers when
you type Amazon.com into your web browser.

3. Once the DNS server finds the domain name Amazon.com, the server
returns the domain name, and it’s IPS address to the requesting DNS
 server, along down the line until it arrives back at your computer.

4. Once the IP address has reached your computer, your browser finds it
on the internet. Next up, it communicate with the domain name hosted
to request any associated files. The host server returns the files which
display Amazon.com in your web browser.
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definition/#:~:text=The%20domain%20name%20system%20(DNS,send%20emails%20using
%20familiar%20names.

DNS in a Nutshell
URLs (such as www.ehow.com) are used online since they are a lot more
memorable than anonymous, phone number-like numerical IP addresses (for
example, something like 52.3.77.115).
But to reach a website, your browser still needs to know the actual IP address
of your destination. And that means that computers need some way of
converting URLs into IPs. To do this, they send requests to their designated
DNS server and ask for the IP address that corresponds to a web link, or vice
versa. The following illustration is from an excellent infographic
that describes the Domain Name System.
This simplified diagram explains how DNS server work
Image Credit: WebHostingGeeks.com
Why doesn't your computer just maintain the DNS list on its own? Well, by
sending these requests to a remote server, local computers don't need to store
large lists of IPs and URLs, which would be hard to keep up-to-date.

How Preferred and Alternate DNS Servers Work Together

Preferred DNS servers act as a device's "first choice" when making DNS
requests. Alternate servers, on the other hand, are only used when the primary
DNS server does not respond. They act as a backup for the DNS system as a
whole.
It's important to note that if a primary server is functioning properly but it
can't convert a particular URL into an address, the device will not contact the
alternate DNS to see if it has better luck. This is because primary and
alternate DNS servers share the same data.

The Benefits of Alternate DNS Servers

The main benefit of running two DNS servers is increased robustness. The
presence of an alternate DNS means that a single DNS server failure does not
prevent clients from accessing web pages. It allows devices to continue
resolving addresses even if their primary server is down.
Alternate DNS servers can sometimes also be used to share the load of DNS
requests on busy networks. If the volume of requests at a given time is greater
than the primary DNS can handle, it can pass some of these requests off to the
secondary server.
Keeping Servers in Sync
Ordinary users don't need to worry about this, but it is important that network
managers keep alternate DNS servers up to date – otherwise, they might
direct network clients to obsolete or inaccurate destinations.
Primary servers typically keep the master copy of the address data, which is
transferred between the servers using a mechanism known as DNS zone
transfer. This system automatically sends updated records from the primary
server over to the alternate to keep them in sync. However, zone transfers
increase load on the network, so they are occasionally performed in stages or
overnight.
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together

DHCP definition
DHCP stands for dynamic host configuration protocol and is a network
protocol used on IP networks where a DHCP server automatically assigns an
IP address and other information to each host on the network so they can
communicate efficiently with other endpoints.

In addition to the IP address, DHCP also assigns the subnet mask, default
gateway address, domain name server (DNS) address and other pertinent
configuration parameters. Request for comments (RFC) 2131 and 2132 define
DHCP as an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)- defined standard based
on the BOOTP protocol.
 DHCP simplifies IP address management
The primary reason DHCP is needed is to simplify the management of IP
addresses on networks. No two hosts can have the same IP address, and
configuring them manually will likely lead to errors. Even on small networks
manually assigning IP addresses can be confusing, particularly with mobile
devices that require IP addresses on a non-permanent basis. Also, most users
aren’t technically proficient enough to locate the IP address information on a
computer and assign it. Automating this process makes life easier for users
and the network administrator.

Components of DHCP

When working with DHCP, it’s important to understand all of the

components. Below is a list of them and what they do:

 DHCP server: A networked device running the DCHP service that holds IP
addresses and related configuration information. This is most typically a
server or a router but could be anything that acts as a host, such as an SD-
WAN appliance.
 DHCP client: The endpoint that receives configuration information from a
DHCP server. This can be a computer, mobile device, IoT endpoint or
anything else that requires connectivity to the network. Most are configured
to receive DHCP information by default.
 IP address pool: The range of addresses that are available to DHCP clients.
Addresses are typically handed out sequentially from lowest to highest.
 Subnet: IP networks can be partitioned into segments known as subnets.
Subnets help keep networks manageable.
 Lease: The length of time for which a DHCP client holds the IP address
information. When a lease expires, the client must renew it.
 DHCP relay: A router or host that listens for client messages being broadcast
on that network and then forwards them to a configured server. The server
then sends responses back to the relay agent that passes them along to the
 client. This can be used to centralize DHCP servers instead of having a server
on each subnet.

