Contents

1. Prefixes and Suffixes............................................................................................................ 5

2. Synonyms and Antonyms................................................................................................... 13

3. Analogies ........................................................................................................................... 17

4. One Word Substitution and Proverbs.................................................................................. 21

5. Nouns and Pronouns.......................................................................................................... 26

6. Verbs and Adverbs............................................................................................................. 35 7.

Adjectives........................................................................................................................... 42 8.

Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals ..................................................................................... 47 9.

Articles and Prepositions .................................................................................................... 54 10.

Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation ............................................................................. 61 11.

Comprehension.................................................................................................................. 69 12.

Tenses ............................................................................................................................... 73 13.

Voice and Narration............................................................................................................ 78 14.

Information Retrieval .......................................................................................................... 84 15.

Spoken and Written Expressions........................................................................................ 90 16.

Previous Year Paper (2021-22).......................................................................................... 94 17.

Answer Key ...................................................................................................................... 104

Preface
We are pleased to launch a thoroughly revised edition of this workbook. We welcome feedback from
students, teachers, educators and parents. For improvements in the next edition, please send your
suggestions at [email protected].

CREST Olympiads is one of the largest Olympiad Exams with students from more than 25 countries.
The objective of these exams is to build competitive spirit while evaluating students on conceptual
understanding of the concepts.

We strive to provide a superior learning experience, and this workbook is designed to complement
the school studies and prepare the students for various competitive exams including the CREST
Olympiads. This workbook provides a crisp summary of the topics followed by the practice questions.
These questions encourage the students to think analytically, to be creative and to come up with
solutions of their own. There’s a previous year paper given at the end of this workbook for the
students to attempt after completing the syllabus. This paper should be attempted in 1 hour to get an
assessment of the student’s preparation for the final exam.
 Publishers
Chapter 1
Prefixes and
Suffixes
Prefixes

In grammar, prefixes are defined as a group of letters that are affixed before root words. It is,
therefore, placed before the base word. Some of the most popular prefixes include: dis-,
un-, re-, im-, il-, ir-, mis-, sub-, de-, pre-, in-, etc.

What are prefixes used for?

Prefixes are used in multiple ways to convey various meanings:

i. Prefixes can be used to negate the meaning of a word. For instance, prefixes like dis
-, un-, in-, im-, non-, ir-/il-, etc., can be used to reverse the meaning of the rootword.

Examples:

Dis: Dislike, discontinue, dissatisfied, disadvantage, disincline, disappear, disorder, etc. Un:
Ungrateful, uncomfortable, unhappy, unlikely, unable, unambiguous,uncontrollable, etc. In:
Insignificant, insecure, indestructible, incommunicable, indivisible, insensitive,inexperienced, etc.
Im: Impossible, impractical, immoderate, impartial, immortal, immaculate,etc.

Non: Non-verbal, non-professional, non-violence, non-stick etc.

Ir/il: Illogical, illegible, illegal, illiterate, irrational, irregular, irrelevant, irresponsible, etc.

ii. A base word prefixed with mis- can be used to convey that something is inappropriate.
Examples: Mistrust, mishandle, misread, misuse, mislead, misfit, misbehave,misfire,
etc.

iii. Root words prefixed with re- can imply repetition:

Examples: Reconsider, redo, rebuild, regain, rewrite, recombine, reinstall, re-assign, etc.

iv. Base words prefixed with pre- denote before or prior to:
Examples: Precondition, preoccupy, premature, prefix, pre-industrial, predate, etc.

v. The prefix sub-can be used to denote under or almost or a lesser amount of something:
Examples: Subcontinent, subheading, subtropical, subway, suburban, etc. Other
popularly used prefixes include pro-, anti-, over-, inter-, etc.

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Prefixes and Suffixes

Suffixes
In grammar, suffixes are letters or a group of letters that are placed after a root word. It is therefore
an affix that comes after a word that either changes the meaning of a word or makes it
grammatically acceptable in the context of a sentence.

Some of the most popular examples of suffixes include: -ful, -less, -able, -ment, -ed, -ing,

etc. Examples:

• -ful: peaceful, cheerful, dreadful, harmful, careful, colourful, mindful, wonderful, painful,
etc.
• -less: careless, painless, hopeless, tasteless, wireless, reckless, homeless, fearless,
aimless, etc.
• -able: comfortable, measurable, adjustable, affordable, avoidable, admirable, disposable,
etc.
• -ible: negligible, accessible, edible, audible, incredible, defensible, permissible, reversible,
etc.
• -ed: wanted, disappointed, abolished, abrogated, automated, captioned, etc. • -ing:
gardening, typing, owing, plying, swinging, sparkling, multiplying, brewing, etc. •
-ment: disappointment, accomplishment, advertisement, acknowledgement,
establishment, etc.
• Other popularly used suffixes include: -ness, -fy, -ion, -ive, etc.

Collocations

Collocations refer to words that are frequently mentioned or paired together. Apart from making the
language sound more natural, it also makes the language sound more fascinating and interesting.
For instance, collocations like play a crucial role, take a look, have a dream, come to power, pay
the price etc. are frequently used in everyday language. Although there are no specific rules to
formulate collocations, a reader/learner can have a fair idea of some commonly accepted or used
collocations by noticing the broad structure of the usage of verbs.

For example, the word ‘get’ is often used to indicate an alteration or change (Examples: get
going, get old, get better, get in trouble, get warmer, etc.).

The word ‘make’ is often used when something is likely to be created or has an outcome
(Examples: make arrangements, make up one’s mind, make one’s day, make a comeback, etc.).

The word ‘pay’ can be used to indicate something that incurs a cost or to give attention or
admiration. (Examples: pay a fine, pay a compliment, pay wages, pay your respects, pay tribute,
etc.).

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Prefixes and Suffixes

Some Other Popular Collocations Include

• Take advantage of • Come to an Agreement

• Go missing • Go Astray
• Have sympathy • Get Started
 • Miss the point • Keep A Secret
• Keep in touch • Miss The Opportunity
• Have a good time • Keep A Promise
• Go bankrupt • Lose One’s temper
• Keep quiet • Do someone a favour
• Break a record • Catch a cold
• Catch someone’s eye

Words Related to Travel and Locations

Travelling refers to moving from one place to another, usually in an expected or a predictable way.
Certain words are used quite often, to refer to various travelling objects or people or to explain
their position or movement. They include:

1. Across:
i. It is used to convey movement of an object or person from one spot to another.
For example: They ran across the road.
ii. To convey that something stretches from one side to the other:
For example: The bridge is constructed across the river.
iii. To imply that something is situated or located on the other side.
For example: You will find an ATM just across the road.
iv. Can be used to emphasize the multiplicity of something.
For example: She has travelled across the country.

2. Through:
i. It is used to implying movement from one side to the other side. It is generally used to
convey that someone/something is surrounded by a landscape or an object while
travelling.
For example: He had to travel through a number of cities to reach here.

3. Over:
i. It refers to something that is at a higher altitude or above. For example:
ii. They drove their cars over the hill.

4. At:
i. The word is used to express a particular location.
For example: You will find her at the library.

5. Along:
i. It is used to convey that something is moving on or in a line next to something.
For example: She usually walks along the seashore.

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Prefixes and Suffixes

Some other words that are used frequently to denote a position or a movement include between, by,
in, behind, below, beside, etc. Prepositions of place are therefore more often used for the said
purpose.

Road Signs
 Two-way traffic Roadwork No parking No left turn

No right turn Hump Uneven road No overtaking

Right hand curve Left hand curve Right hair pin bend Left hair pin bend

Spellings

Learning how words are spelt is quite essential as far as writing and reading skills are concerned.
There are certain words that contain silent letters or repetitive letters or have a different
pronunciation. Due attention has to be paid to words so that a person can learn them correctly.
Some of the most commonly misspelt words include*:

• Leisure • Privilege • Schedule

• Accommodate • Referred • Recommend
• Immediately • Calendar • Ridiculous
• Conscious • Queue • Scissors
• Embarrass • Convenient • Sensible
• Equipment • Weird • Accessible
• Gauge • Beginning • Twelfth
• Hierarchy • Reference • Fulfilment
• Possession • Tyranny • Vacuum
• Opportunity • Noticeable • Deteriorate
• Grateful

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Prefixes and Suffixes

Homophones and Homonyms

Homophones are defined as words that have similar pronunciation but are spelt differently and have
different meanings as well. The meaning of such words can either be understood in the context of
the sentence or by analysing their spellings. For instance, the words ‘hire’ and ‘higher’ are
pronounced similarly but their spellings as well as meanings vary considerably. ‘Hire’ refers to
employing someone, while as ‘higher’ refers to something that is more advanced or enhanced.
Given below are the some more examples of words that are homophones*:

• Waste – Waist • Ball – Bawl

• Bury – Berry • Board – Bored
• Break – Brake • Cereal – Serial
• Wait – Weight • Check – Cheque
• Foul – Fowl • Principal – Principle
• Allowed – Aloud • Pause – Paws
• Weather – Whether • Praise – Prays – Preys
• Flew – Flu • Vein – Vain
• Heard – Herd • Knight – Night
• Morning – Mourning • Berth - Birth

Homonyms
Homonyms are words that have similar pronunciation and spelling but have different meanings. The
meaning of such words is generally deduced by the sentence in which they are used. For example,
the word ‘bear’ can have different meanings in different contexts. It would refer to the animal in the
sentence- "Polar bears are usually found towards the north of the Arctic Circle”. It means ‘to suffer or
tolerate’ in the sentence- "She cannot bear the harsh weather”. Also, it can mean ‘to carry or
contain’ in the sentence-"The banner bears the politician’s name”. Some more words that have more
than one meaning are: circular, current, bark, letter, right, mine, pride, bank, address, tender, draft,
watch, key, wound, light, might, etc.*

*Note: This is just a representative and in-exhaustive list meant for guidance purposes only. Students
are advised to visit https://www.crestolympiads.com/spellbee-winter-csbw-syllabus for more such
words.

