Weather radar

Weather radar, also called weather surveillance radar (WSR) and Doppler weather radar, is a
type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and estimate its type (rain, snow, hail
etc.). Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain
droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to
determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause severe weather.

During World War II, radar operators discovered that weather was causing echoes on their screens,
masking potential enemy targets. Techniques were developed to filter them, but scientists began to
Weather radar in Norman, Oklahoma
study the phenomenon. Soon after the war, surplus radars were used to detect precipitation. Since
with rainshaft
then, weather radar has evolved and is used by national weather services, research departments in
universities, and in television stations' weather departments. Raw images are routinely processed by
specialized software to make short term forecasts of future positions and intensities of rain, snow, hail,
and other weather phenomena. Radar output is even incorporated into numerical weather prediction
models to improve analyses and forecasts.

History
During World War II, military radar operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to rain, snow, and
sleet. After the war, military scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and Weather (WF44) radar dish
pursued their work in developing a use for those echoes. In the United States, David Atlas[1] at first
working for the Air Force and later for MIT, developed the first operational weather radars. In
Canada, J.S. Marshall and R.H. Douglas formed the "Stormy Weather Group" in Montreal.[2][3]
Marshall and his doctoral student Walter Palmer are well known for their work on the drop size
distribution in mid-latitude rain that led to understanding of the Z-R relation, which correlates a given
radar reflectivity with the rate at which rainwater is falling. In the United Kingdom, research
continued to study the radar echo patterns and weather elements such as stratiform rain and convective
clouds, and experiments were done to evaluate the potential of different wavelengths from 1 to 10
centimeters. By 1950 the UK company EKCO was demonstrating its airborne 'cloud and collision
warning search radar equipment'.[4]

Between 1950 and 1980, reflectivity radars, which measure the position and intensity of precipitation,
were incorporated by weather services around the world. The early meteorologists had to watch a
cathode ray tube. In 1953 Donald Staggs, an electrical engineer working for the Illinois State Water
Survey, made the first recorded radar observation of a "hook echo" associated with a tornadic
thunderstorm.[5] University of Oklahoma OU-PRIME
C-band, polarimetric, weather radar
The first use of weather radar on television in the United States was in September 1961. As Hurricane during construction
Carla was approaching the state of Texas, local reporter Dan Rather, suspecting the hurricane was
very large, took a trip to the U.S. Weather Bureau WSR-57
radar site in Galveston in order to get an idea of the size of the
storm. He convinced the bureau staff to let him broadcast live
from their office and asked a meteorologist to draw him a
rough outline of the Gulf of Mexico on a transparent sheet of
plastic. During the broadcast, he held that transparent overlay
over the computer's black-and-white radar display to give his
audience a sense both of Carla's size and of the location of the
storm's eye. This made Rather a national name and his report
1960s radar technology detected
helped in the alerted population accepting the evacuation of an
tornado producing supercells over
the Minneapolis-Saint Paul
estimated 350,000 people by the authorities, which was the
metropolitan area. largest evacuation in US history at that time. Just 46 people Typhoon Cobra as seen on a ship's
were killed thanks to the warning and it was estimated that the radar screen in December 1944.
evacuation saved several thousand lives, as the smaller 1900
Galveston hurricane had killed an estimated 6000-12000 people.[6]
During the 1970s, radars began to be standardized and organized into networks. The first devices to capture radar images were developed.
The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, so that horizontal cross-sections (CAPPI)
and vertical cross-sections could be performed. Studies of the organization of thunderstorms were then possible for the Alberta Hail Project in
Canada and National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) in the US in particular.

The NSSL, created in 1964, began experimentation on dual polarization signals and on Doppler effect uses. In May 1973, a tornado
devastated Union City, Oklahoma, just west of Oklahoma City. For the first time, a Dopplerized 10 cm wavelength radar from NSSL
documented the entire life cycle of the tornado.[7] The researchers discovered a mesoscale rotation in the cloud aloft before the tornado
touched the ground – the tornadic vortex signature. NSSL's research helped convince the National Weather Service that Doppler radar was a
crucial forecasting tool.[7] The Super Outbreak of tornadoes on 3–4 April 1974 and their devastating destruction might have helped to get
funding for further developments.

Between 1980 and 2000, weather radar networks became the norm in North America, Europe, Japan
and other developed countries. Conventional radars were replaced by Doppler radars, which in
addition to position and intensity could track the relative velocity of the particles in the air. In the
United States, the construction of a network consisting of 10 cm radars, called NEXRAD or WSR-
88D (Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler), was started in 1988 following NSSL's
research.[7][8] In Canada, Environment Canada constructed the King City station,[9] with a 5 cm
research Doppler radar, by 1985; McGill University dopplerized its radar (J. S. Marshall Radar
Observatory) in 1993. This led to a complete Canadian Doppler network[10] between 1998 and 2004.
France and other European countries had switched to Doppler networks by the early 2000s.
NEXRAD in South Dakota with a
Meanwhile, rapid advances in computer technology led to algorithms to detect signs of severe
supercell in the background.
weather, and many applications for media outlets and researchers.

After 2000, research on dual polarization technology moved into operational use, increasing the amount of information available on
precipitation type (e.g. rain vs. snow). "Dual polarization" means that microwave radiation which is polarized both horizontally and vertically
(with respect to the ground) is emitted. Wide-scale deployment was done by the end of the decade or the beginning of the next in some
countries such as the United States, France,[11] and Canada. In April 2013, all United States National Weather Service NEXRADs were
completely dual-polarized.[12]

Since 2003, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has been experimenting with phased-array radar as a replacement for
conventional parabolic antenna to provide more time resolution in atmospheric sounding. This could be significant with severe thunderstorms,
as their evolution can be better evaluated with more timely data.

Also in 2003, the National Science Foundation established the Engineering Research Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the
Atmosphere (CASA), a multidisciplinary, multi-university collaboration of engineers, computer scientists, meteorologists, and sociologists to
conduct fundamental research, develop enabling technology, and deploy prototype engineering systems designed to augment existing radar
systems by sampling the generally undersampled lower troposphere with inexpensive, fast scanning, dual polarization, mechanically scanned
and phased array radars.