Benefits of DHCP servers

In addition to simplified management, the use of a DHCP server provides
other benefits. These include:

 Accurate IP configuration: The IP address configuration parameters must be

exact and when dealing with inputs such as “192.168.159.3”, it’s easy to
make a mistake. Typographical errors are typically very difficult to
troubleshoot and the use of a DHCP server minimizes that risk.
 Reduced IP address conflicts: Each connected device must have an IP
address. However, each address can only be used once and a duplicate
address will result in a conflict where one or both of the devices cannot be
connected. This can happen when addresses are assigned manually,
particularly when there are a large number of endpoints that only connect
periodically, such as mobile devices. The use of DHCP ensures that each
address is only used once.
 Automation of IP address administration: Without DHCP, network
administrators would need to assign and revoke addresses manually. Keeping
track of which device has what address can be an exercise in futility as it’s
nearly impossible to understand when devices require access to the network
and when they leave. DHCP allows this to be automated and centralized so
network professionals can manage all locations from a single location.
 Efficient change management: The use of DHCP makes it very simple to
change addresses, scopes or endpoints. For example, an organization may
want to change its IP addressing scheme from one range to another. The
DHCP server is configured with the new information and the information will
be propagated to the new endpoints. Similarly, if a network device is
upgraded and replaced, no network configuration is required.
DHCP poses security risks

The DHCP protocol requires no authentication so any client can join a

network quickly. Because of this, it opens up a number of security risks,
including unauthorized servers handing out bad information to clients,
unauthorized clients being given IP addresses and IP address depletion from
unauthorized or malicious clients.

Since the client has no way of validating the authenticity of a DHCP server,
rouge ones can be used to provide incorrect network information. This can
cause denial-of-service attacks or man-in-the-middle attacks where a fake
server intercepts data that can be used for malicious purposes. Conversely,
because the DHCP server has no way of authenticating a client, it will hand
out IP address information to any device that makes a request. A threat actor
could configure a client to continually change its credentials and quickly
exhaust all available IP addresses in the scope, preventing company endpoints
from accessing the network.

The DHCP specification does addresses some of these issues. There is a

Relay Agent Information Option that enables engineers to tag DHCP
messages as they arrive on the network. This tag can be used to control access
to the network. There is also a provision to authenticate DHCP messages, but
key management can be complicated and has held back adoption. The use of
802.1x authentication, otherwise known as network access control (NAC),
can be used to secure DHCP. Most of the leading network vendors support
NAC, and it has become significantly simpler to deploy.

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works.html
LAN vs WAN Relating to IP Address

The following information details the difference between LAN vs WAN for
clarification. Review the difference between LAN vs WAN as follows:

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN means Local Area Network. Furthermore, this would be the network
inside your home or business that connects your shared resources and Internet
connection. Therefore, the most common LAN IP address configurations are
in the 192.168.xxx.xxx range. To clarify, they would be called your Internal
IP addresses.

If needing to find your LAN IP address, it is fairly easy to do. Search or find
your command prompt within Windows from your Start menu. There are
different versions of Windows but simply under Windows programs or
Windows System folder. With the Command Prompt open simply
type "ipconfig". Under the LAN adapter will have quite a bit about your
connection, but more specifically the label with IPv4 Address would be your
Local Area Network.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN means Wide Area Network. Moreover, this would be your Internet
Service Providers Network. Therefore, many routers label one of the Ethernet
ports "Internet", some others more correctly label it "WAN".

To find your WAN IP address, it is also fairly easy to do, but it will require to
log into your router . With that said, open a web browser. Log in to the
router that connects to the Internet by entering its local IP address. The
username and password is required to access your router and can be found in
the router documentation. Find the WAN IP address in the router's
configuration. As stated earlier, it could be called Internet IP or even a
different name, depending on your router type.

Conclusion
Okay, so you know that they are defined area networks. But really what is
the difference.

Basically a LAN (Local Area Network) is a simple computer network located

in small physical areas. For instance, located in homes, offices large and
small, universities, and can consist of a single building or multiple buildings.

A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a complex computer network located in

specific geographical areas. To clarify, it is offices located throughout cities,
counties, states, and even furthermore nations depending on the geographical
locations.

Some of the differences between LAN and WAN is as follows:

- LAN is mainly private but WAN can be public or private.
- LAN speed is higher than WAN.
- Less congestion on a LAN while a WAN experiences more congestion.
- LAN design and maintenance is fairly easy however design and
maintenance for a WAN is much more complicated and difficult.
- LAN operates on principles of broadcasting, while WAN operates on
principle of point to point.

At this point we won’t get into a MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) for the
time being as that would be another article at a later time. However, it is area
network similar to a LAN and WAN.

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ROUTERS
A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information between
two or more packet-switched computer networks. A router inspects a given
data packet's destination Internet Protocol address (IP address), calculates the
best way for it to reach its destination and then forwards it accordingly.

A router is a common type of gateway. It is positioned where two or more

networks meet at each point of presence on the internet. Hundreds of routers
might forward a single packet as it moves from one network to the next on
the way to its final destination. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model, routers are associated with the network layer (Layer 3).

Traditional routers are stand-alone devices that use proprietary software. In

contrast, a virtual router is a software instance that performs the same
functions as a physical router. Virtual routers typically run on commodity
servers, either alone or packaged with other virtual network functions,
like firewall packet filtering, load balancing and wide area network (WAN)
optimization capabilities.

Other network devices, such as wireless access points and switches may
include built-in router functionality.