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Prefixes and Suffixes

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1 and 2): Fill in the blanks with the correct prefix: 1. Owing to

criminal charges, he has been ________ qualified from contesting the elections.

a. non- b. un
c. dis- d. in

2. This is a leading advertisement.

a. un- b. pre
 c. non- d. mis

Direction (for questions 3-5): Fill in the blanks with the correct suffix:

3. He always has well thought-out plans. He is a very care planner.

a. –free b. –ful
c. –less d. –ed

4. It is said that Lord Buddha had attained enlighten___ in Gaya.

a. –ed b. –ness
c. –ing d. –ment

5. The snow leopard is a disappear species.

a. –ing b. –able
c. –ed d. –ible

Direction (for questions 6-13): Fill in the blanks with the correct

collocation: 6. This batch of students is notorious _____ bunking their classes.

a. with b. of
c. in d. for

7. They should mercy on him.

a. take b. make
c. keep d. do

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Prefixes and Suffixes

8. You must the promise you made.

a. have b. take
c. miss d. keep9. If the institution continues to lend, it will

bankrupt.

a. come b. go
c. take d. pay

10. The conversation helped us to the ice.

a. pack b. keep c. have d. break

11. The duck waddled the river.

 a. over b. across c. after d. beside

12. The fort is on the hill.

a. set b. situated c. along d. by

13. Their house is the school.

a. beside b. between c. along d. through

Direction (for questions 14-17): Fill in the blanks with the correct

spellings: 14. The boy had a idea.

a. mischievous b. mischevious c. misschivous d. mischievious

15. He asked them to book an seat in the next flight.

a. aile b. aiesl
c. aisle d. ailse

16. She the opportunity.

a. siezed b. seezed c. seized d. seised

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Prefixes and Suffixes

17. I will visit her tomorrow.

a. defenitely b. difinitely
c. definitley d. definitely

Direction (for questions 18-20): Fill in the blanks with the appropriate homophone: 18.

The king to power very quickly.

a. rhos b. roes
c. rows d. rose

19. They had purchased twenty-four gold.

a. karet b. carat
c. carrot d. caret

20. You should not with his life.

a. medal b. meddle
c. mettle d. metal
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Chapter 2
and Antonyms
Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have exactly the same or almost similar meaning as the other given
word or words. For example, the word “well-known” is a synonym of the word “famous”. It can
also be used interchangeably with words like “established”, “renowned”, “celebrated”,
“prominent”, etc. All these words are synonyms for each other.
One way to check if the word is a synonym to the other word or not, is to use it in place
of that particular word in a sentence. Look at the sentences given below:

i. The government has prohibited smoking in public places.

ii. The government has banned smoking in public places.

One can infer that the words “prohibit” and “ban” can be used

interchangeably. A few examples of synonyms include:

• Accomplish – Achieve • Awful – Terrible

• Alike – Same • Quickly – Rapidly
• Occur – Happen • Odd – Weird
• Reject – Deny • Coarse – Rough
• Clarify – Explain • Scared – Afraid
• Mistake – Error • Depart – Leave
• Assist – Help • Perfect – Flawless
• Infant – Baby • Destroy – Demolish
• Enormous – Huge • Sordid – Dirty
• Ask – enquire • Misery – Distress

Note:

It must however be remembered that synonyms cannot always be used

interchangeably. It is always essential to consider the sentence and the situation
in which the word is being used.
 For example, although the words “finish” and “complete” are generally regarded as
synonyms, they cannot always be used interchangeably. Consider the following
sentences:

i. He has a complete list of all the guests who were invited.

ii. She will finish eating her lunch soon.

Hence, it is very essential to know the context and the intent before using any synonymous word.
on time = in time = on span
on time => khi đã lên kế hoạch và 100% sẽ thực hiện ĐÚNG GIỜ
in time => ko có kế hoạch, vừa kịp, xuýt xoát
on span => khoảng t/g sẽ làm, ko đc xác định cụ thể
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Synonyms and Antonyms

Antonyms
Antonyms are defined as words that have the opposite meaning. Therefore, such words have
contradictory connotations. Following are some examples of antonyms:

• Dangerous – Safe • Complicated – Simple

• Arrive – Depart • Expand – Contract
• Defend – Attack • Amuse – Bore
• Humane – Cruel • Vividly – Vaguely
• Admit – Deny • Exterior – Interior
• Sharp – Blunt • Despair – Hope
• Cautious – Careless • Idle – Active
• Doubt – Trust • Sensible – Ridiculous
• Defeat – Victory • Ordinary – Unusual
• Dawn – Dusk • Combine – Separate

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-5): Choose the best word/phrase from the options given below that
can replace the word in bold letters without changing its meaning:
investigate : tìm ra, chỉ ra vđ nào đấy
1. The police are investigating the matter.
Resolve : giải quyết đc kiểm chứng
a. Resolving b. Examining
c. Neglecting d. Reconsidering
neglect : xao nhãng, bỏ bê cv nào đó reconsider : cân nhắc
2. A competent person must be selected to do the job.
effective : hiệu quả
= talent : giỏi giang, tài năng
hiệu suất, năng suất a. Efficient b. Vicious xấu xa, sa đoạ vào vc xấu
c. Dishonest d. Friendly

3. She has enclosed the required documents with the letter.

Gửi kèm, đính kèm
rút lui a. Withdrawn b. Separated bị tách ra, chia ra
c. Included d. Removed

4. They had the privilege of meeting the Noble laureate.

được đặc cách, đặc quyền
a. Option b. Right
lựa chọn quyền VD : nhân quyền = human right, nữ quyền = woman right
 c. Permission d. Opportunity
sự chấp thuận đc làm gì đấy cơ hội
5. She used to panic quite often.
sợ hãi, hốt hoảng
cáu giận, điên tiết a. Get furious b. Get nervous lo lắng
*quạo* c. Sob d. Shout
sợ phát khóc, phát khiếp

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Synonyms and Antonyms

Direction (for questions 6-8): Choose the odd one out from each set of words:

6.không thể tin được Unbelivable : vô lí không thể tin nổi (xàm ỉa)
a. Incredible b. Magnificent lộng lẫy, nguy nga, tráng lệ
c. Undesirable d. Marvellous
không mong muốn vi diệu, tuyệt diệu
một điều gì đấy (éo tin đc luôn)
7.
a. Sunrise b. Dawn bình minh
c. Dusk d. Daybreak sau bình minh --> rạng đông
nhá nhem tối
8.
trời sương mù, mù mịt a. Foggy b. Overcast bị phủ bởi cái gì đó, mờ mịt
c. Cloudy d. Daybreak
nhiều mây, che phủ
Direction (for questions 9 and 10): Choose the best option to complete each

sentence: 9. The doctor suggested that I should go for a walk .

thông thường, bình thường
a. customarily b. regularly
bất thường c. orderly d. commonly bình thường

10. They a story to escape being caught.

tạo ra (có thể hư cấu) hư cấu
a. made b. made-up
c. parabled d. fabled
câu chuyện ngụ ngôn hư cấu
Direction (for questions 11-15): Choose the antonym of the word in bold in the following
sentences:

11. He is a good orator. We were captivated by his speech.

thôi miên để thu hút ai đấy say mê, thu hút
a. Fascinated b. Bored
c. Spellbound d. Amused
thu hút làm cho ai đó vui vẻ,
12. She is a vigorous young woman.
hoạt bát
hôn mê, xỉu a. Lethargic b. Dynamic năng động
c. Lively d. Wicked
yêu đời hành động độc ác
13. The culprits had initially denied their crime.
deny : phủ nhận
a. Rejected b. Dismissed sa thải = fired
c. Contradicted d. Confessed thú nhận
cải, bật lại
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Synonyms and Antonyms

14. They always violate the rules.

a. Comply b. Breach
c. Overrule d. Degrade

15. She felt humiliated when they neglected her.

a. Subdued b. Honoured
c. Embarrassed d. Disgraced

Direction (for questions 16-20): Choose the antonyms of the given words:

16. Advanced

a. Sophisticated b. Primitive
c. Ingenious d. Complex

17. Dangerous

a. Secure b. Hazardous
c. Savage d. Unpredictable

18. Generous

a. Abundant b. Gentle
c. Miser d. Thoughtful

19. Scarce

a. Frighten b. Scanty
c. Abundant d. Insufficient

20. Bitter

a. Sour b. Resentful
c. Hard d. Sweet
 Copyright © CREST Olympiads 16 www.crestolympiads.com
Chapter
3 Analogies

Analogies

Analogies refer to establishing similarity or comparison between things. It is generally used to

explain or simplify an idea. Consider the sentence:

Life is like a roller coaster ride.

In the sentence, the highs and lows of life are compared to the ups and downs of a
rollercoaster ride.

Similarly, one can draw comparisons between the certain qualities of objects or
beings that are apparently unrelated.

Usually, in an analogy test, two pairs of words are presented that have a certain relationship.
One is supposed to choose another pair with the same association or relationship. Example:
Kilogram: Wheat:: Litre: Milk.

It can be read as: “Kilogram is to wheat as litre is to milk”. In the stated example, an analogy is
drawn in terms of measurement. While a kilogram is a unit of measurement for wheat, a litre is
a unit of measurement for milk.

Hence, while answering these questions, one has to look for similar characteristics in the
given pair of words and answer the question accordingly.

Analogies can also be drawn on the basis of: person to situation relation, cause and
effect, object/action, part to whole, tool/worker, synonyms, antonyms, etc.