In 2023, the private American company Tomorrow.io launched a Ka-band space-based radar for weather observation and forecasting.[13][14]

Principle

Sending radar pulses

Weather radars send directional pulses of microwave radiation, on the order of one
microsecond long, using a cavity magnetron or klystron tube connected by a waveguide to a
parabolic antenna. The wavelengths of 1 – 10 cm are approximately ten times the diameter
of the droplets or ice particles of interest, because Rayleigh scattering occurs at these
frequencies. This means that part of the energy of each pulse will bounce off these small
particles, back towards the radar station.[15]

Shorter wavelengths are useful for smaller particles, but the signal is more quickly
attenuated. Thus 10 cm (S-band) radar is preferred but is more expensive than a 5 cm C-
band system. 3 cm X-band radar is used only for short-range units, and 1 cm Ka-band
weather radar is used only for research on small-particle phenomena such as drizzle and
A radar beam spreads out as it moves away
fog.[15] W band (3 mm) weather radar systems have seen limited university use, but due to from the radar station, covering an increasingly
quicker attenuation, most data are not operational. large volume.
Radar pulses diverge as they move away from the radar station. Thus the volume of air that a radar pulse is traversing is larger for areas farther
away from the station, and smaller for nearby areas, decreasing resolution at farther distances. At the end of a 150 – 200 km sounding range,
the volume of air scanned by a single pulse might be on the order of a cubic kilometer. This is called the pulse volume.[16]

The volume of air that a given pulse takes up at any point in time may be approximated by the formula , where v is the volume
enclosed by the pulse, h is pulse width (in e.g. meters, calculated from the duration in seconds of the pulse times the speed of light), r is the
distance from the radar that the pulse has already traveled (in e.g. meters), and is the beam width (in radians). This formula assumes the
beam is symmetrically circular, "r" is much greater than "h" so "r" taken at the beginning or at the end of the pulse is almost the same, and the
shape of the volume is a cone frustum of depth "h".[15]

Listening for return signals

Between each pulse, the radar station serves as a receiver as it listens for return signals from particles in the air. The duration of the "listen"
cycle is on the order of a millisecond, which is a thousand times longer than the pulse duration. The length of this phase is determined by the
need for the microwave radiation (which travels at the speed of light) to propagate from the detector to the weather target and back again, a
distance which could be several hundred kilometers. The horizontal distance from station to target is calculated simply from the amount of
time that elapses from the initiation of the pulse to the detection of the return signal. The time is converted into distance by multiplying by the
speed of light in air:

where c = 299,792.458 km/s is the speed of light, and n ≈ 1.0003 is the refractive index of air.[17]

If pulses are emitted too frequently, the returns from one pulse will be confused with the returns from previous pulses, resulting in incorrect
distance calculations.

Determining height
Since the Earth is round, the radar beam in vacuum would rise according to the
reverse curvature of the Earth. However, the atmosphere has a refractive index that
diminishes with height, due to its diminishing density. This bends the radar beam
slightly toward the ground and with a standard atmosphere this is equivalent to
considering that the curvature of the beam is 4/3 the actual curvature of the Earth.
Depending on the elevation angle of the antenna and other considerations, the
following formula may be used to calculate the target's height above ground:[18]

The radar beam path with height

where:

r = distance radar–target,
ke = 4/3,
ae = Earth radius,
θe = elevation angle above the radar horizon,
ha = height of the feedhorn above ground.

A weather radar network uses a series of typical angles that are set according to its needs. After each
scanning rotation, the antenna elevation is changed for the next sounding. This scenario will be
repeated on many angles to scan the entire volume of air around the radar within the maximum range.
Usually, the scanning strategy is completed within 5 to 10 minutes to have data within 15 km above
ground and 250 km distance of the radar. For instance in Canada, the 5 cm weather radars use angles
ranging from 0.3 to 25 degrees. The accompanying image shows the volume scanned when multiple
angles are used. Due to the Earth's curvature and change of index of refraction with height, the radar Scanned volume by using multiple
cannot "see" below the height above ground of the minimal angle (shown in green) or closer to the elevation angles
radar than the maximal one (shown as a red cone in the center).[19]

Calibrating return intensity

Because the targets are not unique in each volume, the radar equation has to be developed beyond the basic one. Assuming a monostatic radar
where :[15][20]
where is received power, is transmitted power, is the gain of the transmitting/receiving antenna, is radar wavelength, is the radar
cross section of the target and is the distance from transmitter to target.

In this case, the cross sections of all the targets must be summed:[21]

where is the light speed, is temporal duration of a pulse and is the beam width in radians.

In combining the two equations:

Which leads to:

The return varies inversely to instead of . In order to compare the data coming from different distances from the radar, one has to
normalize them with this ratio.

Data types

Reflectivity
Return echoes from targets ("reflectivity") are analyzed for their intensities to establish the precipitation rate in the scanned volume. The
wavelengths used (1–10 cm) ensure that this return is proportional to the rate because they are within the validity of Rayleigh scattering which
states that the targets must be much smaller than the wavelength of the scanning wave (by a factor of 10).

Reflectivity perceived by the radar (Ze) varies by the sixth power of the rain droplets' diameter (D), the square of the dielectric constant (K) of
the targets and the drop size distribution (e.g. N[D] of Marshall-Palmer) of the drops. This gives a truncated Gamma function, [22] of the
form:

Precipitation rate (R), on the other hand, is equal to the number of particles, their volume and their fall speed (v[D]) as:

So Ze and R have similar functions that can be resolved by giving a relation between the two of the form called Z-R relation:

Z = aRb

Where a and b depend on the type of precipitation (snow, rain, convective or stratiform), which has different , K, N0 and v.

As the antenna scans the atmosphere, on every angle of azimuth it obtains a certain strength of return from each type of
target encountered. Reflectivity is then averaged for that target to have a better data set.
Since variation in diameter and dielectric constant of the targets can lead to large variability in power return to the radar,
reflectivity is expressed in dBZ (10 times the logarithm of the ratio of the echo to a standard 1 mm diameter drop filling the
same scanned volume).

How to read reflectivity on a radar display

Radar returns are usually described by colour or level. The colours in a radar image normally range from blue or green for
weak returns, to red or magenta for very strong returns. The numbers in a verbal report increase with the severity of the
returns. For example, the U.S. National NEXRAD radar sites use the following scale for different levels of reflectivity:[23]

magenta: 65 dBZ (extremely heavy precipitation, > 16 in (410 mm) per hour, but likely hail)
red: 50 dBZ (heavy precipitation of 2 in (51 mm) per hour)
yellow: 35 dBZ (moderate precipitation of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) per hour)
green: 20 dBZ (light precipitation)
Strong returns (red or magenta) may indicate not only heavy rain but also thunderstorms, hail, strong winds, or tornadoes,
but they need to be interpreted carefully, for reasons described below.

Aviation conventions
When describing weather radar returns, pilots, dispatchers, and air traffic controllers will typically refer to three return
levels:[24]

level 1 corresponds to a green radar return, indicating usually light precipitation and little to no turbulence, NWS color
leading to a possibility of reduced visibility. scale of
reflectivities.
level 2 corresponds to a yellow radar return, indicating moderate precipitation, leading to the possibility of
very low visibility, moderate turbulence and an uncomfortable ride for aircraft passengers.
level 3 corresponds to a red radar return, indicating heavy precipitation, leading to the possibility of thunderstorms and
severe turbulence and structural damage to the aircraft.
Aircraft will try to avoid level 2 returns when possible, and will always avoid level 3 unless they are specially-designed research aircraft.

Precipitation types
Some displays provided by commercial television outlets (both local and national) and weather websites, like The Weather Channel and
AccuWeather, show precipitation types during the winter months: rain, snow, mixed precipitations (sleet and freezing rain). This is not an
analysis of the radar data itself but a post-treatment done with other data sources, the primary being surface reports (METAR).[25]

Over the area covered by radar echoes, a program assigns a precipitation type according to the surface temperature and dew point reported at
the underlying weather stations. Precipitation types reported by human operated stations and certain automatic ones (AWOS) will have higher
weight.[26] Then the program does interpolations to produce an image with defined zones. These will include interpolation errors due to the
calculation. Mesoscale variations of the precipitation zones will also be lost.[25] More sophisticated programs use the numerical weather
prediction output from models, such as NAM and WRF, for the precipitation types and apply it as a first guess to the radar echoes, then use
the surface data for final output.

