Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

B. P. Poddar Institute of Management & Technology

Laboratory Report on
Electromagnetic Waves (EC 591)

Name: _____________________________
University Roll No: _____________________
Year: ___________ Semester: ________
Section: _________ Group: ___________
Session: ______________________________

i
 General Information

Electromagnetic Waves
Course Name Semester 5
Laboratory

Year with
Course Code EC 591 3rd Year ECE
stream

June 2023 -
Course Credit 2 Session
December 2023

3 hours/week
Faculty Class hours and
per batch in Odd
Instructor/s total class load
semester

Technical Room No. - 602

Laboratory
Assistant/s B - Block

The purpose of this course is to

1. Familiarize with RF and microwave components, measuring
instruments and various types of antennas, their working principle
and the frequency range over which they operate.
Course 2. Discuss the formation of standing wave pattern in a waveguide
Objectives and how it affects transmission of signals through it.
3. Calculate different parameters characterizing a transmission line
with the aid of modern tools like Smith chart.
4. Study of the radiation pattern of various antennas operating in RF
and microwave frequency range.

After successfully completing the course, students should be able to

1. Understand fundamentals and importance of various RF and
microwave components, instruments and antennas.
Course 2. Determine the reflection co-efficient, VSWR and input impedance
Outcomes of a waveguide for various types of load using microwave test
bench.
3. Detect the reflection co-efficient and VSWR of a coaxial line for
various types of load.
4. Solve the Transmission Line parameters using Smith chart on
Matlab platform.
5. Compare the radiation pattern of various VHF antennas.
6. Find the gain, bandwidth and radiation pattern of microwave
antenna.

ii
Course Outcomes to Program Outcomes Mapping
Course Name: Electromagnetic Wave Laboratory

CO PO1 PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
C208.1 2 - - - - - 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208.2 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208.3 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208.4 3 2 1 - 2 1 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208.5 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208.6 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 3 3 2 - 2 1 1
C208 2.83 2 1 - 1.2 1 1 3 3 2 1 1.4 1 1
Note: Correlation levels are as defined:
1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High).
If there is no correlation, put “-”

Safety Norms and precautions

1. Install any unlicensed software.
2. Insert pen drive without permission.
3. Handle any equipment without reading the instructions /Instruction manuals.
Do not
4. Use Mobile Phones during the lab session.
5. Come late in the laboratory. Late comers without proper reason and permission of HOD
will not be allowed to enter the lab.

1. Strictly observe the instructions given by the Teacher/ Lab Instructor.

2. It is mandatory to come to lab in formal dress (College uniform, ID card, and Shoes).
3. It is mandatory to come with observation book and lab record in which previous
experiment should be written in Record and the present lab’s experiment in Observation
Do book.
4. Observation book of the present lab experiment should get corrected on the same day
and Record should be corrected on the next scheduled lab session.
5. Prepare for the viva questions. At the end of the experiment, the lab faculty will ask the
viva Questions and marks are allotted accordingly.

iii
 Course policies
1. Attendance
Attendance is compulsory. Please be respectful to your classmates by being on time. Cell
phones should be turned off and kept out of sight.
2. Calculator policy

You may need a calculator device.

3. Plagiarism

Collaboration on performing the experiments and taking measurements is strongly encouraged;

however, the lab report you hand in must be solely your own. Sharing written work beforehand
is considered as academic dishonesty.

4. Disability Support

If you have a disabling condition which may interfere with your ability to successfully complete
this module, please contact faculty in charge.

5. Make-up Experiment

Make-up for a missing experiment will not be offered, normally. The only exceptions to that are
illness or emergency (e.g., death in family, a traffic accident, etc.), in which case you may
contact your faculty in charge.

6. Additional Experiment

As per policy you have to perform at least oneadditional experiment from the list of beyond
syllabus experiments provided.

iv
 Course Assessment Process
Internal Assessment (100 marks)
Continuous Assessment (80 marks)
Lab records [15 marks]
Experiment results, discussion and conclusion.
Lab performance [50 marks]
Performance on method of working, recording data, tabulating data, plotting graph, attendance
etc.
Viva at the end of each experiment [15 marks]
Internal Examination (before semester ends) (20 marks)
Assessment during end semester examination (60 marks)
Lab examination [40 marks]
Experiments are allotted to the students randomly on lottery basis during examination time
which they have to complete within stipulated time.
Viva [20 marks]
There is a 10-minute viva-voce during examination time.

Grading Scale
Grade Percent score

0 ≥ 90

E ≥ 80 and <90

A ≥ 70 and <80

B ≥ 60 and <70

C ≥ 50 and <60

D ≥ 40 and <50

F <40

1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Principles of Electromagnetics”, OUP.