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-10): Choose the answer that best describes the type of

analogy: 1. Leaves are related to trees as City is related to a State.

a. Part/Whole b. Antonyms
 c. Synonyms d. Degree of comparison 2. Stagnant is related to motionless

as virtuous is related to ethical.

a. Cause and effect b. Object/Action

c. Antonyms d. Synonyms

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Analogies

3. A chisel is related to the carpenter as a scalpel is related to the surgeon.

a. Object/Action b. Tool/Worker c. Cause and effect d. Part to

whole

4. Advantage is related to disadvantage as agree is related to disagree.

a. Degree of comparison b. Antonyms c. Cause and effect d. Part

to whole

5. Farther is related to farthest as better is related to best.

a. Degree of comparison b. Synonym c. Cause and effect d. Part

to whole

6. A cut is related to bleed as a virus is related to disease.

a. Antonym b. Part to whole c. Degree of comparison d. Cause and

effect

7. A poem is related to a poet as a novel is related to a novelist.

a. Cause and effect b. Worker to creation c. Degree of comparison d.

Part to whole

8. An airplane is related to transportation as a shovel is related to digging.

a. Tool/Worker b. Part to whole c. Object to purpose d. Cause and

effect

9. Ampere is related to current as Kelvin is related to temperature.

a. Part to whole b. Worker to creation c. Cause and effect d. Units of

measurement

10. Ambush is related to tigers as barrel is related to monkeys.

a. Object to purpose b. Collective nouns c. Cause and effect d. Degree of

comparison
 Copyright © CREST Olympiads 18 www.crestolympiads.com
Analogies

Direction (for questions 11-20): Complete these sentences/analogies by choosing the most
suitable combination from the given options:

11. Egypt is to Africa as England is to .

a. America b. Asia
c. France d. Europe

12. A parking lot is related to cars as a hangar is related to _________.

a. aircrafts b. ships
c. boats d. trains

13. Freedom is related to liberty as enormous is related to ____ .

a. normal b. huge
c. usual d. simple

14. The Earth is related to the axis in the same way as the wheel is related to ________.

a. tyre b. car
c. hub d. road

15. Equatorial is related to hot as polar is related to .

a. sunny b. humid
c. scorching d. frigid

16. 25th is related to the silver anniversary as 40th is related to the ________ anniversary.

a. sapphire b. ruby
c. platinum d. pearl

17. Nucleus: Atom:: Sun: X

a. X - Moon b. X - Star
c. X - Solar System d. X - Comets

18. Gravity is related to pull in the same way as magnetism is related to _________.

a. attraction b. push
c. repulsion d. separation
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Analogies

19. Abduction is related to kidnapping in the same way as larceny is related to _______.

a. blackmail b. sin
c. crime d. theft

20. Crumb is related to bread in the same way as morsel is related to ______.

a. fruit b. food
c. cake d. biscuit

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Chapter Substitution and

4
Proverbs
One Word Substitution
One Word

One word substitution refers to using a single word instead of many words or a string of words to
describe the same thing. For example, the word “abstruse” is used to refer to something that is hard
to comprehend or understand. Therefore, instead of saying, “This book is hard to understand”, one
can say, “This book is abstruse”. Similarly, the word “obsolete” is used to imply that something is no
longer in use. Some more examples are provided below:

1. A person who cannot read: Illiterate.

2. A person who can speak more than five languages: Polyglot.
 3. Something that is modern or occurring in the same time period: Contemporary.
4. Items or issues taken up for consideration or discussion in a meeting: Agenda.
5. A detailed account of someone’s life narrated by someone else: Biography. 6.
A detailed account of one’s own life: Autobiography.

Faster than Lightning Long Walk to Freedom

Usain Bolt’s autobiography Nelson

Mandela’s autobiography
7. A form of government where people elect the government: Democracy.
8. One who easily believes or trusts others: Credulous.
9. A religious song: Hymn.
10. A period of one thousand years: Millennium.

Proverbs
A proverb is generally defined as a well-known saying. For example, “don’t count your chickens
before they hatch” is a popular proverb which means that one should not depend on or count on
something which is not certain. Similarly, the proverb “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” is often
used to mean that one should not risk investing all efforts and sources on one plan.

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One Word Substitution and Proverbs

Some of the most popular proverbs used in the English language include*:

• Do not judge a book by its cover.

• Strike while the iron is hot.
• A journey of thousand miles begins with a single step.
• Do not bite the hand that feeds you.
• Birds of a feather flock together.
• Fortune favours the brave.
• The grass is always greener on the other side.
• Do not cry over spilt milk.
• A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
• A person is known by the company he keeps.
• The early bird catches the worm.
• When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
 • A penny saved is a penny earned.
• A stitch in time saves nine.

*Note: This is just a representative and in-exhaustive list meant for guidance purposes only.

Practice Questions

Direction (for questions 1-10): Choose one word for the words given in bold in the following
sentences:

1. Mark is of the firm belief that God is the One who is very powerful.

a. Omniscient b. Omnipresent
c. Omnipotent d. Omnificent

2. This book has an excellent collection of poems.

a. Poetry b. Anthology
c. Thesaurus d. Bibliography

3. A louse is an organism that derives sustenance from others. They are “host
specific” and feed on human blood.

a. Host b. Species
c. Microbe d. Parasite

4. It is important to look at the brighter side of things, if you want to stay contented. No
matter what happens, one should never lose one’s positive outlook and should always
be an eternal ______.

a. pessimist b. optimist
c. ambivalent d. realist

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One Word Substitution and Proverbs

5. I have always disliked a government by a person who has absolute authority.

a. Plutocracy b. Democracy
c. Autocracy d. Theocracy

6. I have known Peter for a decade now. He is a person who does not believe in God.

a. Atheist b. Theist
c. Antagonistic d. Monotheist

7. Antonio is the _______ and titular merchant in “The Merchant of Venice”. (The major
character in a literary piece of work).

a. antagonist b. protagonist
c. foil d. tertiary character

8. The answer to my question still remains unclear and this can be a decisive turning point
in this case. (Something that is not clearly defined or understood).
 a. Ambiguous b. Comprehensible
c. Explicit d. Distinct

9. Please make him understand that his fast unto death can be ________ for him.
(Something that can possibly result in death).

a. mild b. benign
c. fatal d. trivial

10. This batch of students is infamous for cheating. (Someone who is unfavourably famous).

a. Prominent b. Notorious
c. Noted d. Renowned

Direction (for questions 11-20): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate option to
complete the proverb:

11. Despite taking oaths many a time not to smoke, I caught Greg today smoking secretively
in the courtyard. It is true that a leopard never changes its _____.

a. food b. prey
c. spots d. claws

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One Word Substitution and Proverbs

12. Why don’t you wear a helmet while driving your bike? Don’t you know that it is better
safe than ________?

a. worry b. sorry
c. merry d. flurry

13. You shouldn’t have said that to Jessica. It is always better to look before you ________.

a. act b. turn
c. leap d. speak

14. So many interns have handled this project now and none have been able to complete it yet.
The output is a complete mess. Isn’t it true that too many cooks spoil the .

a. kitchen b. dish
c. flavour d. broth

15. Jemima always asks us to help others but when it comes to help, she always has an
excuse. You should practice what you .

a. preach b. speak
c. teach d. believe
 16. If he has betrayed you doesn’t mean that you will also do so with him. Two wrongs do
not make ________.

a. a fight b. a knight
c. a right d. an indict

17. Count your blessings instead of complaining about what you don’t have. Work hard for your
bright future instead of daydreaming because a bird in hand is worth _______.

a. many in the coop b. two in the bush

c. a thousand pounds d. a million free

18. I will prove my critics wrong by winning a trophy this time because actions speak
louder than ________.

a. gestures b. words
c. thoughts d. postures

19. You should never compare yourself with others because all that glitters ____________.

a. cannot be bought b. are not stars

c. is not gold d. is not worth purchasing

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One Word Substitution and Proverbs

20. You should stay positive and patient even in these difficult times because every cloud
_____.

a. has water vapours. b. covers a long distance.

c. appears to float. d. has a silver lining.

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Chapter 5
Nouns
Nouns and Pronouns

A noun is a naming word that names a person, thing, qualities, ideas or a place.
Example: William Shakespeare, country, milk, pride, joy, mountain, March, etc.

Nouns can be broadly categorized as:

i. Common Nouns: These are words that are used for non-specific people, places or
things.
For example: book, building, woman, cat, state, bus, religion, etc.

Consider the following sentence:

• The boy was riding a bike.

In the sentence, both “boy” and “bike” are common nouns.

ii. Proper Nouns: These are words that are used for specific people, places or things. For
example: Atlantic Ocean, Australia, White House, Himalayas, Albert Einstein, Sunday,
etc.

Consider the following sentence:

William Wordsworth composed the poem “The Solitary Reaper”.
“William Wordsworth” as well as the poem “Solitary Reaper” are proper nouns.
Note: Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.

Albert Einstein White House

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Nouns and Pronouns

iii. Abstract Nouns: These are those nouns, which denote an idea, quality, or state rather
than a concrete object.
For example: friendship, slavery, bravery, belief, kindness, patience, etc.
Hence these words convey an idea or a quality. Although abstract nouns generally do not
have a plural form, there are abstract nouns that can have a plural form.
For example: Culture-cultures, Idea-ideas, plan-plans, uncertainty uncertainties
 iv. Concrete Nouns: These are nouns that can be counted and refer to a physical object in
the real world.
For example: book, plate, chair, table, bag, etc.

v. Collective Nouns: These nouns refer to a group of things or people who are considered
as a single unit. They are the names of a collection of people, things or objects. For
example: staff, orchard, family, police, jury, regiment, heap, etc.

Some examples of popular collective nouns assigned to various groups of

animals/insects are as follows:

• A swarm of bees. • A litter of puppies.