Until dual-polarization (section Polarization below) data are widely available, any precipitation types on radar images are only indirect
information and must be taken with care.

Velocity
Precipitation is found in and below clouds. Light precipitation such as drops and flakes is subject to
the air currents, and scanning radar can pick up the horizontal component of this motion, thus giving
the possibility to estimate the wind speed and direction where precipitation is present.

A target's motion relative to the radar station causes a change in the reflected frequency of the radar
pulse, due to the Doppler effect. With velocities of less than 70-metre/second for weather echos and
radar wavelength of 10 cm, this amounts to a change only 0.1 ppm. This difference is too small to be
noted by electronic instruments. However, as the targets move slightly between each pulse, the
returned wave has a noticeable phase difference or phase shift from pulse to pulse.
Idealized example of Doppler output.
Approaching velocities are in blue Pulse pair
and receding velocities are in red.
Notice the sinusoidal variation of Doppler weather radars use this phase difference (pulse pair difference) to calculate the precipitation's
speed when going around the display motion. The intensity of the successively returning pulse from the same scanned volume where targets
at a particular range. have slightly moved is:[15]
So , v = target speed = . This speed is called the radial Doppler velocity because it gives only the radial variation of
distance versus time between the radar and the target. The real speed and direction of motion has to be extracted by the process described
below.

Doppler dilemma
The phase between pulse pairs can vary from - and + , so the unambiguous Doppler velocity range
is[15]

Vmax =

This is called the Nyquist velocity. This is inversely dependent on the time between successive pulses:
the smaller the interval, the larger is the unambiguous velocity range. However, we know that the
maximum range from reflectivity is directly proportional to : Maximum range from reflectivity
(red) and unambiguous Doppler
x= velocity range (blue) with pulse
repetition frequency

The choice becomes increasing the range from reflectivity at the expense of velocity range, or
increasing the latter at the expense of range from reflectivity. In general, the useful range compromise is 100–150 km for reflectivity. This
means for a wavelength of 5 cm (as shown in the diagram), an unambiguous velocity range of 12.5 to 18.75 metre/second is produced (for
150 km and 100 km, respectively). For a 10 cm radar such as the NEXRAD,[15] the unambiguous velocity range would be doubled.

Some techniques using two alternating pulse repetition frequencies (PRF) allow a greater Doppler range. The velocities noted with the first
pulse rate could be equal or different with the second. For instance, if the maximum velocity with a certain rate is 10 metre/second and the one
with the other rate is 15 m/s. The data coming from both will be the same up to 10 m/s, and will differ thereafter. It is then possible to find a
mathematical relation between the two returns and calculate the real velocity beyond the limitation of the two PRFs.

Doppler interpretation
In a uniform rainstorm moving eastward, a radar beam pointing west will "see" the raindrops moving
toward itself, while a beam pointing east will "see" the drops moving away. When the beam scans to
the north or to the south, no relative motion is noted.[15]

Synoptic
In the synoptic scale interpretation, the user can extract the wind at different levels over the radar
coverage region. As the beam is scanning 360 degrees around the radar, data will come from all those
angles and be the radial projection of the actual wind on the individual angle. The intensity pattern
formed by this scan can be represented by a cosine curve (maximum in the precipitation motion and
zero in the perpendicular direction). One can then calculate the direction and the strength of the
motion of particles as long as there is enough coverage on the radar screen.

However, the rain drops are falling. As the radar only sees the radial component and has a certain
elevation from ground, the radial velocities are contaminated by some fraction of the falling speed.
This component is negligible in small elevation angles, but must be taken into account for higher
scanning angles.[15]
Radial component of real winds when
scanning through 360 degrees
Meso scale
In the velocity data, there could be smaller zones in the radar coverage where the wind varies from the
one mentioned above. For example, a thunderstorm is a mesoscale phenomenon which often includes rotations and turbulence. These may
only cover few square kilometers but are visible by variations in the radial speed. Users can recognize velocity patterns in the wind associated
with rotations, such as mesocyclone, convergence (outflow boundary) and divergence (downburst).

Polarization
Droplets of falling liquid water tend to have a larger horizontal axis due to the drag coefficient of air while falling (water droplets). This causes
the water molecule dipole to be oriented in that direction; so, radar beams are, generally, polarized horizontally in order to receive the maximal
signal reflection.

If two pulses are sent simultaneously with orthogonal polarization (vertical and horizontal, ZV and ZH respectively), two independent sets of
data will be received. These signals can be compared in several useful ways:[27][28]
 Differential Reflectivity (Zdr) – Differential reflectivity is proportional to the
ratio of the reflected horizontal and vertical power returns as ZH / ZV.
Among other things, it is a good indicator of droplet shape. Differential
reflectivity also can provide an estimate of average droplet size, as larger
drops are more subject to deformation by aerodynamic forces than are
smaller ones (that is, larger drops are more likely to become "hamburger
bun-shaped") as they fall through the air.
Correlation Coefficient (ρhv ) – A statistical correlation between the
reflected horizontal and vertical power returns. High values, near one, Targeting with dual-polarization will reveal the
indicate homogeneous precipitation types, while lower values indicate form of the droplet
regions of mixed precipitation types, such as rain and snow, or hail, or in
extreme cases debris aloft, usually coinciding with a tornado debris
signature and a tornado vortex signature.
Linear Depolarization Ratio (LDR) – This is a ratio of a vertical power return from a horizontal pulse or a horizontal
power return from a vertical pulse. It can also indicate regions where there is a mixture of precipitation types.
Differential Phase ( ) – The differential phase is a comparison of the returned phase difference between the
horizontal and vertical pulses. This change in phase is caused by the difference in the number of wave cycles (or
wavelengths) along the propagation path for horizontal and vertically polarized waves. It should not be confused with
the Doppler frequency shift, which is caused by the motion of the cloud and precipitation particles. Unlike the
differential reflectivity, correlation coefficient and linear depolarization ratio, which are all dependent on reflected
power, the differential phase is a "propagation effect." It is a very good estimator of rain rate and is not affected by
attenuation. The range derivative of differential phase (specific differential phase, Kdp) can be used to localize areas
of strong precipitation/attenuation.

With more information about particle shape, dual-polarization radars can more easily distinguish airborne debris from precipitation, making it
easier to locate tornados.[29]

With this new knowledge added to the reflectivity, velocity, and spectrum width produced by Doppler weather radars, researchers have been
working on developing algorithms to differentiate precipitation types, non-meteorological targets, and to produce better rainfall accumulation
estimates.[27][30][31] In the U.S., NCAR and NSSL have been world leaders in this field.[27][32]

NOAA established a test deployment for dual-polametric radar at NSSL and equipped all its 10 cm NEXRAD radars with dual-polarization,
which was completed in April 2013.[12] In 2004, ARMOR Doppler Weather Radar in Huntsville, Alabama was equipped with a SIGMET
Antenna Mounted Receiver, giving Dual-Polarmetric capabilities to the operator. McGill University J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory in
Montreal, Canada has converted its instrument (1999)[33] and the data were used operationally by Environment Canada in Montreal until its
closure in 2018.[34][35] Another Environment Canada radar, in King City (North of Toronto), was dual-polarized in 2005;[36] it uses a 5 cm
wavelength, which experiences greater attenuation.[37] Environment Canada is converting graually all of its radars to dual-polarization.[38]
Météo-France is planning on incorporating dual-polarizing Doppler radar in its network coverage.[39]

Radar display methods

Various methods of displaying data from radar scans have been developed over time to address the needs of its users. This is a list of common
and specialized displays:

Plan position indicator

Since data is obtained one angle at a time, the first way of displaying it has been the Plan Position
Indicator (PPI) which is only the layout of radar return on a two dimensional image. Importantly, the
data coming from different distances to the radar are at different heights above ground.