Recommended 2. Samuel Y. Liao, “Microwave Devices and Circuits”, Pearson.
Books 3. J. D. Kraus, R. J. Marhefka, A. S. Khan, “Antennas and Wave Propagation”,
TMH.

v
List of Experiments:
Expt. Name of Experiment Page Date of Grade Signature
No. No. Experiment Awarded
1 Familiarization with various types of RF and
microwave components, measuring
instruments and various types of antennas

2 Plotting of standing wave pattern and

measurement of voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR) in a microwave test bench for
various types of load

3 Determination of reflection co-efficient and

voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) of a
coaxial line for various load conditions
using time domain and frequency domain
techniques

4 Determination of Input impedance of a

terminated waveguide using shift in minima
technique

5 Study of Smith chart on Matlab platform

6 Study of radiation pattern of a dipole

antenna

7 Study of radiation pattern of a folded dipole

antenna

8 Study of radiation pattern of a 3-element

Yagi-Uda antenna

9 Study of radiation pattern of a pyramidal

horn antenna

10 Measurement of gain and bandwidth of a

pyramidal horn antenna

11 Additional experiment

vi
 LAB SESSION 01

Title: Familiarization with various types of RF and microwave components,

measuring instruments and various types of antennas

Objective:
1. To list different types of RF and microwave components, instruments and antennas
2. To explain the working principle of these components and instruments
3. To state the electromagnetic spectrum where these devices operate.

Theory:
The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum from 3 Hz to 3000 GHz.
Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio and microwaves, are extremely widely
used in modern technology, particularly in telecommunication.
Microwave is the region in the electromagnetic wave spectrum in the frequency range from about 1
GHz to 100 GHz which corresponds to a range of wavelength from 30 cm to 0.3 cm in free space.
Because of short wavelength, microwaves are capable of almost freely propagating through the ionized
layer in the atmosphere. This facilitates radio astronomic research of space, and communication
between the ground stations and space vehicles. Microwave radio spectroscopy is also popular for
material analysis. Microwaves are being widely used in domestic microwave ovens for rapid cooking
and also in industrial and medical uses for microwave heating.
Different types of microwave-guided structures such as waveguides, coaxial lines, strip lines, microstrip
lines, slot lines and microwave sources like klystrons, magnetrons, travelling wave tubes, backward
wave oscillators, microwave solid-state devices (e.g. Gunn diode as source) and other microwave
circuit components like attenuators, phase-shifters, isolators, circulators, directional couplers, detectors,
mixtures, antennas are in use.
Various other radio frequencies with their applications are listed below:
Band name Frequency range Wavelength Applications
Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 kHz 1-10 km Navigation and amateur radio
Medium Frequency (MF) 300-3000 kHz 100-1000 m AM (medium-wave) broadcasts
High Frequency (HF) 3-30 MHz 10-100 m shortwave broadcasts and marine
and mobile radio telephony
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30-300 MHz 1-10 m FM and television broadcasts
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300-1000 MHz 30-100 cm Television broadcasts and mobile
communication

1
Various RF and microwave components, instruments and antennas and their uses:
Sl. Components/ Operating freq.
Diagram Use
No. instruments/antennas range
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

2
 Sl. Components/ Operating freq.
Diagram Use
No. instruments/antennas range
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

3
 Sl. Components/ Operating freq.
Diagram Use
No. instruments/antennas range
11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

4
 Sl. Components/ Operating freq.
Diagram Use
No. instruments/antennas range
16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

5
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

6
 LAB SESSION 02

Title: Plotting of standing wave pattern and measurement of voltage standing

wave ratio (VSWR) in a microwave test bench for various types of load

Objective:
1. To explain the formation of standing wave pattern in a microwave test bench when terminated by a
load
2. To classify short, open and matched conditions of standing wave pattern at a particular frequency
3. To differentiate between these three conditions.

Theory:
In a perfectly matched system there is no variation in the output of the travelling detector, i.e., it should
be the same regardless of its position along the waveguide. In general where the guide is not perfectly
terminated, there exists a reflected wave which combines with the incident wave to create standing
waves along the length of the guide. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident wave from a
discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance. The maximum field strength is found where the
waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase. The ratio of the
maximum to minimum voltage is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). It may vary from unity
to infinity.

Block Diagram:

VSWR
Gunn power meter/
supply multimeter

Gunn oscillator Slotted section

with Gunn diode Isolator PIN Frequency with tunable
mount modulator meter probe

Load

Fig. 1: Block diagram for study of standing wave pattern in a microwave test bench

7
Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

Procedure:
1. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below -
Meter switch --------- OFF
Gunn bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN mod. frequency --------- Any position
Gunn oscillator --------- Any position
2. Keep the cavity meter completely detuned and the attenuator at the top most position (to get un-
attenuated signal).
3. Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
4. Bias the Gunn diode at proper voltage (say 8 V). Do not exceed the bias voltage
above 10 V.
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator, mod. frequency knob, pin bias knob and the tunable
probe to get maximum reading on the VSWR meter.
6. Now gradually reduce the cavity resonance frequency to get a dip on the VSWR meter scale.
Measure the frequency from the dial of the of frequency meter.
7. To study the standing wave, initially slide the probe position along the length of slotted line with
a fixed short as load.