How a router works

A router examines a packet header's destination IP address and compares it
against a routing table to determine the packet's best next hop. Routing tables
list directions for forwarding data to particular network destinations,
sometimes in the context of other variables, like cost. They amount to an
algorithmic set of rules that calculate the best way to transmit traffic toward
any given IP address.
A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information between
two or more packet-switched computer networks. A router inspects a given
data packet's destination Internet Protocol address (IP address), calculates the
best way for it to reach its destination and then forwards it accordingly.

A router is a common type of gateway. It is positioned where two or more

networks meet at each point of presence on the internet. Hundreds of routers
might forward a single packet as it moves from one network to the next on
the way to its final destination. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model, routers are associated with the network layer (Layer 3).

Traditional routers are stand-alone devices that use proprietary software. In

contrast, a virtual router is a software instance that performs the same
functions as a physical router. Virtual routers typically run on commodity
servers, either alone or packaged with other virtual network functions,
like firewall packet filtering, load balancing and wide area network (WAN)
optimization capabilities.

Other network devices, such as wireless access points and switches may
include built-in router functionality.

How a router works

A router examines a packet header's destination IP address and compares it
against a routing table to determine the packet's best next hop. Routing tables
list directions for forwarding data to particular network destinations,
sometimes in the context of other variables, like cost. They amount to an
algorithmic set of rules that calculate the best way to transmit traffic toward
any given IP address.
A routing table often specifies a default route, which the router uses
whenever it fails to find a better forwarding option for a given packet. For
example, the typical home office router directs all outbound traffic along a
single default route to its internet service provider (ISP).

Routing tables can be static -- i.e., manually configured -- or

dynamic. Dynamic routers automatically update their routing tables based on
network activity, exchanging information with other devices via routing
protocols.

Many routers also perform network address translation (NAT), shielding the
private IP addresses of a local area network (LAN) by readdressing all
outgoing traffic with a single shared public IP address. NAT helps both
conserve globally valid IP addresses and improve network security.

Types of routers
Core routers used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are the fastest and
most powerful, sitting at the center of the internet and forwarding information
along the main fiber optic backbone. Enterprise routers connect large
organizations' networks to these core routers.

An edge router, also known as an access router, is a lower-capacity device

that resides at the boundary of a LAN and connects it to a the public internet
or a private wide area network (WAN) and/or external local area network
(LAN). Home and small office routers are considered subscriber edge routers.

Branch routers link an organization's remote office locations to its WAN,

connecting to the primary campus network's edge routers. Branch routers
often provide additional features, like time-division multiplexing, wireless
LAN management capabilities and WAN application acceleration.
A logical router is a configured partition of a traditional network hardware, or
physical, router. It replicates the hardware's functionality, creating multiple
routing domains within a single router. Logical routers perform a subset of
the tasks that can be handled by the physical router, and each can contain
multiple routing instances and routing tables.

A wireless router works in the same way as the router in a hard-wired home
or business local area network (LAN), but allows greater mobility for
notebook or portable computers. Wireless routers use
the 802.11g specification, a standard that offers transmission over short
distances.

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Wi-Fi access points and range extenders can both play key roles in the
delivery of wireless service to the clients on a network. However, they
perform highly different roles, with access points designed to create a
wireless network and range extenders designed to relay an existing
network. Knowing when to use each technology could help you in the
creation and maintenance of your business's Wi-Fi links.
Wi-Fi Transmission
Understanding the difference between access points and range extenders
requires some knowledge of Wi-Fi transmission. Wi-Fi is a computer
networking technology that allows devices to communicate through radio
waves rather than over cables. These waves are broadcasted and received by
Wi-Fi antennae located in networking hardware and wireless-enabled
devices, in much the same way that a radio station broadcasts its signal to
your home or car. Like all radio waves, Wi-Fi signals are subject to
interference, especially if they have to travel a long distance to reach their
destination.
Access Point
An access point can be thought of as the base station for a Wi-Fi signal.
Access points generate the radio waves needed for Wi-Fi transmission, and
manage the connection and disconnection of new clients to the network.
They can be used as standalone devices, but are often combined with other
networking hardware such as modems and switches. For example, many
networks use a wireless combination modem/router to handle both external
Internet communication and internal wireless networking.

Range Extender
Range extenders are a kind of wireless repeater. They do not broadcast a
unique Wi-Fi signal, but instead rebroadcast the signal already created by an
access point. As such, they usually sit in between an access point and a
network's most distant clients, helping to extend the usable range of that
network. However, using range extenders can have a performance impact on
a network, with increased latency (signal travel time) and reduced signal
strength. This phenomenon is especially prevalent if several wireless
extenders are used in a chain.

Uses
Range extenders are generally used to gain a small increase in the reach of a
network. They work best with clients which do not require a strong signal to
function, and which are not used for time-sensitive applications such as
gaming or streaming. For high-performance networks, it is usually better to
extend the range of the network through the use of multiple access points
rather than range extenders. This option is often more expensive, but makes
for a more even and strong coverage across the network's outer regions.
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