This is very important as a high rain rate seen near the radar is relatively close to what reaches the
ground but what is seen from 160 km away is about 1.5 km above ground and could be far different
from the amount reaching the surface. It is thus difficult to compare weather echoes at different
distances from the radar.
Thunderstorm line viewed in
PPIs are affected by ground echoes near the radar. These can be misinterpreted as real echoes. Other reflectivity (dBZ) on a PPI
products and further treatments of data have been developed to supplement such shortcomings.

Usage: Reflectivity, Doppler and polarimetric data can use PPI.

In the case of Doppler data, two points of view are possible: relative to the surface or the storm. When looking at the general motion of the
rain to extract wind at different altitudes, it is better to use data relative to the radar. But when looking for rotation or wind shear under a
thunderstorm, it is better to use storm relative images that subtract the general motion of precipitation leaving the user to view the air motion as
if he would be sitting on the cloud.

Constant-altitude plan position indicator

To avoid some of the PPI problems, the constant-altitude plan position indicator (CAPPI) has
been developed by Canadian researchers. It is a horizontal cross-section through radar data.
This way, one can compare precipitation on an equal footing at difference distance from the
radar and avoid ground echoes. Although data are taken at a certain height above ground, a
relation can be inferred between ground stations' reports and the radar data.

CAPPIs call for a large number of angles from near the horizontal to near the vertical of the
radar to have a cut that is as close as possible at all distance to the height needed. Even then,
after a certain distance, there isn't any angle available and the CAPPI becomes the PPI of the
Typical angles scanned in Canada. The lowest angle. The zigzag line on the angles diagram above shows the data used to produce
zigzags represent data angles used to 1.5 km and 4 km height CAPPIs. Notice that the section after 120 km is using the same data.
make CAPPIs at 1.5 km and 4 km of
altitude. Usage

Since the CAPPI uses the closest angle to the desired height at each point from the radar, the
data can originate from slightly different altitudes, as seen on the image, in different points of the radar coverage. It is therefore crucial to have
a large enough number of sounding angles to minimize this height change. Furthermore, the type of data must change relatively gradually with
height to produce an image that is not noisy.

Reflectivity data being relatively smooth with height, CAPPIs are mostly used for displaying them. Velocity data, on the other hand, can
change rapidly in direction with height and CAPPIs of them are not common. It seems that only McGill University is producing regularly
Doppler CAPPIs with the 24 angles available on their radar.[40] However, some researchers have published papers using velocity CAPPIs to
study tropical cyclones and development of NEXRAD products.[41] Finally, polarimetric data are recent and often noisy. There doesn't seem
to have regular use of CAPPI for them although the SIGMET company offer a software capable to produce those types of images.[42]

Vertical composite
Another solution to the PPI problems is to produce images of the maximum reflectivity in a
layer above ground. This solution is usually taken when the number of angles available is
small or variable. The American National Weather Service is using such Composite as their
scanning scheme can vary from 4 to 14 angles, according to their need, which would make
very coarse CAPPIs. The Composite assures that no strong echo is missed in the layer and a
treatment using Doppler velocities eliminates the ground echoes. Comparing base and
composite products, one can locate virga and updrafts zones.
Base PPI versus Composite.

Accumulations
Another important use of radar data is the ability to assess the amount of precipitation that has fallen
over large basins, to be used in hydrological calculations; such data is useful in flood control, sewer
management and dam construction. The computed data from radar weather may be used in
conjunction with data from ground stations.

To produce radar accumulations, we have to estimate the rain rate over a point by the average value
over that point between one PPI, or CAPPI, and the next; then multiply by the time between those
images. If one wants for a longer period of time, one has to add up all the accumulations from image
to image during that time.
24 hours rain accumulation on the
Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada.
Echotops Notice the zones without data in the
East and Southwest caused by radar
beam blocking from mountains.
Aviation is a heavy user of radar data. One map particularly important in this field is the Echotops for flight planning and avoidance of
dangerous weather. Most country weather radars scan enough angles to have a 3D set of data over the area of coverage. It is relatively easy to
estimate the maximum altitude at which precipitation is found within the volume. However, those are not the tops of clouds, as they always
extend above the precipitation.

Vertical cross sections

To know the vertical structure of clouds, in particular thunderstorms or the level of the melting layer, a
vertical cross-section product of the radar data is available to meteorologists. This is done by
displaying only the data along a line, from coordinates A to B, taken from the different angles
scanned.

Range Height Indicator

When a weather radar is scanning in only the vertical axis, it Vertical cross-section.
can obtain much higher resolution data than it could with a
composite-vertical slice using combined PPI tilts. This output
is called a Range Height Indicator (RHI), which is excellent for viewing the detailed smaller-scale
vertical structure of a storm. As mentioned, this is different from the vertical cross section mentioned
above, namely due to the fact that the radar antenna is scanning solely vertically, and does not scan
Image of an RHI. over the entire 360 degrees around the site. This kind of product is typically only available on research
radars.

Radar networks
Over the past few decades, radar networks have been extended to allow the production of composite
views covering large areas. For instance, countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia,
Japan, and much of Europe, combine images from their radar network into a singular display.

In fact, such a network can consist of different types of radar with different characteristics like beam
width, wavelength and calibration. These differences have to be taken into account when matching
data across the network, particularly when deciding what data to use when two radars cover the same
point. If one uses the stronger echo but it comes from the most distant radar, one uses returns that are
Berrimah Radar in Darwin, Northern
from higher altitude coming from rain or snow that might evaporate before reaching the ground Territory Australia
(virga). If one uses data from the closest radar, it might be attenuated by passing through a
thunderstorm. Composite images of precipitations using a network of radars are made with all those
limitations in mind.

Automatic algorithms
To help meteorologists spot dangerous weather, mathematical algorithms have been introduced in the
weather radar treatment programmes. These are particularly important in analyzing the Doppler
velocity data as they are more complex. The polarization data will even need more algorithms.