8
 8. Set the tunable probe at different distances along the length of slotted line. Note the scale
reading and the corresponding value of power from VSWR meter. Take readings to get at least
two complete cycles of the standing wave pattern.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 with open ended slotted section and horn antenna as loads.

Experimental Results:
Table 1
Data for standing wave pattern
Short Open Horn antenna

Distance Distance Power Distance Power

Power (dB)
(cm) (cm) (dB) (cm) (dB)

Name of the Load VSWR

9
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

10
 LAB SESSION 03

Title: Determination of reflection co-efficient and voltage standing wave ratio

(VSWR) of a coaxial line for various load conditions using time domain and
frequency domain techniques
Objective:
1. To explain the formation of standing wave pattern in a coaxial line when terminated by a load
2. To differentiate between time domain reflectometry and frequency domain reflectometry
3. To estimate reflection co-efficient and VSWR for different load conditions.

Theory:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the sum of two
traveling waves - the incident wave, which propagates from the source to the load and the reflected
wave, which propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident
wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance. The superposition of the traveling
waves gives rise to a standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found where the
waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase. The distance between
two successive minima (or maxima) is half the guided wavelength on the line. The ratio of field
strengths of reflected and incident waves is called reflection co-efficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as the ratio between maximum and minimum field
strengthsof the standing wave pattern along the line. Hence VSWR can be written as follows,
S V max V min  V i V r  V i V r  (1)
whereV i and V r are the incident and reflected voltage respectively.
Reflection Coefficient  is defined as
 V r V i  Z L  Z 0  Z L  Z 0  (2)
where Z L is the load impedance, Z 0 is the characteristics impedance.

So the relation between the reflection coefficient (  ) and VSWR ( S ) may be written as,
  S  1 S  1 (3)

11
Block Diagram:
RG58-50Ω cable
Source c
Load

DSO

Fig. 1: Block diagram for measurement of reflection coefficient and VSWR in time domain
technique

Swept RF source Attenuator

5-250 MHz

RF detector
Frequency +
display DC amplifier

Transmission line
X Y
DSO

Impedance Load
display

Fig. 2: Block diagram for measurement of reflection coefficient and VSWR in frequency domain
technique

12
Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

Procedure:
By TDR (time domain reflection) technique
1. Turn on the DSO and transmission line analyzer.
2. Connect a co-axial line from the short range of TDR and any one of the channels of the DSO to the
T connector.
3. Press auto switch of the DSO and observe sharp pulses with narrow width formed at the display.
These are the transmitted pulses.
4. Now connect RG58-50 Ω cable (whose characteristics are to be observed) to the third terminal of
the T connector.
5. If the other end of the RG58-50 Ω cable is open, another set of pulses with less amplitude will
appear in the upward direction. These are reflected pulses.
6. Measure the amplitude of transmitted and reflected pulses.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for short and matched conditions.

13
By FDR (frequency domain reflection) technique
1. Connect the horizontal and vertical ports of the transmission line analyzer to the channel 1 and
channel 2 of the DSO respectively.
2. Connect the transmission line (RG58-50 Ώ).between the transmission line analyzer and load.
3. By rotating span knob fix the output at three and half cycle and set the frequency at 150MHz.
4. Then by rotating the impedance knob select the open, short and Z 0 (47Ω) positions and measure
V max andV min for consecutive locations of the standing wave pattern.
5. Measure the VSWR for all positions.

Experimental Results:
TDR technique
Table 1
Data for reflection coefficient and VSWR in TDR technique
Transmission Vi Vr
Load Г=Vr/Vi VSWR = (1+Г)/(1-Г)
line (V) (V)
Short

RG58-50Ω Open
coaxial cable
Z 0 (47Ω)

FDR technique
Table 2
Data for reflection coefficient and VSWR in FDR technique
Transmission Freq. Vmax Vmin
Span Load S=Vmax/Vmin Г=(S-1)/(S+1)
line (MHz) (V) (V)
Short

RG58-50Ω 3½ 150 Open

coaxial cable
Z 0 (47Ω)

14
Graph for TDR:

15
Graphs for FDR:

16
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

17
 LAB SESSION 04

Title: Determination of Input impedance of a terminated waveguide using shift in minima

technique

Objective:
1. To explain the fundamental theory of transmission line.
2. To estimate the Input impedance of a terminated waveguide for different loads.