• A pack of wolves. • A school of fish.
• A herd of cattle. • A parliament of owls.
• A clowder of cats. • A barrel of monkeys.
• A pod/ school of whales. • A parade of elephants.
• An ambush of tigers. • A pride of lions.
• A herd of rabbits. • A tower of giraffes.
• A pack of dogs.

vi. Countable Nouns: These refer to nouns that can be calculated (each separate item can
possibly be counted with numbers).
For example: animals,bottles, boxes, coins, oranges, humans, etc. can be counted.

vii. Uncountable Nouns: The term is used for those nouns that cannot be counted. These
may include abstract concepts or minute objects that cannot be counted. Therefore,
abstract nouns are always uncountable nouns while concrete nouns and common nouns
can be either countable or uncountable. Usually, uncountable nouns do not have a plural
form.
For example: water, tea, rice, sand, sleep, music, etc.

viii. Compound Nouns: These nouns are made up of smaller units of words. They are usually
comprised of two words joined together.
For example, shoelace, rainfall, toothpaste, basketball, airport, newspaper,
tablecloth, handbag, etc.

Plurals of single word compound nouns are usually formed, by adding “s” at the end.
For example:
• Seatbelt: seatbelts
• Teapot: teapots

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Nouns and Pronouns

• Snowflake: snowflakes
• Rainforest: rainforests
• Earring: earrings
• Workshop: workshops

When compound words are formed from two words separated by a space (also called open
compound noun), then “s” is added to the principal word.
For example:
• Living room: living rooms
• Bus stop: bus stops
 • Water bottle: water bottles

When the compound noun is comprised of a noun and a preposition, the plural is formed, by
adding an “s” to the noun.
For example:
• Passer-by: passers-by
• Hanger-on: hangers-on

When neither of the two words in a compound noun is a noun then the plural is formed, by adding an
“s” to the last word.
For example:
• Higher-up: higher-ups
• Check-in: check-ins
• Grown-up: grown-ups

Also, another way to form plurals is to add -s to the word that is actually being pluralized.
For example:
• Mother-in-law: mothers-in-law
• Mayor-elect: mayors-elect
• Doctor of philosophy: doctors of philosophy

Changing Singular Nouns to Plural Nouns

While most singular nouns are made plural by simply adding an -s at the end, the plural of a noun
depends on what is the last letter of the word. Some common rules for changing singular nouns to
plurals are as given below:

Rule 1: If the noun ends with -f or -fe, the f or fe is often changed to -ves to form plural nouns.

For example: Wife-wives; Thief-thieves; wolf-wolves; leaf-leaves

However, some exceptions include: Proof-proofs; roof-roofs; chef-chefs

Rule 2: Usually -es is added to make plurals of words ending in -o and preceded
with a consonant sound:

For example: Tomato-tomatoes; hero-heroes; buffalo-buffaloes

Exceptions include: Piano-pianos; photo-photos; zero-zeros

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Nouns and Pronouns

However, the plurals of nouns ending in an “o” that is preceded by a vowel are usually formed
by adding an “s”:

For example: Radio-radios; studio-studios; video-videos; zoo-zoos

Rule 3: The plurals of nouns ending in “-y” are made plurals by adding an

“s”: For example: Ray-rays; boy-boys; tray –trays; monkey-monkeys.

However, the plurals of nouns ending in an “”-y” that is preceded by a consonant sound
are usually formed by adding “ies”:

For example: Hobby-hobbies; family-families, ; city-cities.

Note: that a number of English words become plural by changing their vowels.
For example: “oo” to “ee” or “an” to “en”. (Foot-feet, man-men.)
Some words have irregular plurals, and some words remain the same.

For example: Child-children, person-people, mouse-mice, index-indices, analysis-analyses,

crises- crises, ox-oxen, sheep-sheep, series-series, species-species, deer-deer.

Forming Plural Possessive and Singular Possessive

Generally, the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding’s (apostrophe and
s). This rule applies irrespective of whether the word ends in “s” or not.

For example:
• My brother’s car.
• The Earth’s rotation.
• Today’s news.
• The student’s response.
• John’s spectacles.
• My friend’s advice.

The possessive of a plural noun (that does not end in an s) is simply formed by adding
an apostrophe and s to make it possessive.
For example: People’s votes, women’s college, children’s toys.

However, when a plural of a noun ends with an “s”, an apostrophe is added to make it
possessive. For example: Labourers’ union, students’ results, parents’ day, insects’ wings, girls’
school.

Note: Plural nouns are used for some items that have two parts. These words do not have a
singular form.
For example: spectacles, trousers, scissors, binoculars, glasses, etc.

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Nouns and Pronouns

Pronouns
Pronouns are words that can be used to replace a noun. Often, it is used to refer to a noun that
has already been mentioned.

Generally, pronouns are categorized as follows:

i. Personal Pronouns: These pronouns are used as a replacement for proper nouns. They
are, therefore, used to identify particular persons, groups, or objects.
For example:
• She relished the lunch.
• They actively participate in games.

In the above sentences, the words “she” and “they” are personal
pronouns.Personal pronouns also include the following:
I, we, you, he, it, mine, it, them, us, me, etc.
 Note: We use the pronoun “I” when the person speaking is doing the action. We use
the pronoun “me” when the person speaking is receiving the action of the verb. For
example:
• I am watering the plants.
• She asked me to play football.

ii. Interrogative/Relative Pronouns: They are used to ask questions and primarily include:
what, who, whom, that, which and whose.
‘Who’, ‘whom’ and ‘whose’ are generally used to refer to people. For
example: • Who is the man standing at the doorway?
• Whom are you going to take along with you?
• Whose shoes are these?

Note: “Whom” is used to refer to the object of a verb or preposition and “who”is
used only as the subject of the sentence.
• ‘What’ is generally used to refer to things. What is in the box?
• What are you going to purchase?
• ‘Which’ is used to refer to both people and things.

Which is usually used to ask about preference among specific things or to ask for
particular information.
For example:
• Which one would you like to have? Tea or coffee?
• Which outfit would you like to purchase?

Note: A noun or a pronoun for which a relative pronoun stand, is termed as its antecedent
and a relative pronoun always concurs with its antecedent in gender, number and person.
Study the following sentence:
• She is one of the girls who do not do their work properly.

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Nouns and Pronouns

iii. Demonstrative Pronouns: Pronouns that refer to specific objects are called
demonstrative pronouns. ‘This’, ‘these’, ‘that’ and ‘those’ are words that are
generally used to point to various things.
For example:
• This is the dress that I wore last evening.

iv. Possessive Pronouns: Pronouns that show possession of something are called as
possessive pronouns. Possessive pronouns primarily include mine, ours, yours, hers,
his, its and theirs.
Study the following sentences:
• The wallet is mine.
• The house next door is hers.

v. Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to non-specific beings,

objects, or places. Words like anything, someone, something, anyone, everyone, etc. are
indefinite pronouns.

vi. Reflexive Pronouns: These include words like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves, etc. They are generally used when the subject and
the object of the sentence are the same.
For example:
 • She will wash the clothes herself. Some matters resolve by themselves.

vii. Reciprocal Pronouns: Reciprocal pronouns are used when each of the two or more
subjects are carrying out or have carried out an action of some type. They primarily
include “each other” and “one another”.
For example:
• They adore each other.
• We learn from one another.

Practice Questions

Direction (for question 1-8): Do as directed:

1. Choose the correct option that can fill in the blank:

In their heyday, a _________ consisted of thousands of camels travelling from North
Africa, across the desert to the savannah region in the south and back again, in a
hazardous journey that could take several months:

a. litter b. pride
c. pack d. caravan

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Nouns and Pronouns

2. Identify the type of noun for the word given in bold and quotes in the following sentence:
To her “horror”, the entire house was in bedlam:

a. Proper noun
b. Common noun
c. Material noun d. Abstract noun

3. Choose the plural of the word given in bold in the following sentence:
Due to his high calibre, he was made the commander-in-chief of the army.

a. Commanders-in-chief b. Commander-ins-chief c. Commander-in-chiefs d.

Commanders-in-chiefs

4. Find the error in the given sentence:

Can I take a look / at the goggle / that you purchased?

a. Can I take a look b. at the goggle

c. that you purchased? d. No error

5. Choose the correct plural form of the noun that the image is depicting:
 a. Babie’s b. Babies
c. Babies’ d. Babi’es

6. Which of the following words is wrongly used in the following sentence? Getty has
decided to clean all her closets and bookshelves on all the fullsmoons nights.

a. Bookshelves b. Fullsmoons
c. Closets d. Nights

7. Which of the following is an uncountable noun?

a. Suitcase b. Sunshine
c. Litre d. Arm

8. Choose the collective noun that describes the words in bold in the given sentence:
Johnny saw a group of giraffe quietly eating leaves in the zoo:

a. Tower b. Caravan
c. Colony d. Herd

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Nouns and Pronouns

Direction (for questions 9 and 10): Fill in the blanks with the most suitable

options: 9. England has won the test against Australia.

a. serie b. series
c. serie’s d. seri’es

10. There is a hostel located across the street.

a. girl b. girl’s
c. girls’ d. girls

Direction (for questions 11 and 12): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

pronouns: 11. Each of the worker has got _______ salary.

a. their b. his
c. himself d. its

12. _______are you referring to?

a. Whom b. Who
c. Whose d. Which
Direction (for questions 13-15): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there
is an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose
‘D’.