Main algorithms for reflectivity:[15]

Vertically Integrated Liquid (VIL) is an estimate of the total mass of precipitation in the
clouds.
VIL Density is VIL divided by the height of the cloud top. It is a clue to the possibility of
large hail in thunderstorms. The square in this Doppler image has
Potential wind gust, which can estimate the winds under a cloud (a downdraft) using the been automatically placed by the
VIL and the height of the echotops (radar estimated top of the cloud) for a given storm radar program to spot the position of
cell. a mesocyclone. Notice the
Hail algorithms that estimate the presence of hail and its probable size. inbound/outbound doublet
(blue/yellow) with the zero velocity
Main algorithms for Doppler velocities:[15] line (gray) parallel to the radial to the
radar (up right). It is noteworthy to
Mesocyclone detection: is triggered by a velocity change over a small circular area. The mention that the change in wind
algorithm is searching for a "doublet" of inbound/outbound velocities with the zero line direction here occurs over less than
of velocities, between the two, along a radial line from the radar. Usually the
10 km.
mesocyclone detection must be found on two or more stacked progressive tilts of the
beam to be significative of rotation into a thunderstorm cloud.
TVS or Tornado Vortex Signature algorithm is essentially a mesocyclone with a large velocity threshold found through
many scanning angles. This algorithm is used in NEXRAD to indicate the possibility of a tornado formation.
 Wind shear in low levels. This algorithm detects the variation of wind velocities from point to point in the data and looks for
a doublet of inbound/outbound velocities with the zero line perpendicular to the radar beam. The wind shear is associated
with downdraft, (downburst and microburst), gust fronts and turbulence under thunderstorms.
VAD Wind Profile (VWP) is a display that estimates the direction and speed of the horizontal wind at various upper levels of
the atmosphere, using the technique explained in the Doppler section.

Animations
The animation of radar products can show the evolution of reflectivity and velocity patterns. The user can extract
information on the dynamics of the meteorological phenomena, including the ability to extrapolate the motion and
observe development or dissipation. This can also reveal non-meteorological artifacts (false echoes) that will be discussed
later.

PPI reflectivity
Radar Integrated Display with Geospatial Elements
loop (in dBZ)
showing the A new popular presentation of weather radar data in United States is via Radar
evolution of a Integrated Display with Geospatial Elements (RIDGE) in which the radar data is
hurricane projected on a map with geospatial elements such as topography maps, highways,
state/county boundaries and weather warnings. The projection is often flexible
giving the user a choice of various geographic elements. It is frequently used in
conjunction with animations of radar data over a time period.[44][45] Map of the RIDGE presentation of
2011 Joplin tornado.[43]

Limitations and artifacts

Radar data interpretation depends on many hypotheses about the
atmosphere and the weather targets, including:[46]

International Standard Atmosphere.

Targets small enough to obey the Rayleigh scattering,
resulting in the return being proportional to the precipitation
rate.
The volume scanned by the beam is full of meteorological
targets (rain, snow, etc.), all of the same variety and in a
uniform concentration.
No attenuation
No amplification
Return from side lobes of the beam are negligible.
The beam is close to a Gaussian function curve with power decreasing to half at half the width.
The outgoing and returning waves are similarly polarized.
There is no return from multiple reflections.
These assumptions are not always met; one must be able to differentiate between reliable and dubious echoes.

Anomalous propagation (non-standard atmosphere)

The first assumption is that the radar beam is moving through air that cools down at a certain rate with height. The position of the echoes
depend heavily on this hypothesis. However, the real atmosphere can vary greatly from the norm.

Super refraction
Temperature inversions often form near the ground, for instance by air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. As the index of refraction
of air decreases faster than normal the radar beam bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward. Eventually, it will hit the ground
and be reflected back toward the radar. The processing program will then wrongly place the return echoes at the height and distance it would
have been in normal conditions.[46]

This type of false return is relatively easy to spot on a time loop if it is due to night cooling or marine inversion as one sees very strong echoes
developing over an area, spreading in size laterally but not moving and varying greatly in intensity. However, inversion of temperature exists
ahead of warm fronts and the abnormal propagation echoes are then mixed with real rain.

The extreme of this problem is when the inversion is very strong and shallow, the radar beam reflects many times toward the ground as it has
to follow a waveguide path. This will create multiple bands of strong echoes on the radar images.
This situation can be found with inversions of temperature aloft or rapid decrease of moisture with height.[47] In the former case, it could be
difficult to notice.

Under refraction
On the other hand, if the air is unstable and cools faster than the standard atmosphere with height, the beam ends up higher than expected.[47]
This indicates that precipitation is occurring higher than the actual height. Such an error is difficult to detect without additional temperature
lapse rate data for the area.

Non-Rayleigh targets
If we want to reliably estimate the precipitation rate, the targets have to be 10 times smaller than the radar wave according to Rayleigh
scattering.[15] This is because the water molecule has to be excited by the radar wave to give a return. This is relatively true for rain or snow
as 5 or 10 cm wavelength radars are usually employed.

However, for very large hydrometeors, since the wavelength is on the order of stone, the return levels off according to Mie theory. A return of
more than 55 dBZ is likely to come from hail but won't vary proportionally to the size. On the other hand, very small targets such as cloud
droplets are too small to be excited and do not give a recordable return on common weather radars.

Resolution and partially filled scanned volume

As demonstrated at the start of the article, radar
beams have a physical dimension and data are
sampled at discrete angles, not continuously, along
each angle of elevation.[46] This results in an
averaging of the values of the returns for reflectivity,
velocities and polarization data on the resolution
volume scanned.

In the figure to the left, at the top is a view of a

thunderstorm taken by a wind profiler as it was
passing overhead. This is like a vertical cross section
through the cloud with 150-metre vertical and 30-
Profiler high resolution view of a thunderstorm (top) and metre horizontal resolution. The reflectivity has large
by a weather radar (bottom). variations in a short distance. Compare this with a
simulated view of what a regular weather radar
would see at 60 km, in the bottom of the figure. A supercell thunderstorm
Everything has been smoothed out. Not only the coarser resolution of the radar blur the image but the seen from two radars almost
sounding incorporates area that are echo free, thus extending the thunderstorm beyond its real boundaries. colocated. The top image is
from a TDWR and the
This shows how the output of weather radar is only an approximation of reality. The image to the right bottom one from a
compares real data from two radars almost colocated. The TDWR has about half the beamwidth of the other NEXRAD.
and one can see twice more details than with the NEXRAD.

Resolution can be improved by newer equipment but some things cannot. As mentioned previously, the volume scanned increases with
distance so the possibility that the beam is only partially filled also increases. This leads to underestimation of the precipitation rate at larger
distances and fools the user into thinking that rain is lighter as it moves away.

Beam geometry
The radar beam has a distribution of energy similar to the diffraction pattern of a light passing through a slit.[15] This is because the wave is
transmitted to the parabolic antenna through a slit in the wave-guide at the focal point. Most of the energy is at the center of the beam and
decreases along a curve close to a Gaussian function on each side. However, there are secondary peaks of emission that will sample the targets
at off-angles from the center. Designers attempt to minimize the power transmitted by such lobes, but they cannot be eliminated.