Theory:
The complex impedance Z L of a load that can be determined by measuring the reflection coefficient
L at the load end is given by

Z L  Z 0 1  L  1  L  (1)
where Z 0 is the characteristics impedance of the wave guide at the operating frequency and Z L is the
load impedance. Z 0 at a particular frequency f can easily be determined from the following equation

1/2
Z0   1   f c f  
2
(2)
 
where fc  c 0 , 0  2a ,   377 Ω. fc is the critical frequency, a is the inner broad wall dimension
of wave guide and  is the free space impedance.
The complex reflection coefficient L may be written as
L  L e jL (3)
where L  2d min   (4)

e jL  cos L  j sin L (5)

L  S  1 S  1 (6)

  2 /  g
(7)

and  g  2d (8)

S is the VSWR for the standing wave pattern formed within the waveguide and d min is the position of
the first minimum (towards generator) of the voltage standing wave from the load end when terminated
by the inductive load. d is the separation between two successive minima.
The input Impedance of a waveguide at a distance l from the load end (terminated by a load Z L ) is
given by
Z in  Z 0 Z L  jZ 0 tanl  Z 0  jZ L tanl  (9)

18
Block Diagram:

Gunn power Gunn source Isolator PIN

supply with mount modulator

Fixed short/ VSWR meter

movable short

Slotted section Variable Frequency

with probe attenuator meter

Unknown load
with quarter
waveguide

Fig. 1: Experimental arrangement for measurement input impedance of a terminated waveguide

using shift in minima technique

a a

d' d'
b b

Symmetrical inductive load Symmetrical capacitive load

Fig. 2: Inductive and capacitive windows

19
Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

Procedure:
1. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below -
Meter switch --------- OFF
Gunn bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN mod. frequency --------- Any position
Gunn oscillator --------- Any position
2. Keep the cavity meter completely detuned and the attenuator at the top most position (to get un-
attenuated signal).
3. Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
4. Bias the Gunn diode at proper voltage (say 8 V). Do not exceed the bias voltage
above 10 V.
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator, mod. frequency knob, pin bias knob and the tunable
probe to get maximum reading on the VSWR meter.

20
 6. Now gradually reduce the cavity resonance frequency to get a dip on the VSWR meter scale.
Measure the frequency from the dial of the of frequency meter.
7. Connect the fixed short at the output of the slotted section. Move the probe along the slotted line
to get maximum deflection.
8. Keeping the position of the probe unchanged connect the unknown load at the output of the
slotted section. Move the probe along the slotted line to get minimum position. Note down the
position.
9. d min can then be measured by observing the shift of the minima towards the generator.

Experimental Results:
Table 1
Data for measurement of VSWR and Z0

Nature of f λ0=2a fc= c/ λ0 Z0

VSWR l (cm) a (cm)
the load (GHz) (cm) (GHz) (Ω)

Table 2
Data for measurement of β

Position of the Position of the λg= 2d = 2(d1~d2) β = 2π/λg

1s minimum (d1) (cm) 2nd minimum (d2) (cm) (cm) (cm-1)

Table 3
Data for measurement of input impedance

ZL Zin
dmin (cm) ΦL (rad) ρL=(S-1)/(S+1) ΓL = ρLejΦL
(Ω) (Ω)

Calculations:

21
22
Graph for Shift in Minima:

23
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

24
 LAB SESSION 05

Title: Study of Smith chart on Matlab platform

Objective:
1. To explain the fundamental theory of transmission line and solve problems using Smith chart
2. To recall the basic operations of Matlab
3. To write programs of Smith chart using Matlab to solve the problems on transmission line.

Theory:
The Smith chart is a graphical means of obtaining line characteristics such as reflection coefficient
( L ), voltage standing wave ratio ( S ) and input impedance ( Z in ). It is constructed within a circle of unit
radius and based on the formula L  Z L  Z 0  Z L  Z 0 . For each r and x ( z L  Z L Z 0  r  jx ),
there are two explicit circles (the resistance and reactance circles) and one implicit circle (the constant
S -circle). The Smith chart is conveniently used in determining the location of a stub tuner and its
length. It is also used with the slotted line to determine the value of the unknown load impedance.

Diagram:

Fig. 1: Illustration of r-circles, x-circles and S-circles on the Smith chart

Problem statement:
1. A lossless transmission line with Z 0  50 Ω is terminated with a load Z L  30  j 50 Ω. Write a
program to produce a Smith chart and estimate magnitude of reflection coefficient and VSWR.
2. Use Matlab to solve the problem.
25
Program:

26
Experimental Results:
Table 1
Value of magnitude of reflection coefficient and VSWR

Transmission line Magnitude of ГL VSWR

50Ω coaxial cable

Smith Chart:

27
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

28
 LAB SESSION 06

Title: Study of radiation pattern of a dipole antenna

Objective:
1. To state the working principle of an antenna and give an example of dipole antenna
2. To produce the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna
3. To estimate various antenna parameters and conclude from the results.