13. Do you want to (A) / speak to me (B) / or she? (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

14. In her (A) / lie our hope (B) / and our glory. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

15. He and me (A) / had been to the market (B) / to buy some vegetables. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Nouns and Pronouns

Direction (for questions 16-19): Use the most appropriate pronouns to complete the
given proverbs:

16. They never fail die in a great cause.

a. which b. that
c. who d. whom

17. Uneasy lies the head _____ wears the crown.

a. who b. what
c. that d. which

18. Everybody’s business is business.

a. anybody’s b. nobody’s
c. everybody’s d. somebody’s

19. All is well ends well.

a. which b. who
c. what d. that

20. Fill in the blank with the most appropriate word:

I did it all by .

a. me b. myself
c. itself d. herself
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Chapter 6
Verbs and
Verbs
Adverbs

Verbs are words that express some action, existence or feeling.

Study the following sentences:

• She reads a novel.
• He is an athlete.

The words “reads” and “is” in the above sentences are verbs.

Verbs are broadly categorized as principal verbs and auxiliary verbs, apart from
categorising them as transitive and intransitive verbs.

The main verb, also called the principal verb refers to the important verbs that generally show
the action or state of being of the subject. Read the following sentences:

• He has been jogging for half an hour.

• The kite is flying very high.

In the above sentences “jogging” and “flying” are the main verbs.
The primary Auxiliary verbs are:

Forms of to be: is, was, am, being, been, were.

Forms of to have: has, had
Forms of to do: does, did

Primary verbs also include the following:

May, might, can, could, shall, should, must, will and would.

In the sentence “We shall attend the dinner”, “shall” is the helping verb while “attend” is
the principal verb.

Transitive Verbs: These are the verbs in which the action passes over or transfers from the doer
 to something or someone, usually called as the object.

For example: She (Doer) called (Transitive verb) the police (Object).

Intransitive Verbs: These are the verbs in which the action stops with the doer and does not
require an object.

For example: The lion (Doer) roars (Intransitive verb).

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Verbs and Adverbs

Subject-Verb Agreement
Rule 1: A verb must always agree with its subject in person and number. That is to say, if the
subject is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must also
be plural.

Study the following sentences:

• The guests have arrived.
• The guest is scheduled to visit the place.

Rule 2: If two or more subjects are joined by “and”, they require a plural verb.
For example: The Sun and the Earth are important bodies of the Solar
system.

Rule 3: A singular subject joined to another pronoun or noun by phrases like “in addition
to”, “as well as”, “besides”, “along with”, etc. usually takes a singular verb.

Study the following sentences:

• The bungalow along with its furniture is being auctioned.
• He, besides his brother, is available.
• The officer, as well as his staff members, is hard working.

Note: When two subjects are joined by “as well as”, the verb agrees with the initially
mentioned subject in number and person. Therefore, the above statement can be written as:

The staff members, as well as the officer, are hard working.

Rule 4: Subjects that are altered by words like “either”, “no one”, “each”, “every”,
“someone”, “something”, etc. usually take singular verbs.
For example:
• Each man was given a chance to speak.
• Either he or his brother has committed the crime.

Rule 5: Uncountable nouns generally take a singular verb.

For example:
• Her intelligence is commendable.
• The information is not reliable.

Rule 6: Usually collective nouns take a singular verb unless it denotes each individual of
which it is composed.

Study the following sentences:

• A committee is looking into the matter.
 • The members of the committee are looking into the matter.

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Verbs and Adverbs

Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies or qualifies any part of speech except a noun, an article or a
pronoun. It generally modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a sentence.

Study the following sentences:

• She ran fast.
• They are exceptionally honest.
• He walked across the lawn very slowly.
• Unfortunately, she did not arrive in time.

In the above sentences, the italicized words are adverbs that modify a verb, an adjective, another
adverb or a sentence respectively.

Formation of Adverbs
1. By adding “-ly” to
i. Adjectives. For example: quickly, randomly, happily, carefully, hopefully, etc.
ii. Nouns. For example: daily, yearly, monthly, etc.

By adding prefix or suffix

i. Nouns. For example: besides, today, etc.
ii. Adjectives. For example: aloud, anew, afresh, below, etc.
iii. Adverbs. For example: thereby, henceforth, herein, etc.

2. By combining two or more words. For example: otherwise, sometimes,

likewise, meanwhile, upwards, somehow, etc.

Note: There are many words that are termed as conjunctive adverbs. Such words connect two
independent clauses. They include:

Similarly, certainly, accordingly, however, otherwise, instead, meanwhile, moreover,

furthermore, namely, meanwhile, indeed, undoubtedly, etc.

Study the following sentences:

• You ought to work hard; otherwise, you will fail.
• It is getting warmer; therefore, we may need to change our wardrobe.
• They said they are confident about the report; however, I may have to look
into it.

Some other popular adverbs include:

Very, more, too, quite, very, before, ago, since, probably, perhaps, etc.
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Verbs and Adverbs

Study the following sentences:

• I am very pleased to speak to you.
• I am more delighted than you.
• She talks too much.
• Don’t be too kind to them.
• This outfit is very costly.
• I have never been to Europe before.
• He has left the place a week ago.

(Note that ago is used to refer to a period of time, measured backwards from the present.)

• I have not seen him since Monday.

• It is quite cloudy; it will probably rain today.

Comparison of Adverbs
Some adverbs are compared or contrasted like adjectives.

The positive, comparative and superlative degrees of some adverbs are given

below: (Positive-Comparative-Superlative)

• Fast-faster-fastest
• Near-nearer-nearest
• Late-later-latest
• Far-farther-farthest
• Well-better-best
• Much-more-most
• Little-less-least
• Badly/ill-worse-worst
• Beautifully-more beautifully-most beautifully
• Happily-more happily-most happily

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-5): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

word: 1. The debate was up.

a. wind b. wound
c. winded d. winding

2. The passengers from the plane.

a. departed b. emerged
c. alighted d. surfaced
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Verbs and Adverbs

3. The river its banks.

a. broke b. breached
c. cracked d. split

4. No one, besides the family members present at the hospital.

a. was b. were
c. turned d. appeared

5. Everyone at the gathering perplexed.

a. were b. had
c. has d. was

Direction (for questions 6-8): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there is
an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose
‘D’.

6. The pages of the (A) / book that we purchased (B) / is torn. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

7. Majority of the people (A) / has voted in (B) / his favour. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

8. Three minutes (A) / are allotted (B) / to each speaker. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

Direction (for questions 9 and 10): Choose the most appropriate sentence:

9.
a. Let us make merry. b. Let us make us merry. c. Let us make ourselves
merry. d. Let us merry.

10.
a. The branches of the tree are loaded with fruits.
b. The branches of the tree are crammed with fruits.
c. The branches of the tree are filled with fruits.
d. The branches of the tree are laden with fruits.

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Verbs and Adverbs
 Direction (for questions 11-17): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

words: 11. It is costlier than what I expected.

a. very b. highly
c. much d. too very

12. The movie is interesting.

a. too b. much
c. too very d. very

13. She visited us three days _____.

a. since b. ago
c. after d. afterward

14. You need to tell the truth; you will be in trouble.

a. instead b. moreover
c. nevertheless d. otherwise

15. He is industrious; he got promoted.

a. therefore b. moreover
c. instead d. otherwise

16. He was planning to go trekking; he went to the beach.

a. moreover b. finally
c. instead d. otherwise

17. She has been practising for a year; she will win the championship.

a. moreover b. still
c. similarly d. undoubtedly

Direction (for questions 18-19): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there
is an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose
‘D’.

18. He had been (A) / enough kind (B)/ to reach. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Verbs and Adverbs

19. They have been (A) / quite busy (B) / since they arrived. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D
 20. Identify the superlative of the word given in bold in the following sentence:
Competition can be healthy, but if it is pushed too far it can result in bullying.

a. Far b. Farther
c. Farthest d. Most far

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Chapter
7 Adjectives

What are Adjectives?

Adjectives are describing words that are used to modify or qualify a noun or a pronoun.

Read the following sentences:

• A careless man.
• An Iranian politician.
• A red cherry.

The words in bold letters are adjectives.

Adjectives can be used before or after a noun they are describing.

Example: He purchased a green jacket.

In the above sentence, the adjective “green” is placed directly before the

noun. It can be placed after a noun.

Example: Rex felt delighted.

Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives can have comparative and superlative degrees.

Mostly comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are formed by adding -er
and - est to the word.

Example: High-higher-highest, black-blacker-blackest, thin-thinner-thinnest, clever-cleverer

cleverest, broad-broader-broadest, holy-holier-holiest, large-larger-largest.

Sometimes the comparative and superlative degree of adjectives is formed by

adding “more” or “most”.

Example: Difficult-more difficult-most difficult; serious-more serious-most serious;

beautiful-more beautiful-most beautiful.

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Adjectives

Conversely, one can also make comparatives and superlatives of such words using “less”
and “least”.

Example: Difficult-less difficult-least difficult.

Sometimes the degrees of comparison are formed in an irregular way.

For example: Much-more-most, Far-farther-farthest; Up-upper-uppermost;

Little-less-least; Good-better-best; Bad-worse-worst; In-inner-innermost.

Note that when a comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two things or
persons, it is generally followed by the word “than”.

Example:
• This task is more difficult than the one we accomplished.
• She is less talented than her sister

Also, double comparatives or superlatives must not be used in the same sentence.

Example, the sentence “She is more cleverer than her brother” is an incorrect
sentence. One can instead say that “she is cleverer than her brother”.

The major difference between adverbs and adjectives is that while adverbs describe in
what way someone is doing something, adjectives describe a noun. Adjectives answer
the questions like which, what kind of or how many.
Consider the following sentences:

She is a careful driver. (Adjective) She drives carefully. (Adverb)

Note that compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives are joined together
and usually, they modify the same noun. Such adjectives must be hyphenated.