When a secondary lobe hits a reflective target such as a mountain or a strong thunderstorm, some of the energy is reflected to the radar. This
energy is relatively weak but arrives at the same time that the central peak is illuminating a different azimuth. The echo is thus misplaced by
the processing program. This has the effect of actually broadening the real weather echo making a smearing of weaker values on each side of
it. This causes the user to overestimate the extent of the real echoes.[46]
 The strong echoes are returns of the central peak
of the radar from a series of small hills (yellow and
reds pixels). The weaker echoes on each sides of
Idealized energy distribution of a radar
them are from secondary lobes (blue and green)
beam (Central lobe at 0 and secondary
lobes on each side)
Diffraction by a circular slit simulating the
energy viewed by weather targets

Non-weather targets
There is more than rain and snow in the sky. Other objects can be misinterpreted as rain or snow by weather radars. Insects and arthropods are
swept along by the prevailing winds, while birds follow their own course.[48] As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery,
associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns.[49] Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 2000
metres of the Earth's atmosphere, contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the WSR-88D, by increasing the
environmental wind returns by 30–60 km/h.[50] Other objects within radar imagery include:[46]

Thin metal strips (chaff) dropped by military aircraft to fool enemies.

Solid obstacles such as mountains, buildings, and aircraft.
Ground and sea clutter.
Reflections from nearby buildings ("urban spikes").
Such extraneous objects have characteristics that allow a trained eye to distinguish them. It is also possible to eliminate some of them with
post-treatment of data using reflectivity, Doppler, and polarization data.

Wind farms
The rotating blades of windmills on modern wind farms can return
the radar beam to the radar if they are in its path. Since the blades
are moving, the echoes will have a velocity and can be mistaken
for real precipitation.[51] The closer the wind farm, the stronger the
return, and the combined signal from many towers is stronger. In
some conditions, the radar can even see toward and away
velocities that generate false positives for the tornado vortex
signature algorithm on weather radar; such an event occurred in
2009 in Dodge City, Kansas.[52]

As with other structures that stand in the beam, attenuation of radar

returns from beyond windmills may also lead to underestimation. Reflectivity (left) and radial velocities (right) southeast of a NEXRAD
weather radar. Echoes in circles are from a wind farm.

Attenuation
Microwaves used in weather radars can be absorbed by rain, depending on the wavelength used. For 10 cm radars, this attenuation is
negligible.[15] That is the reason why countries with high water content storms are using 10 cm wavelength, for example the US NEXRAD.
The cost of a larger antenna, klystron and other related equipment is offset by this benefit.

For a 5 cm radar, absorption becomes important in heavy rain and this attenuation leads to underestimation of echoes in and beyond a strong
thunderstorm.[15] Canada and other northern countries use this less costly kind of radar as the precipitation in such areas is usually less intense.
However, users must consider this characteristic when interpreting data. The images above show how a strong line of echoes seems to vanish
as it moves over the radar. To compensate for this behaviour, radar sites are often chosen to somewhat overlap in coverage to give different
points of view of the same storms.
 Shorter wavelengths are even
more attenuated and are only
useful on short range[15] radar.
Many television stations in the
United States have 5 cm radars
to cover their audience area.
Knowing their limitations and
using them with the local
NEXRAD can supplement the
data available to a
meteorologist.
Example of strong attenuation when a line of thunderstorms moves over (from left to right images) a 5 cm
Due to the spread of dual-
wavelength weather radar (red arrow). Source: Environment Canada
polarization radar systems,
robust and efficient approaches
for the compensation of rain attenuation are currently implemented by operational weather services.[53][54][55] Attenuation correction in
weather radars for snow particles is an active research topic.[56]

Bright band
A radar beam's reflectivity depends on the diameter of the target and its capacity to
reflect. Snowflakes are large but weakly reflective while rain drops are small but
highly reflective.[15][57]

When snow falls through a layer above freezing temperature, it melts into rain.
Using the reflectivity equation, one can demonstrate that the returns from the snow
before melting and the rain after, are not too different as the change in dielectric
constant compensates for the change in size. However, during the melting process,
the radar wave "sees" something akin to very large droplets as snow flakes become
1.5 km altitude CAPPI at the top with strong
coated with water.[15][57]
contamination from the brightband (yellows). The
vertical cut at the bottom shows that this strong return
This gives enhanced returns that can be mistaken for stronger precipitations. On a
is only above ground. PPI, this will show up as an intense ring of precipitation at the altitude where the
beam crosses the melting level while on a series of CAPPIs, only the ones near that
level will have stronger echoes. A good way to confirm a bright band is to make a
vertical cross section through the data, as illustrated in the picture above.[46]

An opposite problem is that drizzle (precipitation with small water droplet diameter) tends not to show up on radar because radar returns are
proportional to the sixth power of droplet diameter.

Multiple reflections
It is assumed that the beam hits the weather targets and returns directly to the radar. In fact, there is
energy reflected in all directions. Most of it is weak, and multiple reflections diminish it even further
so what can eventually return to the radar from such an event is negligible. However, some situations
allow a multiple-reflected radar beam to be received by the radar antenna.[15] For instance, when the
beam hits hail, the energy spread toward the wet ground will be reflected back to the hail and then to
the radar. The resulting echo is weak but noticeable. Due to the extra path length it has to go through,
it arrives later at the antenna and is placed further than its source.[58] This gives a kind of triangle of
false weaker reflections placed radially behind the hail.[46]
Three-body scattering.

Solutions and future solutions

Filtering
These two images show what can be achieved to clean up radar data. On the first image made from the raw returns, it is difficult to distinguish
the real weather. Since rain and snow clouds are usually moving, Doppler velocities can be used to eliminate a good part of the clutter (ground
echoes, reflections from buildings seen as urban spikes, anomalous propagation). The other image has been filtered using this property.
 However, not all non-meteorological targets remain stationary
(birds, insects, dust). Others, like the bright band, depend on
the structure of the precipitation. Polarization offers a direct
typing of the echoes which could be used to filter more false
data or produce separate images for specialized purposes, such
as clutter, birds, etc. subsets.[59][60]

Radar image of reflectivity with many The same image but cleaned using
non-weather echoes. the Doppler velocities.

Mesonet
Another question is the resolution. As mentioned, radar data are an average of the scanned volume by the beam.
Resolution can be improved by larger antenna or denser networks. A program by the Center for Collaborative
Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere (CASA) aims to supplement the regular NEXRAD (a network in the United
States) using many low cost X-band (3 cm) weather radar mounted on cellular telephone towers.[61][62] These
radars will subdivide the large area of the NEXRAD into smaller domains to look at altitudes below its lowest
angle. These will give details not otherwise available.

Using 3 cm radars, the antenna of each radar is small (about 1 meter diameter) but the resolution is similar at short
distance to that of NEXRAD. The attenuation is significant due to the wavelength used but each point in the
coverage area is seen by many radars, each viewing from a different direction and compensating for data lost from
others.[61]
Phased Array Weather
Radar in Norman,
Scanning strategies Oklahoma

The number of elevation scanned and the time taken for a complete cycle depend on the weather. For example,
with little or no precipitation the scheme may be limited to the lowest angles and use longer impulses in order to detect wind shift near the
surface. On the other hand, for violent thunderstorms it is better to scan a large range of angles in order to have a 3-D view of the precipitation
as often as possible. To mitigate the different demands, scanning strategies have been developed according to the type of radar, the wavelength
used and the most common weather situations in the area considered.

One example of scanning strategies is offered by the US NEXRAD radar network which has evolved over time. In 2008, it added extra
resolution of data,[63] and in 2014, additional intra-cycle scanning of the lowest level elevation (MESO-SAILS[64]).