Theory:
If a transmission line carrying electromagnetic energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation
from it. If a proper antenna with its impedance close to the line impedance is connected to it, then the
amount of radiated energy will be more.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram showing the variation of field strength or power with
angle, measured from the line of maximum of transmitting antenna. This pattern is different for different
antennas. An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional, but is customary to represent it as two-
dimensional in one or several suitable planes.
The 3-dB beamwidth of half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is defined as the angular
distance between two half-power points of the antenna main lobe. The first null-to-null beamwidth or
beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW) is defined as the angular distance between the first null points of
the antenna main lobe. From a measure of HPBW and FNBW, antenna directivity can be estimated.
The 3-D directivity ( D ) of an antenna can be given by
D  4 HP VP  41000 []
HP VP (1)
where HP and VP are the 3-dB beamwidths in the horizontal and vertical planes respectively (in
degrees). Though it is a three dimensional function, due to practical limitation we define a two
dimensional directivity, the directivity in horizontal and vertical plane as
D h  2 HP  360  HP (2)

Dv  2 VP  360  VP (3)

Another important parameter of an antenna is the antenna resolution. When an antenna is used as a
receiving antenna, it will be able to distinguish two transmitters as two different sources when the
sources will be separated at least by an angle equal to its resolution. Resolution is defined as
R  FNBW/2 (4)
Rayleigh distance, near field-far field boundary is given by 2 L 2  , where L is the maximum dimension
of the antenna (e.g. antenna dimension for half-wave dipole antenna is  /2). The separation between
the reference antenna and the antenna under test must be kept at a distance greater than this. In some
experimental arrangements we study the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna. Since, antennas
obey the reciprocity theorem, receiving antenna shows the same radiation characteristics as when it is
used as transmitting antenna.

29
Block Diagram:

Antenna Antenna
transmitter receiver with
power meter

Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna

Tripod stand
Stand with
rotation
arrangement

Fig. 1: Experimental set up for study of radiation pattern of a dipole antenna

Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

30
Procedure:
1. Set a dipole antenna as the transmitting antenna and the antenna for which radiation pattern to be
studied as the receiving antenna on the tripods.
2. Calculate the dipole antenna length L from the expression L  19 40 where  is the operating
wavelength. Actual formula for the length of a dipole is L   2 , but it is seen that the dipole
antenna radiates maximum power if its length is taken 5% less than its actual length.
3. Set the receiving antenna length. If it is a dipole or a folded dipole then calculate its length from the
above formula, or set the length as suggested.
4. Set the frequency of transmitter and also tune the receiver at the transmitting frequency (say
600MHz).
5. Set the distance between the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna sufficiently higher than
2 L 2  to have a parallel wavefront.
6. Align the receiving antenna with the transmitting antenna properly at 0 position. Measure the Tx
power and the distance R between the two antennas.
7. Rotate the Receiving antenna in steps of 10  .
8. Note the receiving power in dBμV from the receiver and corresponding angular position at each
step.
9. Plot the received power vs. angular position in polar graph. This gives the E-plane radiation pattern.
10. Place the same antenna with its elements aligned vertically with a connector.
11. Repeat the above procedure to get H-plane pattern.
12. Calculate the HPBW, FNBW, directivity and resolution from the polar graph.

31
Experimental Results:
1. Transmitted power (Pt):
2. Source frequency:
3. Transmitting antenna:

Table 1
Data for E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern

E plane H plane
Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power
(degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV)

32
 Table 2
E-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 3
H-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 4
3-D analysis

θHP ΦVP 3-D directivity

(degree) (degree)

33
Graph for E-plane Radiation Pattern:

34
Graph for H-plane Radiation Pattern:

35
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

36
 LAB SESSION 07

Title: Study of radiation pattern of a folded dipole antenna

Objective:
1. To give an example of a folded dipole antenna
2. To produce the radiation pattern of the folded dipole antenna
3. To estimate various antenna parameters and conclude from the results.

Theory:
If a transmission line carrying electromagnetic energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation
from it. If a proper antenna with its impedance close to the line impedance is connected to it, then the
amount of radiated energy will be more.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram showing the variation of field strength or power with
angle, measured from the line of maximum of transmitting antenna. This pattern is different for different
antennas. An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional, but is customary to represent it as two-
dimensional in one or several suitable planes.
The 3-dB beamwidth of half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is defined as the angular
distance between two half-power points of the antenna main lobe. The first null-to-null beamwidth or
beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW) is defined as the angular distance between the first null points of
the antenna main lobe. From a measure of HPBW and FNBW, antenna directivity can be estimated.
The 3-D directivity ( D ) of an antenna can be given by
D  4 HP VP  41000 []
HP VP (1)
where HP and VP are the 3-dB beamwidths in the horizontal and vertical planes respectively (in
degrees). Though it is a three dimensional function, due to practical limitation we define a two
dimensional directivity, the directivity in horizontal and vertical plane as
D h  2 HP  360  HP (2)

Dv  2 VP  360  VP (3)

Another important parameter of an antenna is the antenna resolution. When an antenna is used as a
receiving antenna, it will be able to distinguish two transmitters as two different sources when the
sources will be separated at least by an angle equal to its resolution. Resolution is defined as
R  FNBW/2 (4)
Rayleigh distance, near field-far field boundary is given by 2 L 2  , where L is the maximum dimension
of the antenna. The separation between the reference antenna and the antenna under test must be
kept at a distance greater than this. In some experimental arrangements we study the radiation pattern
of the receiving antenna. Since, antennas obey the reciprocity theorem, receiving antenna shows the
same radiation characteristics as when it is used as transmitting antenna.