Example:
• He is a forty-year-old man.
• I saw a green-eyed child.
Practice Questions

Direction (for questions 1 and 2): Read the following sentences and choose the appropriate
superlative of the highlighted (bold and underlined) word from the given options:

1. Exosphere is the out layer of the atmosphere.

a. Utter b. Outer
c. Uppermost d. Outermost

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Adjectives

2. Switzerland is famous for its mesmerizing alpine scenery, luxury branded watches, and
deliciously milky chocolates.

a. Famously b. More famous

c. Most famous d. Famousest

Direction (for questions 3 and 4): Pick out the comparatives of the highlighted

words: 3. The maid was careless with the child.

a. Carelessness b. More careless

c. Most careless d. Carelessly

4. Unfortunately, his advice was of little help in my case.

a. Less b. Least
c. More less d. Most less

Direction (for questions 5-10): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there is
an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose ‘D’.

5. They are the (A) / most noblest (B) / of all the people I have known. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

6. She is the older (A) / of the all the people (B) / who were present in the function.
(C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

7. These all (A) / books and journals (B) / are outdated. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

8. Love and hatred (A) / are the commoner (B) / emotions perceived by all mortals
equally. (C) / No error (D)
 a. A b. B
c. C d. D

9. He was struck (A) / with the most unique idea (B) / of water conservation. (C) / No
error (D).

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Adjectives

10. Each and every (A) / boys were (B) / present on that day. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

Direction (for questions 11 and 12): Choose the sentences that contain an adjective:

11.
a. The engine works smoothly. b. She is a hard worker. c. The kids were
playing happily. d. She eats voraciously.

12.
a. She was being followed by the robbers closely.
b. I was much moved by the story.
c. He turned out to be an evil man.
d. He too, will attend the meeting.

Direction (for questions 13 -20): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

words: 13. This was the __________ task that they had ever accomplished.

a. difficult b. more difficult

c. most difficult d. difficultest

14. His brother is ______ than him.

a. wealthy b. wealthier
c. wealthiest d. more wealthy 15. She is the ________ of them all.

a. lean b. most lean

c. leaner d. leanest

16. He always pretends to be _______-than-thou.

a. holy b. holier
c. holiest d. more holy

17. She has a very _____ perspective.

a. broad b. broader
c. broadest d. more broad

18. I was given the ______ account of the incident by her.

 a. more true b. truer
c. truest d. most true

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Adjectives

19. Equator is the _______ region in the world.

a. hot b. more hot

c. most hot d. hottest

20. He is ________ than I previously thought.

a. careless b. more careless

c. most careless d. carelessly

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Chapter
Phrasal Verbs,
8 Idioms and
Modals
What are Phrasal Verbs?

Phrasal verbs are defined as phrases that are comprised of two or more parts, in which one part is a
verb and the other is generally an adverb or a proposition or may even contain both. Although a
phrasal verb contains two or more words, it is essential to remember that a phrasal verb has a
specific meaning. For example, while the phrasal verb “track down” means to find something after
looking for it, the words “track” and “down” have different meanings.

The phrasal verbs sometimes have more than one meaning. Consider the following two sentences:

• They brought up the issue in the meeting.

 • She brought up her kids single-handedly.

In the two sentences the phrasal verb “brought up” has two different meanings. In the first sentence,
“brought up” means to initiate a discussion, while in the second sentence it means to raise
someone.

In the following sentences, the words in bold letters comprise phrasal verbs.
Their respective meanings are provided in the parentheses:

• She comes across as a very decent person. (Appear)

• I came across him in the market yesterday. (Find someone accidentally)
• The offer has been turned down by them many times. (Rejected)
• Can you turn down the volume of the TV? (Reduce)
• She broke down when she heard about her friend’s death. (To lose control of your feelings
and start crying)

Some more commonly used phrasal verbs are listed below:

• Aim at (To aspire for/ point a weapon towards) • Hold up (support) • Leave out (not
include) • Believe in (have faith in) • Back off (to move away) • Give away (provide) • Call
off (cease or stop) • Hang up (disconnect) • Fill up (to complete) • Pick out (detect) •
Break out (blow up/escape from) • Put away (pile) • Bump into (meet by chance) • Put on
(wear/add something • Ask for (request) • Talk over (discuss)

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

Idioms
Idioms are expressions in which words do not have a literal meaning but have a deeper or figurative
meaning. Such expressions can be used to simplify what is being said, to capture or retain the
interest of the readers. Such words can be used either as a part of a sentence or as a stand-alone
group of words.

Consider the expression “bury the hatchet”.

While the expression apparently means to bury an axe (which does not seems to be realistic or
reasonable), it figuratively means to put an end to a conflict or a dispute.
It can thus be used in a sentence as:
• They have finally agreed to bury the hatchet and work together.

Some more popularly used idioms and their meanings are listed below:

• Cut from the same cloth. (To have similar features or qualities)
• Blessing in disguise. (Something that is seemingly unfortunate but turns
out to be beneficial)
• At the drop of a hat. (Done immediately)
 • Bark up the wrong tree. (To have erroneous or mistaken thoughts)
• Give a cold shoulder/Turn a blind eye. (Ignore or disregard someone or
something)
• Catch someone red-handed. (Catch someone while doing something
wrong or illegal)
• To have a close shave. (To narrowly escape a tragedy)
• Once in a blue moon. (Something that happens very rarely)
• A piece of cake. (Something that is very easy)
• To cut corners. (Do something poorly or deficiently)
• Elephant in the room. (An enormous or controversial issue that is not talked about)

Modals

Modal verbs are used to express modalities. They denote advice, capacity, ability, order,
likelihood, obligation, permission, suggestion or request. Modal verbs commonly used in
English are:
i. Can, could
ii. May, might
iii. Shall, should
iv. Will, would
v. Must, ought to

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

1. Can: Can is used to convey that something is possible or is allowed or that someone
has the ability to do something:
• She can come tomorrow. (Possibility)
• You can use my pen for a while. (Permission)
• I can speak English, German and Hindi. (Ability)

2. Could: Could is also generally used to connote possibility, permission or ability and is
mostly used as a past tense of ‘can’:
• Incessant rain could have resulted in landslides. (Possibility)
• Could I have your pen, please? (Permission)
• He could run for miles altogether. (Ability)

However, could is not always used to denote the past. One can also use it for actions
that can take place now or in the future:
For example: We could go rafting.

Sometimes it is used to convey unrealistic situations.

For example: I am so exhausted that I could sleep for a month.

3. May: May is used to convey that something is possible. Usually, ‘may’ and ‘might’ can
be used interchangeably.
For example: He may be at home (or) he might be at home. It may be true (or) it
might be true.

One can however use might in hypothetical situations.

For example: If they paid them better, they might resume the work sooner.

4. Shall: Shall is generally used to convey something that can quite possibly take place in
the future.
 For example: He shall take charge of the institution in the upcoming months.

5. Should: Should is used to give advice or opinion:You should go to bed before 11 p.m.
One can also use ‘ought to’ interchangeably with ‘should’.
For example:
• You look tired, you ought to go to bed.
• The price of the notebook ought to have been less than 200 rupees.

6. Will: Will is used to convey what we know or believe.

For example: She will pass the examination.

It is also used to make an offer or promise or ask for one.

For example: I will do it to the best of my capacity.Will you help me with it?

7. Would: Would is used for an imaginary situation or condition.

For example:
• I would love to live on a hill station.

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

It is also used to make an offer or make a request.

For example:
• Would you like to have some coffee? (Offer)
• Would you mind lending me your marker? (Request)

8. Must: Must is used to convey certainty about something.

For example:
• You have been working all day, you must be tired.
• She must be mad at you for bothering her.

It is used to give orders:

• You must leave the room right now.
• All the students must submit their assignments in time.

Word Order
In English, the standard word order is: Subject + Verb + Object. That is, the verb follows the subject
and the verb is followed by the object. Generally, the subject is the person or thing who is performing
an act or carrying out an activity. A verb is a word that conveys an action, a state of being or an
occurrence. An object is a noun, a pronoun, or a noun phrase on which the action is performed. For
example: She (S) is going (V) to the market (O). I (S) ate (V) the lunch (O).

In English, Adjectives are often placed before the nouns they describe.
For example: She cooked a sweet cuisine for the children.

Sometimes, they are placed at the end of the sentence.

For example: The doctor is sympathetic.

Adverbs can be used in three places:

i. At the beginning of a sentence:

Suddenly, the car made a shrieking sound.
ii. At the end of the sentence:
 She will vacate the room tomorrow.
iii. In the middle of the sentence:
He will quietly do his work.