Electronic sounding
Timeliness also needs improvement. With 5 to 10 minutes between complete scans of weather radar, much data is lost as a thunderstorm
develops. A Phased-array radar is being tested at the National Severe Storms Lab in Norman, Oklahoma, to speed the data gathering.[65] A
team in Japan has also deployed a phased-array radar for 3D NowCasting at the RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science
(AICS).[66]

Specialized applications

Avionics weather radar

Aircraft application of radar systems include weather radar, collision avoidance, target tracking,
ground proximity, and other systems. For commercial weather radar, ARINC 708 is the primary
specification for weather radar systems using an airborne pulse-Doppler radar.

Antennas
Global Express Weather radar with
Unlike ground weather radar, which is set at a fixed angle, airborne weather radar is being utilized radome up
from the nose or wing of an aircraft. Not only will the aircraft be moving up, down, left, and right, but
it will be rolling as well. To compensate for this, the antenna is linked and calibrated to the vertical
gyroscope located on the aircraft. By doing this, the pilot is able to set a pitch or angle to the antenna that will enable the stabilizer to keep the
antenna pointed in the right direction under moderate maneuvers. The small servo motors will not be able to keep up with abrupt maneuvers,
but it will try. In doing this the pilot is able to adjust the radar so that it will point towards the weather system of interest. If the airplane is at a
low altitude, the pilot would want to set the radar above the horizon line so that ground clutter is minimized on the display. If the airplane is at
a very high altitude, the pilot will set the radar at a low or negative angle, to point the radar towards the clouds wherever they may be relative
to the aircraft. If the airplane changes attitude, the stabilizer will adjust itself accordingly so that the pilot doesn't have to fly with one hand and
adjust the radar with the other.[67]

Receivers/transmitters
There are two major systems when talking about the receiver/transmitter: the first is high-powered systems, and the second is low-powered
systems; both of which operate in the X-band frequency range (8,000 – 12,500 MHz). High-powered systems operate at 10,000 – 60,000
watts. These systems consist of magnetrons that are fairly expensive (approximately $1,700) and allow for considerable noise due to
irregularities with the system. Thus, these systems are highly dangerous for arcing and are not safe to be used around ground personnel.
However, the alternative would be the low-powered systems. These systems operate 100 – 200 watts, and require a combination of high gain
receivers, signal microprocessors, and transistors to operate as effectively as the high-powered systems. The complex microprocessors help to
eliminate noise, providing a more accurate and detailed depiction of the sky. Also, since there are fewer irregularities throughout the system,
the low-powered radars can be used to detect turbulence via the Doppler Effect. Since low-powered systems operate at considerable less
wattage, they are safe from arcing and can be used at virtually all times.[67][68]

Thunderstorm tracking
Digital radar systems have capabilities far beyond their predecessors. They offer thunderstorm
tracking surveillance which provides users with the ability to acquire detailed information of each
storm cloud being tracked. Thunderstorms are identified by matching raw precipitation data received
from the radar pulse, to a preprogrammed template. In order for a thunderstorm to be confirmed, it
must meet strict definitions of intensity and shape to distinguish it from a non-convective cloud.
Usually, it must show signs of horizontal organization and vertical continuity: and have a core or a
more intense center identified and tracked by digital radar trackers.[25][69] Once the thunderstorm cell
is identified, speed, distance covered, direction, and Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) are all tracked
and recorded. Nowcasting a line of thunderstorms
from AutoNowcaster system

Doppler radar and bird migration

Using Doppler weather radar is not limited to determining the location and velocity of precipitation. It can track bird migrations as well (non-
weather targets section). The radio waves from the radars bounce off rain and birds alike (or even insects like butterflies).[70][71] The US
National Weather Service, for instance, has reported having flights of birds appear on their radars as clouds and then fade away when the birds
land.[72][73] The U.S. National Weather Service St. Louis has even reported monarch butterflies appearing on its radars.[74]

Different programs in North America use regular weather radars and specialized radar data to determine the paths, height of flight, and timing
of migrations.[75][76] This is useful information in planning windmill farm placement and operation, to reduce bird fatalities, improve aviation
safety and other wildlife management. In Europe, there have been similar developments and even a comprehensive forecast program for
aviation safety, based on radar detection.[77]

Meteorite fall detection

An image shows the Park Forest, Illinois, meteorite fall which occurred on 26 March 2003. The red-
green feature at the upper left is the motion of clouds near the radar itself, and a signature of falling
meteorites is inside the yellow ellipse at image center. The intermixed red and green pixels indicate
turbulence, in this case arising from the wakes of falling, high-velocity meteorites.

According to the American Meteor Society, meteorite falls occur on a daily basis somewhere on
Earth.[78] However, the database of worldwide meteorite falls maintained by the Meteoritical Society
typically records only about 10-15 new meteorite falls annually[79] NOAA NEXRAD radar image of the
Park Forest, IL, meteorite fall of 26
Meteorites occur when a meteoroid falls into the Earth's atmosphere, generating an optically bright March 2003.
meteor by ionization and frictional heating. If the meteor is large enough and infall velocity is low
enough, surviving meteorites will reach the ground. When the falling meteorites decelerate below
about 2–4 km/s, usually at an altitude between 15 and 25 km, they no longer generate an optically bright meteor and enter "dark
flight".[78][80] Because of this, most meteorite falls occurring into the oceans, during the day, or otherwise go unnoticed.[78]

It is in dark flight that falling meteorites typically fall through the interaction volume of most types of radars. It has been demonstrated that it is
possible to identify falling meteorites in weather radar imagery.[81][82][83][84][85][86] This is especially useful for meteorite recovery, as
weather radars are part of widespread networks and scan the atmosphere continuously. Furthermore, the meteorites cause local wind
turbulence, which is noticeable on Doppler outputs, and fall nearly vertically so their resting place on the ground is close to their radar
signature.

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Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society. doi:10.1007/978-1-935704-15-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-935704-1
5-7). ISBN 978-0-933876-86-6.ISBN 978-1-935704-15-7, 806 pages, AMS Code RADMET.
Blanchard, Yves (2004). Le radar, 1904–2004: histoire d'un siècle d'innovations techniques et opérationnelles (in French).
Paris, France: Ellipses. ISBN 2-7298-1802-2.
Doviak, R. J.; Zrnic, D. S. (1993). Doppler Radar and Weather Observations. San Diego Cal.: Academic Press Second
Edition. p. 562.
Gunn, K. L. S.; East, T. W. R. (1954). "The microwave properties of precipitation particles". Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society. 80: 522–545.
Yau, M. K.; Rogers, R. R. (1 January 1989). Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 304
pages. ISBN 9780750632157. ISBN 0-7506-3215-1
Ripesi, P. (2023). "Automatic cumulonimbus and towering cumulus identification based on the Italian weather radar network
data". Weather. doi:10.1002/wea.4482 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwea.4482).
Wakimoto, Roger M.; Srivastava, Ramesh (August 2003). Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor
of David Atlas. Meteorological Monograph. Vol. 30. Boston: American Meteorological Society. p. 270. ISBN 1-878220-57-8.;
AMS Code MM52.
Bringi, V. N.; Chandrasekar, V. (2001). Polarimetric Doppler Weather Radar. New York, US: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-01955-9.
History of Operational Use of Weather Radar by U.S. Weather Service:
Whiton, Roger C.; Smith, Paul L.; Bigler, Stuart G.; Wilk, Kenneth E.; Harbuck, Albert C. (February 1998). "Part I: The
Pre-NEXRAD Era" (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281998%29013%3C0219%3AHOOUOW%3E2.0.CO%3B
2). Weather and Forecasting. 13 (2): 219–243. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0219:HOOUOW>2.0.CO;2 (https://do
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Whiton, Roger C.; Smith, Paul L.; Bigler, Stuart G.; Wilk, Kenneth E.; Harbuck, Albert C. (February 1998). "Part II:
Development of Operational Doppler Weather Radars" (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281998%29013%3C02
44%3AHOOUOW%3E2.0.CO%3B2). Weather and Forecasting. 13 (2): 244–252. doi:10.1175/1520-
0434(1998)013<0244:HOOUOW>2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281998%29013%3C0244%3AHO
OUOW%3E2.0.CO%3B2). S2CID 123719565 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123719565).
"Weather radar highlights of NSSL's first 40 years" (https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/about/events/40thanniversary/stories/rad
ar6.html). Highlight. National Severe Storms Laboratory's first 40 years. Retrieved 15 March 2021.