37
Block Diagram:

Antenna Antenna
transmitter receiver with
power meter

Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna

Tripod stand
Stand with
rotation
arrangement

Fig. 1: Experimental set up for study of radiation pattern of a folded dipole antenna

Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

38
Procedure:
1. Set a dipole antenna as the transmitting antenna and the antenna for which radiation pattern to be
studied as the receiving antenna on the tripods.
2. Calculate the dipole antenna length L from the expression L  19 40 where  is the operating
wavelength. Actual formula for the length of a dipole is L   2 , but it is seen that the dipole
antenna radiates maximum power if its length is taken 5% less than its actual length.
3. Set the receiving antenna length. If it is a dipole or a folded dipole then calculate its length from the
above formula, or set the length as suggested.
4. Set the frequency of transmitter and also tune the receiver at the transmitting frequency (say
600MHz).
5. Set the distance between the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna sufficiently higher than
2 L 2  to have a parallel wavefront.
6. Align the receiving antenna with the transmitting antenna properly at 0 position. Measure the Tx
power and the distance R between the two antennas.
7. Rotate the Receiving antenna in steps of 10  .
8. Note the receiving power in dBμV from the receiver and corresponding angular position at each
step.
9. Plot the received power vs. angular position in polar graph. This gives the E-plane radiation pattern.
10. Place the same antenna with its elements aligned vertically with a connector.
11. Repeat the above procedure to get H-plane pattern.
12. Calculate the HPBW, FNBW, directivity and resolution from the polar graph.

39
Experimental Results:
1. Transmitted power (Pt):
2. Source frequency:
3. Transmitting antenna:

Table 1
Data for E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern
E plane H plane
Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power
(degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV)

40
 Table 2
E-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 3
H-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 4
3-D analysis

θHP ΦVP 3-D directivity

(degree) (degree)

41
Graph for E-plane Radiation Pattern:

42
Graph for H-plane Radiation Pattern:

43
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

44
 LAB SESSION 08

Title: Study of radiation pattern of a 3-element Yagi-Uda antenna

Objective:
1. To give an example of a folded Yagi-Uda antenna
2. To produce the radiation pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna
3. To estimate various antenna parameters and conclude from the results.

Theory:
If a transmission line carrying electromagnetic energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation
from it. If a proper antenna with its impedance close to the line impedance is connected to it, then the
amount of radiated energy will be more.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram showing the variation of field strength or power with
angle, measured from the line of maximum of transmitting antenna. This pattern is different for different
antennas. An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional, but is customary to represent it as two-
dimensional in one or several suitable planes.
The 3-dB beamwidth of half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is defined as the angular
distance between two half-power points of the antenna main lobe. The first null-to-null beamwidth or
beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW) is defined as the angular distance between the first null points of
the antenna main lobe. From a measure of HPBW and FNBW, antenna directivity can be estimated.
The 3-D directivity ( D ) of an antenna can be given by
D  4 HP VP  41000 []
HP VP (1)
where HP and VP are the 3-dB beamwidths in the horizontal and vertical planes respectively (in
degrees). Though it is a three dimensional function, due to practical limitation we define a two
dimensional directivity, the directivity in horizontal and vertical plane as
D h  2 HP  360  HP (2)

Dv  2 VP  360  VP (3)

Another important parameter of an antenna is the antenna resolution. When an antenna is used as a
receiving antenna, it will be able to distinguish two transmitters as two different sources when the
sources will be separated at least by an angle equal to its resolution. Resolution is defined as
R  FNBW/2 (4)
Rayleigh distance, near field-far field boundary is given by 2 L 2  , where L is the maximum dimension
of the antenna. The separation between the reference antenna and the antenna under test must be
kept at a distance greater than this. In some experimental arrangements we study the radiation pattern
of the receiving antenna. Since, antennas obey the reciprocity theorem, receiving antenna shows the
same radiation characteristics as when it is used as transmitting antenna.

