CHAPTER

1 Introducing
Second Language
Acquisition

CHAPTER PREVIEW
When you were still a very young child, you began acquiring
KEY TERMS at least one language — what linguists call your L1 —
Second probably without thinking much about it, and with very little
Language
conscious effort or awareness. Since that time, you may have
Acquisition (SLA)
acquired an additional language — your L2 — possibly also in
Second
language (L2) the natural course of having the language used around you,
Informal L2 but more likely with the same conscious effort needed to
learning acquire other domains of knowledge in the process of
Formal L2 becoming an “educated” individual. This book is about the
learning phenomenon of adding languages. In this introductory
Linguistic chapter, I will define a few of the key terms that we will use
competence
and present the three basic questions that we will explore
Linguistic
throughout the book.
performance
First
language/native
language/mother
tongue (L1)
Simultaneous
multilingualism
Sequential
multilingualism
2 INTRODUCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

What is SLA?
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers both to the study of individuals
and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first
one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The
additional language is called a second language (L2), even though it may
actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly
called a target language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim
or goal of learning. The scope of SLA includes informal L2 learning that
takes place in naturalistic contexts, formal L2 learning that takes place in
classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and
circumstances. For example, “informal learning” happens when a child
from Japan is brought to the US and “picks up” English in the course of
playing and attending school with native English-speaking children with-
out any specialized language instruction, or when an adult Guatemalan
immigrant in Canada learns English as a result of interacting with native
English speakers or with co-workers who speak English as a second lan-
guage. “Formal learning” occurs when a high school student in England
takes a class in French, when an undergraduate student in Russia takes a
course in Arabic, or when an attorney in Colombia takes a night class in
English. A combination of formal and informal learning takes place when
a student from the USA takes Chinese language classes in Taipei or Beijing
while also using Chinese outside of class for social interaction and daily
living experiences, or when an adult immigrant from Ethiopia in Israel
learns Hebrew both from attending special classes and from interacting
with co-workers and other residents in Hebrew.
In trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we
are seeking to answer three basic questions:

(1) What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?

(2) How does the learner acquire this knowledge?
(3) Why are some learners more successful than others?

There are no simple answers to these questions – in fact, there are proba-
bly no answers that all second language researchers would agree on com-
pletely. In part this is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part
because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which dif-
fer greatly in theory and research methods. The multidisciplinary
approach to studying SLA phenomena which has developed within the last
half-century has yielded important insights, but many tantalizing myster-
ies remain. New findings are appearing every day, making this an exciting
period to be studying the subject. The continuing search for answers is not
only shedding light on SLA in its own right, but is illuminating related
fields. Furthermore, exploring answers to these questions is of potentially
great practical value to anyone who learns or teaches additional languages.
SLA has emerged as a field of study primarily from within linguistics and
psychology (and their subfields of applied linguistics, psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, and social psychology), as a result of efforts to answer the
 Introducing Second Language Acquisition 3

what, how, and why questions posed above. There are corresponding differ-
ences in what is emphasized by researchers who come from each of these
fields:

• Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and

similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic
competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance
(actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.
• Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive
processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of language(s)
in the brain.
• Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance,
and extend the scope of study to communicative competence
(underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or
pragmatic competence).
• Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as
identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social
contexts of learning.

Applied linguists who specialize in SLA may take any one or more of these
perspectives, but they are also often concerned with the implications of
theory and research for teaching second languages. Each discipline and
subdiscipline uses different methods for gathering and analyzing data in
research on SLA, employs different theoretical frameworks, and reaches its
interpretation of research findings and conclusions in different ways.
It is no surprise, then, that the understandings coming from these dif-
ferent disciplinary perspectives sometimes seem to conflict in ways that
resemble the well-known Asian fable of the three blind men describing an
elephant: one, feeling the tail, says it is like a rope; another, feeling the
side, says it is flat and rubbery; the third, feeling the trunk, describes it as
being like a long rubber hose. While each perception is correct individual-
ly, they fail to provide an accurate picture of the total animal because there
is no holistic or integrated perspective. Ultimately, a satisfactory account of
SLA must integrate these multiple perspectives; this book is a step in that
direction. As in the fable of the elephant, three different perspectives are
presented here: linguistic, psychological, and social. I make no presump-
tion that any one perspective among these is ‘right’ or more privileged, but
believe that all are needed to provide a fuller understanding of the com-
plex phenomena of SLA.

What is a second language?

I have broadly defined the scope of SLA as concerned with any phenomena
involved in learning an L2. Sometimes it is necessary for us to make further
distinctions according to the function the L2 will serve in our lives, since
this may significantly affect what we learn. These differences may deter-
mine the specific areas of vocabulary knowledge we need, the level of gram-
matical complexity we have to attain, and whether speaking or reading
4 INTRODUCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

skills are more important. The following are distinctions commonly made
in the literature:

• A second language is typically an official or societally dominant

language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.
It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who
speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the
term is contrasted with other terms in this list.
• foreign language is one not widely used in the learners’ immediate
A
social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-
cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular
requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary
practical application.
• A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for
further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in
a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners’
native tongue.
• An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some
official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for
purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves
most other needs in their lives.

Other restricted or highly specialized functions for ‘second’ languages are

designated language for specific purposes (such as French for Hotel
Management, English for Aviation Technology, Spanish for Agriculture, and a host
of others), and the learning of these typically focuses only on a narrow set
of occupation-specific uses and functions. One such prominent area is
English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

What is a first language?

There is also sometimes a need to distinguish among the concepts first lan-
guage, native language, primary language, and mother tongue, although
these are usually treated as a roughly synonymous set of terms (general-
ized as L1 to oppose the set generalized as L2). The distinctions are not
always clear-cut. For purposes of SLA concerns, the important features that
all shades of L1s share are that they are assumed to be languages which are
acquired during early childhood – normally beginning before the age of
about three years – and that they are learned as part of growing up among
people who speak them. Acquisition of more than one language during
early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism, to be distin-
guished from sequential multilingualism, or learning additional lan-
guages after L1 has already been established. (‘Multilingualism’ as used
here includes bilingualism.) Simultaneous multilingualism results in
more than one “native” language for an individual, though it is undoubt-
edly much less common than sequential multilingualism. It appears that
there are significant differences between the processes and/or results of
 Introducing Second Language Acquisition 5

language acquisition by young children and by older learners, although

this is an issue which is still open to debate, and is one of those which we
will explore in chapters to follow.

Diversity in learning and learners

As already noted, the circumstances under which SLA takes place some-
times need to be taken into account, although they are perhaps too often
taken for granted and ignored. What is learned in acquiring a second lan-
guage, as well as how it is learned, is often influenced by whether the situ-
ation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immer-
sion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or
formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often pro-
foundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors
affecting the status of both languages and learners.
The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful
than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some
dimensions of discussion. Linguists may distinguish categories of learners
defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists
may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, per-
sonality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning
strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to
social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in nego-
tiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners accord-
ing to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language
speakers or toward L2 learning itself. All of these factors and more will be
addressed in turn in the following chapters.

Chapter summary
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) involves a wide range of language
learning settings and learner characteristics and circumstances. This
book will consider a broad scope of these, examining them from three
different disciplinary perspectives: linguistic, psychological, and social.
Different approaches to the study of SLA have developed from each of
these perspectives in attempts to answer the three basic questions:
What exactly does the L2 learner come to know? How does the learner
acquire this knowledge? Why are some learners more (or less) successful
than others?