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-6): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate phrasal

verbs: 1. The car stopped because it petrol.

a. ran b. ran into

c. ran out of d. ran over

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

2. Their teacher has a very pleasing personality. They have always her.

a. look b. looked through

c. looked after d. looked up to

3. They are very prejudiced. I don’t with them quite well.

a. get over b. get along

c. get rid d. get off

4. I have heard a lot about his achievements. I am meeting him.

a. looking up to b. looking for

c. looking down on d. looking forward to

5. She isn’t feeling quite well. She has the project until next week.

a. put off b. put across

c. put down d. put back

6. ________! Hard times won’t last long.

a. Cheer at b. Cheer on
c. Cheer up d. Cheer off

Direction (for questions 7-11): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

idioms: 7. Owing to the pandemic, life has been ____________________.

a. at loggerheads b. thrown out of gear

c. a bone of contention d. biting the bullet

8. They have treated her improperly. She is against them.

a. up in arms b. on cloud nine

c. hard and fast d. gained ground
 9. Because of the change in administration, a number of internal transfers are ___________.

a. under the weather b. on the ball

c. on the cards d. at bay

10. He chose not to buy the imported car. It would .

a. get on his nerves b. cost him an arm and a leg c. get his feet wet d. spill the
beans

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

11. She is very upfront and likes to .

a. beat around the bush b. hit the sack

c. call a spade a spade d. burn the midnight oil

Direction (for questions 12-16): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

modals: 12. You _______ fasten your seat belt while driving.

a. would b. must
c. could d. might

13. When he was young, he swim very well.

a. can b. could
c. may d. ought to

14. He recommended that we meet the administrative head.

a. may b. could
c. should d. will

15. you like to go for a walk with me?

a. Could b. Would
c. May d. Can

16. you make out what he meant to say?

a. Would b. May
c. Could d. Should

Direction (for questions 17-20): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there
is an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose
‘D’:

17. There is one more clause (A) / in the agreement (B) / that I would like to
clarify. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D
 18. God is great (A) / and we could have (B) / complete faith in him. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Phrasal Verbs, Idioms and Modals

19. I can assure you that (A) / she will come for (B) / the inauguration tomorrow. (C) / No
error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

20. You may pay in cash only (A) / as they don’t (B) / allow digital transactions. (C) / No error
(D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Chapter
9
Articles and
Prepositions
Articles

Articles are words that categorize a noun as specific or unspecific. “A”, “an” and “the” are articles.
“A” and “an” do not refer to any particular place, thing or person and are therefore termed as
indefinite articles. “The” is called the definite article because it is used to refer to a particular object
and sometimes a concept.

1. “A” is used:
Before a singular, common noun.
Examples:
 • Here is a book.
• She lodged a complaint.
• A school has been constructed in the locality.
• I purchased a phone.

Some common rules include:

i. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound.
Examples: A chair, a bank, a woman, a tiger, etc.
ii. Before a word that begins with “eu” or “u” but is pronounced as “you”.
Examples: A unique man, a university, a utensil, a useful advice, a European, etc.

2. “An” is used:
i. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound.
Examples: An empire, an iceberg, an orange, an owl, an archaeologist,
etc. ii. Before an abbreviation that has a vowel sound.
Example: An M.B.B.S student.
iii. Before a word that begins with a silent h.
Examples: An honour, an hour, an heir, etc.

3. “The” is used:
i. Before a word that refers to a specific place or thing or someone/
something that has already been mentioned.
Examples:
• That is the man who hosted the meeting.
• The school has been recognized by the government.
• We had been to the restaurant that you had recommended.
ii. It is also used to denote a particular class or kind of something.
Examples:
• The camel is the ship of the desert.
• The pen is mightier than the sword.

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Articles and Prepositions

iii. It is used before the names of rivers, seas, oceans, deserts, mountain ranges, gulf,
holy books, historical monuments, important events, etc.
Examples: The Thar desert, the Arabian sea, the Bible, the Taj Mahal, the Amazon,
the Himalayas, the Second World War, the Sun, etc.

Although generally we do not use any article before the name of a country but “the” is
used before the names of countries that have plural names or if it contains words like
a republic, emirate, kingdom, states, etc.
Examples: The United Arab Emirates, the United States, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom etc.

iv. It is also used to refer to a particular community.

Examples: The French, the Japanese, the Christians etc.

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that is generally used before a noun or a pronoun usually to

determine its relation to the rest of the sentence.

Study the following sentences:

 • He is in trouble.
• The book is on the table.
• Her car arrived after yours.
• He was writing with a pen.

In the given sentences in, on, after and with are prepositions.

Some Important Prepositions are given below:

1. At, In, On:

“At” is used to refer to a particular point of time, “In” is used to refer to a period of time
while “on” denotes dates or days.

Read the following sentence:

• I go for a walk on Sundays at 6 o’clock in the morning.

“At” is also used when we refer to smaller areas and “in” is generally used to refer to larger
areas such as countries or states.
Examples:
• They put up at the university hostel.
• They are living in Canada.

2. By, With:
“By” generally refers to the doer. It is also used to connote not later than, alone, by means
of, etc.

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Articles and Prepositions

Examples:
• The task will be carried out by him.
• She will submit the assignment by Monday. He lives all by himself.

“With” denotes instruments, in the company of, whole-heartedly, etc.

Examples:
• They are digging with a shovel.
• She is going there with her friends.

3. Above, Over, On:

“Above” is used when there isn’t any contact between the objects or things.
Example: He will be preferred above all.

“Over” can be used when there is a possibility of contact between two

surfaces. Example: The robbers jumped over the wall.

“On” implies actual contact between two surfaces or things.

Example: She was sleeping on a mat.

4. Upon:
While on is generally used for things at rest, upon is used for things in motion.
Example: The phone slipped from her hands and fell upon the marble.

It is however sometimes used to indicate something that is taking place immediately

after something.
 Example: Upon seeing the situation, he decided to act swiftly.

Sometimes it can be used interchangeably with on.

Example: You can rely upon his advice.

5. After, Behind:
These are generally used to indicate time and position or place.
Examples:
• He reached after me.
• She stood behind the curtain.

6. In, Before, Within:

When is used to indicate time, “in” refers to the end of a time period while “within” refers to no
later than. “Before” is used to indicate a particular point of time or a particular day. Examples:
• He will complete the task in a week.
• She should join within a week.
• We have to leave before 9 a.m. to reach there in time.

7. Between, Among:
Between is used to refer to particular items or people. Among is used when the items
or the people are not specifically mentioned or are more than two.

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Articles and Prepositions

Examples:
• Between the two options, she preferred the former.
• They distributed the blankets among the poor.

8. Beside, Besides:
Beside indicates ‘by the side of’ while besides indicates ‘in addition to’.
Examples:
• He stood beside me through thick and thin.
• They gave her a cash prize besides a certificate.

9. Since, For, From:

As a preposition, “since” is used to express duration from a particular point in time. “For” is
used to indicate a period of time.

Study the following sentences:

• We have been living here since 1980.
• They have been living here for three decades.

“From” is also used to denote a point of time or a span of time.

Example: She works from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. everyday.

10. Till, By:

Till indicates ‘up to’. By indicates ‘not later than’.
Examples:
• The teacher engaged the class till 2 o’clock.
• She will be leaving by Sunday.

11. Below, Under, Beneath:

Below and under indicates a lower point or a degree of something.
Beneath means in a lower position and is generally used in formal
 statements. Examples:
• The roll of the class is below fifty.
• The briefcase is under the bed.
• The boat sank beneath the waves.

Practice Questions

Direction (for questions 1-6): Fill in the blanks using the most appropriate

article: 1. I will be late by hour.

a. an b. a
c. the d. no article required

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Articles and Prepositions

2. She works in _______ European company.

a. an b. a
c. the d. no article required

3. coat that I had put on was purchased by her.

a. An b. A
c. The d. No article required

4. She lives in United States while her brother lives in Australia.

a. an, no article b. the, a

c. a, the d. the, no article

5. Chinese silk originates from mulberry silkworms.

a. The, an b. No article, the

c. The, the d. An, a

6. penny saved is penny earned.

a. The, a b. A, a
c. A, the d. No article required, no article required

Direction (for questions 7-10): The sentences below may or may not contain an error. If there
is an error, choose the part of the sentence that contains the error. If there is no error, choose
‘D’.
7. She is going to (A) / join an university (B) / after her results are declared. (C) / No error
(D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

8. Himalayas are the (A) / highest mountains (B) / in the world. (C) / No error (D)
 a. A b. B
c. C d. D

9. Skiing is (A) / national game (B) / of Switzerland. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

10. She served little tea (A) / and some snacks (B) / when they arrived. (C) / No error (D)

a. A b. B
c. C d. D

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Articles and Prepositions

Direction (for questions 11-16): Fill in the blanks with the correct option:

11. He could be available his home the morning.

a. in, in b. on, at
c. at, in d. at, at

12. I have been waiting for you 11 a.m. today.

a. to b. since
c. upon d. by

13. They own a luxury car an SUV.

a. besides b. beside
c. after d. behind

14. The classes will resume 1st of March.

a. since b. for
c. from d. within

15. She is very kind everyone.

a. on b. of
c. upon d. to

16. They were asked to beware dogs.

a. by b. with
c. from d. of

Direction (for questions 17-20): Pick out the correct sentence:

17.
a. They have been accused with robbery.
b. They have been accused of robbery.
c. They have been accused upon robbery.
d. They have been accused on robbery.
 18.
a. You have to choose between the right and the wrong.
b. You have to choose among the right and the wrong.
c. You have to choose within the right and the wrong.
d. You have to choose over the right and the wrong.

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Articles and Prepositions

19.
a. I will have an advantage upon them.
b. I will have an advantage above them.
c. I will have an advantage over them.
d. I will have an advantage to them.

20.
a. She is familiar with all the issues. b. She is familiar to all the issues.
c. She is familiar by all the issues. d. She is familiar over all the issues.
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Chapter Clauses and

10
Punctuation
What are Conjunctions?
Conjunctions,

Conjunctions are defined as words that join two words, sentences, or phrases. Broadly, conjunctions
are categorized as follows:

i. Co-ordinate conjunctions: These words join the word, phrases, or clauses of equal
rank. These include: And, but, for, nor, yet, so, or, etc.
ii. Sub-ordinate conjunctions: These words join a subordinate clause to a principal clause.
They include: Although, though, because, since, otherwise, while, before, until, as far
as, unless, etc.
iii. Co-relative conjunctions: These conjunctions are used in pairs to join clauses, phrases or
words. They include: neither…nor, either…or, both…and, not only…but, etc.

Conjunctions also determine whether the sentence is complex or compound. It is essential to know
what a clause is, in order to understand how conjunctions are used or how compound or complex
sentences are framed.

What is a Clause?

While a phrase is a group of words that cannot stand on its own and generally forms a part of clause,
clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Clauses may be dependent or
independent.