45
Block Diagram:

Antenna Antenna
transmitter receiver with
power meter

Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna

Tripod stand
Stand with
rotation
arrangement

Fig. 1: Experimental set up for study of radiation pattern of a 3-element Yagi-Uda antenna

Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

46
Procedure:
1. Set a dipole antenna as the transmitting antenna and the antenna for which radiation pattern to be
studied as the receiving antenna on the tripods.
2. Calculate the dipole antenna length L from the expression L  19 40 where  is the operating
wavelength. Actual formula for the length of a dipole is L   2 , but it is seen that the dipole
antenna radiates maximum power if its length is taken 5% less than its actual length.
3. Set the receiving antenna length. Feeder length is calculated using the above formula. Director side
elements are taken 5% less than the previous element starting from the feeder element. Reflector
side elements are taken 5% greater than the previous element starting from the feeder element.
4. Set the frequency of transmitter and also tune the receiver at the transmitting frequency (say
600MHz).
5. Set the distance between the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna sufficiently higher than
2 L 2  to have a parallel wavefront.
6. Align the receiving antenna with the transmitting antenna properly at 0 position. Measure the Tx
power and the distance R between the two antennas.
7. Rotate the Receiving antenna in steps of 10  .
8. Note the receiving power in dBμV from the receiver and corresponding angular position at each
step.
9. Plot the received power vs. angular position in polar graph. This gives the E-plane radiation pattern.
10. Place the same antenna with its elements aligned vertically with a connector.
11. Repeat the above procedure to get H-plane pattern.
12. Calculate the HPBW, FNBW, directivity and resolution from the polar graph.

47
Experimental Results:
1. Transmitted power (Pt):
2. Source frequency:
3. Transmitting antenna:

Table 1
Data for E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern
E plane H plane
Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power Angle Power
(degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV) (degree) (dBµV)

48
 Table 2
E-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 3
H-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 4
3-D analysis

θHP ΦVP 3-D directivity

(degree) (degree)

49
Graph for E-plane Radiation Pattern:

50
Graph for H-plane Radiation Pattern:

51
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

52
 LAB SESSION 09

Title: Study of radiation pattern of a pyramidal horn antenna

Objective:
1. To give an example of a horn antenna
2. To produce the radiation pattern of the pyramidal horn antenna
3. To estimate various antenna parameters and conclude from the results.

Theory:
If a transmission line carrying electromagnetic energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation
from it. If a proper antenna with its impedance close to the line impedance is connected to it, then the
amount of radiated energy will be more.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram showing the variation of field strength or power with
angle, measured from the line of maximum of transmitting antenna. This pattern is different for different
antennas. An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional, but is customary to represent it as two-
dimensional in one or several suitable planes.
The 3-dB beamwidth of half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is defined as the angular
distance between two half-power points of the antenna main lobe. The first null-to-null beamwidth or
beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW) is defined as the angular distance between the first null points of
the antenna main lobe. From a measure of HPBW and FNBW, antenna directivity can be estimated.
The 3-D directivity ( D ) of an antenna can be given by
D  4 HP VP  41000 []
HP VP (1)
where HP and VP are the 3-dB beamwidths in the horizontal and vertical planes respectively (in
degrees). Though it is a three dimensional function, due to practical limitation we define a two
dimensional directivity, the directivity in horizontal and vertical plane as
D h  2 HP  360  HP (2)

Dv  2 VP  360  VP (3)

Another important parameter of an antenna is the antenna resolution. When an antenna is used as a
receiving antenna, it will be able to distinguish two transmitters as two different sources when the
sources will be separated at least by an angle equal to its resolution. Resolution is defined as
R  FNBW/2 (4)
Rayleigh distance, near field-far field boundary is given by 2 L 2  , where L is the maximum dimension
of the antenna. The separation between the reference antenna and the antenna under test must be
kept at a distance greater than this. In some experimental arrangements we study the radiation pattern
of the receiving antenna. Since, antennas obey the reciprocity theorem, receiving antenna shows the
same radiation characteristics as when it is used as transmitting antenna.

53
Block Diagram:

VSWR
Klystron power meter
supply

Slotted
Klystron tube Isolator Variable Frequency section with
with mount attenuator meter tunable probe

Pyramidal
Pyramidal horn
Detector horn antenna
antenna

VSWR
meter

Fig. 1: Experimental set up for study of radiation pattern of a pyramidal horn antenna

54
Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

Procedure:
1. Keep the variable attenuator in its the minimum position.
2. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as shown below-
Range dB --------- 40 dB/50 dB
Input switch --------- Low impedance
Meter switch --------- Normal
Gain (coarse and fine) --------- Mid position (approx.)
3. Keep the control knob of klystron power supply as shown below:
Beam voltage --------- OFF
Mod. switch --------- AM
Beam voltage knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
Reflector voltage knob --------- Fully clockwise
AM-amplitude knob around --------- Fully clockwise
AM-frequency and amplitude knob --------- Mid position
4. Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
5. Switch ON the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300 V.
6. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in the VSWR meter.
7. Tune the output by changing the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of the AM modulation.
8. Tune the plunger of the klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in the VSWR meter.

55
9. If required, change the range of dB switch, variable attenuator position and gain control knob to get
proper deflection in the VSWR meter.
10. Then measure the distance (R) between transmitting and receiving antenna.
11. Now connect the VSWR meter to the detector to measure the received power (Pr).
12. Align both antennas lie along the system axis. The circular scale attached with the tripod now reads
0  . At this position, the VSWR meter displays the maximum reading (Pr).
13. Now vary the angle in proper steps and at each position note the power in dB. Plot of this power
with angle gives the H plane radiation pattern.
14. Rotate the transmitting and receiving antenna by 90  and repeat the experiment. This gives the E
plane radiation pattern.
15. Calculate HPBW, FNBW and resolution from the polar graph.