See also

Related articles
Australian Weather Radars
Backscatter
Barber's pole
Lockheed WP-3D Orion (P-3)
 National Hurricane Research Laboratory

External links

General
"The atmosphere, the weather and flying (Weather radars chapter 19)" (http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_201
3/ec/En56-239-2011-eng.pdf) (PDF). Environment and Climate Change Canada. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
60807104003/http://ec.gc.ca/Publications/F4EA5ABD-20C5-4088-B086-D2262642C7B2/AWARE_e_2011-01-19.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2021.

"Commons errors in interpreting radar" (https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/weather-gen

eral-tools-resources/radar-overview/about.html#Common_interpretation_errors). Environment and Climate Change
Canada. Retrieved 5 January 2021.

"Understanding Weather Radar" (http://www.wunderground.com/radar/help.asp). Weather Underground on radar. Retrieved

5 January 2021.
Jeff Duda. "How to use and interpret Doppler weather radar" (https://meteor.geol.iastate.edu/~jdduda/portfolio/How%20to%
20read%20and%20interpret%20weather%20radar.pdf) (PDF). Iowa State University. Retrieved 5 January 2021.

Networks and radar research

OU's Atmospheric Radar Research Center (http://arrc.ou.edu/)
Canadian weather radar FAQ (https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/weather-general-tools-reso
urces/radar-overview/about.html#Common_interpretation_errors)
McGill radar homepage (http://www.radar.mcgill.ca/)
Hong Kong radar image gallery (http://www.weather.gov.hk/en/wxinfo/radars/radar_gallery/index.htm#)
University of Alabama Huntsville C-band Dual-polarimetric research Radar (http://www.nsstc.uah.edu/ARMOR)
NEXRAD Doppler radar network information: Research Tools: Dual Polarized Radar (https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/tools/rada
r/dualpol/)
Joint Polarization Experiment (https://web.archive.org/web/20200201040341/http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~schuur/jpole/) –
University of Oklahoma dual-polarization research and development

Real time data

Africa

South Africa - Realtime weather radar for South Africa (https://www.weathersa.co.za/home/radarst) from South African
Weather Service

Americas

Aruba (via Caracas) (http://www.meteo.aw/radar.php)

Belize (http://www.hydromet.gov.bz/observations/radar/radar-images)
Barbados (https://www.barbadosweather.org/Radars/LeafScripts/BMSRadarProducts.php) (Caribbean composite (https://w
ww.barbadosweather.org/BMS_Radar_Composite_Resp.php))
Environment Canada (https://www.weather.gc.ca/map_e.html?layers=radar)
Cayman Islands (https://www.weather.gov.ky/radar)
Cuba (http://www.insmet.cu/asp/genesis.asp?TB0=PLANTILLAS&TB1=RADARES)
Curacao (http://www.meteo.cw/rad_loop.php) (Caribbean composite (http://www.meteo.cw/rad_comp_loop.php?Lang=Eng
&St=TNCC&Sws=R11))
El Salvador Marn radar sites (http://www.snet.gob.sv/googlemaps/radares/radaresSV.php?id=ES/)
France overseas departments (http://www.meteofrance.gp/previsions-meteo-antilles-guyane/animation/radar/caraibes)
(Guadeloupe (http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/antilles/pack-public/animation/anim_radar_guad_mf_com.html),
Martinique (http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/antilles/pack-public/animation/anim_radar_mart_mf_com.html))
French Guyana (http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/antilles/pack-public/animation/anim_radar_mart_mf_com.html)
Jamaica (https://metservice.gov.jm/weather-radar/weather-240km/)
Puerto Rico (https://radar.weather.gov/radar_lite.php?rid=jua&product=N0R&loop=no)
Trinidad (http://www.metoffice.gov.tt/Radar)
National Weather Service in United States (https://radar.weather.gov/)

Asia
 China (mainland) (http://en.weather.c Philippines (https://bagong.pagasa.d
om.cn/radar/) ost.gov.ph/radar)
Hong Kong (http://www.weather.gov.h Taiwan (https://www.cwb.gov.tw/V7e/
k/wxinfo/radars/radar_range1.htm) observe/radar/)
India (http://www.imd.gov.in/pages/ra Thailand (http://weather.tmd.go.th/)
dar_main.php) Turkey (https://www.mgm.gov.tr/eng/r
Japan (http://www.jma.go.jp/en/radno adar.aspx)
wc/) Vietnam (http://amo.gov.vn/radar/)
Oman (http://met.gov.om/opencms/ex South Korea (https://amo.kma.go.kr/w
port/sites/default/dgman/en/home/) eather/image/radar.do)
Pakistan (http://www.pmd.gov.pk/Elec
tronic-Met/Radar-images.html)

Australia and Oceania

Australian radar sites (http://www.bo Metservice - New Zealand (http://ww

m.gov.au/weather/radar/) w.metservice.com/maps-radar/rain-ra
dar/)

Europe

Czech Republic (http://portal.chmi.cz/ Portugal (https://www.ipma.pt/pt/otem

files/portal/docs/meteo/rad/data_jsrad po/obs.radar/)
view.html) Spain (http://www.aemet.es/es/eltiem
Finland (http://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/r po/observacion/radar)
ain-and-cloudiness/finland) Sweden (and Scandinavia and Baltic
France (http://www.meteofrance.com/ sea) (http://www.smhi.se/vadret/neder
previsions-meteo-france/animation/ra bord-molnighet/norden)
dar/france) UK and Ireland radar sites (http://ww
Germany (http://www.dwd.de/DE/leist w.meteoradar.co.uk/)
ungen/radarbild_film/radarbild_film.ht Denmark - X-band doppler radar
ml#buehneTop) installation in Copenhagen (http://ww
Norway (https://www.yr.no/radar/) w.furuno.dk/da/produkter/meteorologi
POLRAD – Poland (http://www.pogod ske-radar/live-radar-image/)
ynka.pl/polska/radary/gradary)

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