Experimental Results:
1. Transmitted power (Pt):
2. Source frequency:
3. Transmitting antenna:
4. Receiving antenna:

Table 1
Data for E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern
H - plane E - plane
Power Power
Angle (dB) Angle (dB)
(degree) (degree)
Left Right Left Right

56
 Table 2
E-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 3
H-plane analysis
HPBW FNBW Resolution Directivity
(degree) (degree) =FNBW/2

Table 4
3-D analysis

θHP ΦVP 3-D directivity

(degree) (degree)

57
Graph for E-plane Radiation Pattern:

58
Graph for H-plane Radiation Pattern:

59
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

60
 LAB SESSION 10

Title: Measurement of gain and bandwidth of a pyramidal horn antenna

Objective:
1. To show how VSWR and reflection coefficient vary with frequency when a pyramidal horn antenna is
used as a load.
2. To estimate gain and bandwidth for the horn antenna and conclude from the results.

Theory:
Gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna, produced in the same direction and with the
same power input.
Power received by an antenna can be written as,
2
P r  PtG 1G 2 2 4R  (1)
where Pt is the transmitted power, G 1 and G 2 are the transmitting and receiving antenna gains
respectively and R is the distance between them.
If G 1  G 2  G (say) then gain G is given by

G  4R  P r P t 1 2  4R  V r V t  (2)

Bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies over which it behaves according to its
desired characteristics. 3-dB bandwidth of an antenna is of practical interest and is defined as the
frequency difference between the two half power points.
Near field-far field boundary is given by
R  2D 2  (3)
where D is the maximum size of the aperture.

61
Block Diagram:

Gunn power VSWR

supply meter

Gunn oscillator PIN Frequency Slotted

with Gunn diode Isolator modulator meter section with
mount tunable probe

Pyramidal Pyramidal
Detector horn horn
antenna antenna

VSWR
meter

Fig. 1: Block diagram for measurement of gain and bandwidth of a pyramidal horn antenna

Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

62
Procedure:
1. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as shown below -
Meter switch --------- OFF
Gunn bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN bias knob --------- Fully anti-clockwise
PIN mod. frequency --------- Any position
Gunn oscillator --------- Any position
2. Keep the cavity meter completely detuned and the attenuator at the top most position (to get un-
attenuated signal).
3. Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
4. Bias the Gunn diode at proper voltage (say 8 V). Do not exceed this voltage above 10 V.
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator, mod. frequency knob, pin bias knob and the tunable probe to
get maximum reading on the VSWR meter.
6. Note down the frequency from the micrometer reading with the help of calibration curve.
7. Move the tunable probe along the slotted wave guide to get a maximum on the VSWR meter.
Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob till the meter indicates unity on normal VSWR scale.
Keep all the control knobs as it is and move the tunable probe to next minimum position. Read the
VSWR value on scale. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 4, change the range dB switch to next
higher position and read the VSWR on the second VSWR scale of 3 to 10. If the VSWR value
exceeds 10, then use double minima method to measure the VSWR value.
8. Change the frequency of the Gunn oscillator by changing the micrometer position. Note down the
frequency from the calibration curve and measure the VSWR value. Repeat this procedure over the
entire range of frequency (9-11 GHz).
9. Plot the VSWR vs. frequency graph.
10. Find the resonant frequency of the antenna from the minimum position of the graph.
11. Measure the transmitted power at the resonant frequency.
12. Measure the received power from certain distance (50 cm) at the resonant frequency.
13. Determine the Gain of the antenna.
14. Calculate the reflection coefficient and efficiency, plot efficiency vs. frequency graph. Determine the
bandwidth from the graph.

Experimental Results:
Table 1
Data for VSWR vs. frequency plot and efficiency vs. frequency plot
No. of Frequency VSWR Reflection Co-efficient (Г) Efficiency (η)
obs. (GHz) (S) = (S-1)/(S+1) = (1- Г)

63
 Table 2
Measurement of gain and bandwidth
R Pt [antilog of Resonant Received λ=c/f0 Maximum Gain Bandwidth
(m) (Power in frequency, f0 power (m) efficiency (GHz)
dB/10)] (watt) (GHz) (watt)

Calculations:

64
VSWR Vs. Frequency Graph:

65
Efficiency Vs. Frequency Graph:

66
Discussions:

Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

67
 Additional Experiment:

Title:

Objective:

Theory:

Block Diagram:

68
Equipment Required:

Sl. no. Name Model no. and make Frequency range

Experimental Results:
69
Graph:
70
Discussions:
71
Questionnaires:

Grade awarded
Lab record:
Lab Performance:
Viva:

Teacher’s signature with date _______________________

72