Compound sentences are usually formed when two independent clauses (clauses that have their
own subject and verb and form a complete thought) are joined using co-ordinate conjunctions.
Sometimes conjunctive adverbs like however, moreover, therefore, thus, consequently, etc. are also
used to frame a compound sentence.

A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
It works best when you need to provide more information to explain or modify your sentence's main
point. Complex sentences generally contain a sub-ordinate conjunction.

Following are some examples of compound and complex sentences:

1. You should book the tickets and confirm the window seats. (Compound sentence)
2. She is very rich, but she is humble. (Compound sentence)
3. It is a good car, for it never required any major repairs. (Compound sentence) 4. I am not
going to visit him, nor am I going to answer his phone call. (Compound sentence) 5. She is a
very cautious girl, yet she keeps running into troubles. (Compound sentence) 6. Are you
going out with your friends, or should I accompany you? (Compound sentence)

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

7. It was raining heavily, so she decided not to go for a walk. (Compound sentence) 8. She
delivered a presentation; however, she was not fully prepared. (Compound sentence) 9. If
the Ozone layer collapses, the global community will suffer. (Complex sentence) 10. I think
you should see a doctor, before your malaria worsens. (Complex sentence) 11. I will come
with you, if you really want. (Complex sentence)
12. I will go to the shop, before it closes. (Complex sentence) t was a very lengthy procedure;
therefore, it took us longer to complete. (Compound sentence)
13. Neither did he respond to the summons nor did he apologize. (Compound sentence)
14. She will either purchase the book online or from the local store. (Compound sentence)
15. Not only did the adults appreciate the movie but it was liked by children
also.(Compound sentence)
16. The story that he narrated was both inspiring and instructing. (Compound
sentence) 17. Although he has achieved a lot, he still works hard. (Complex sentence)
18. She cannot eat sugar because she is suffering from diabetes. (Complex sentence)
19. Since he is the president, his assent is required. (Complex sentence)
20. You should leave promptly, otherwise, you will miss the flight. (Complex
sentence) 21. As soon as he was promoted, he took radical decisions. (Complex
sentence) 22. Until she finishes her homework, do not let her go. (Complex
sentence)
23. After the incident, I decided not to interfere. (Complex sentence)
24. He was available whenever we required his help. (Complex sentence)
25. Make hay while the Sun shines. (Complex sentence)

Punctuation

Some general rules to punctuate compound sentences are as follows:

Rule 1: Clause +, + coordinating conjunction + clause.

Example: She tried her best to explain, yet she could not convince us.

Rule 2: Clause +, + conjunctive verb +, + clause.

Example: They have been looking for clues; however, they could not find any.

Note that one can also use semicolons to join the two clauses of an independent
sentence. The above sentence can also be written as:

They have been looking for clues; they could not find any.

Complex Sentences
Rule 1: Dependent clause +, + independent clause.
Example: While I like vegetarian food, my friend prefers non-vegetarian cuisines.

Rule 2: Independent clause + Dependent clause.

Example: My friend prefers non-vegetarian cuisines while I like vegetarian food.

Using commas in direct sentences, introductory words, interjections and

interrupters.

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

Direct speech involves reproducing the exact words of the speaker in a sentence. Therefore, it
involves quoting the actual words of the speaker. When quoting someone, the quoted words
are generally placed within quotation marks preceded by a comma. Read the following
sentences:

1. I said, “I will help you.”

2. She said to me, “You ought to take care of yourself.”
3. He will say, “Don’t go there.”
4. The teacher said, “All of you should work hard.”
5. He said to her, “Do you know how to drive?”

Introductory words are generally used to introduce something. They usually answer questions like
who, what, where, when, why, and how. We generally use a comma to separate the introductory
word from the independent clause.

Read the following sentences:

1. Suddenly, she started shouting in frenzy.
2. Finally, there seems to be a way out.
3. In conclusion, there is no alternative to hard work.
4. Furthermore, they were requested to report the developments.
5. On the other hand, he was feeling unwell.

Interjections
Interjections are words or expressions that express surprise or spontaneous feelings.
They are usually followed by an exclamatory mark.
Example:

• Damn! • Hurrah!
• Wow! • Oh!
• Goodness! • Hey!

Interrupters are words that we use for emphasis or to stress certain sentiments.
Generally, commas are used to set interrupters apart from the rest of the
sentence. Example:

• I am, in fact, very pleased with you.

• It is, generally speaking, a trend these days.
• Kashmir, as they say, is paradise on Earth.
• I will, to be honest, try my level best.

Using Semicolons, Colons and Commas in Lists

Generally, commas are used to separate various items in a list. However, when the list items
themselves contain commas, the items can be separated using semicolons. Colons (as
exemplified below) are used to introduce various items of the list.

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

Look at this list:

• Pisa
• Agra
• Paris

This list can be written as: Pisa, Agra and Paris.

Now, look at this list:
• Pisa: The leaning Tower of Pisa.
• Agra: The Taj Mahal.
• Paris: The Eiffel Tower.

Semicolons can be used to separate various list items.

Example:
Pisa: The leaning Tower of Pisa; Agra: The Taj Mahal; Paris: The Eiffel Tower.

Difference between a Complete Sentence, Fragment and Run-on

Sentence

A sentence has three vital components, that is to say, a subject, a predicate and a complete
thought. A fragment, on the other hand, lacks either the subject, or the predicate, or a
complete thought.

Read the following examples:

• Since you will be there. (Fragment) When she arrives. (Fragment)
• It is not surprising that she took the decision. (Sentence)
• He advised the children to concentrate on their studies. (Sentence)

In case of a run-on sentence, the two independent clauses forming a compound sentence are
not connected correctly.

Example:
Incorrect: She is working hard she is appearing for competitive
examinations. Correct: She is working hard; she is appearing for competitive
examinations.
Using Ellipses
Ellipses are used when we omit a word, phrase, line, paragraph, etc. Usually, they are used to avoid
unnecessary or irrelevant information. Generally three dots (. . . ) are used to specify the same.

Generally, we use ellipses in quoted speech. An example is provided below: “School started, and so
did our daily trips past the Radley Place. Jim was in seventh grade and went to high school . . . I
was now in third grade and our routines were so different.”

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

Capitalization

• Capital letters are used to begin a new sentence, a reported speech in inverted
commas, all the proper nouns and adjectives.
• They are also used in all nouns and pronouns used for God.
For example: Lord, Almighty, etc.
• Historical events. Examples:
o The First World War
o The Independence Day
• Names of the days of week and months.
• Religions and various sects.
• The personal pronoun “I” is always capitalized.
• Titles of books also follows capitalization rules as given below:
• Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and subordinating conjunctions are capitalized
when mentioning the title of a book.
For example:
o The Fault in Our Stars.
o On the Road.
o To Kill a Mockingbird.

Figurative Language
Figurative language involves using words in an uncommon or creative way. It includes a
number of literary techniques. Some of them are discussed below:

1. Irony: Using words to express something different or particularly the opposite of what is
stated. Saying “What a hot day it is!” when it is freezing cold is an example of irony.

2. Pun: When one uses different meanings of a word or phrase for humorous effect, it is termed
as a pun. For example, in Alice in Wonderland, the author Lewis Carroll uses pun for
humorous effect.
“Mine is a long and a sad tale!' said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. “It is a long tail,
certainly,” said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse's tail; “but why do you call it
sad?”

3. Personification: It refers to giving human attributes to non-human things. For example: The
wind whistled throughout the night. The city never sleeps.
 4. Alliteration: Repetition of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent words is
termed as alliteration. For example: She sells seashells by the seashore. In the given
sentence, the sound of “s” is repeated.
If a consonant sound is repeated, it is termed as consonance. If a vowel sound is repeated, it
is termed as assonance.

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

5. Metaphor: A metaphor directly refers to one thing by citing another. For example:
o “All the world is a stage.”
o Life is a journey.
o She is a tigress.

6. Simile: It involves the comparison of one thing with another of a different kind.
Examples:
o The carpet is as soft as snow.
o She sings like a nightingale.
o He is as cunning as a fox.
o The baby is as light as a feather.

7. Onomatopoeia: These are words that are nearly the same as the sound that they denote.
Examples: Buzz, smash, meow, bark, click, cackle, etc.

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-3): Use the most appropriate correlative conjunctions in the
given sentences:

1. ______ you should take my car ______. you should book a cab.

a. Not only, but b. Both, and

c. If, then d. Either, or

2. ______ would I like to visit the fort ______ the lake nearby.

a. Both, and b. Either, nor

c. Not only, but also d. Not, but

3. He was interested in studies in games.

a. if, then b. neither, nor

c. both, and d. whether, or

Direction (for questions 4-6): Use the most appropriate coordinate conjunction to fill in
the blanks:

4. I do not like him, _____ I appreciate his work ethics.

a. for b. or
c. so d. yet
 5. It is a very long journey, _______ I decided to pack some food.

a. for b. yet
c. so d. and

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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

6. She cannot write, can she read.

a. for b. so
c. or d. nor

Direction (for questions 7 and 8): Choose the correct compound sentence:

7.
a. She is ready to leave, but you should bid her goodbye.
b. She is ready to leave, so you should bid her goodbye.
c. She is ready to leave, for you should bid her goodbye.
d. Although she is ready to leave, you should bid her goodbye.

8.
a. She had worked throughout the day, so she continued to work till late night. b. She
had worked throughout the day; therefore, she continued to work till late night. c. She
had worked throughout the day, for she continued to work till late night. d. She had
worked throughout the day, yet she continued to work till late night.

Direction (for questions 9 and 10): Choose the correct complex sentence:

9.
a. Since there was a natural disaster, the prices of the commodities shot up. b.
Until there was a natural disaster, the prices of the commodities shot up. c.
Although there was a natural disaster, the prices of the commodities shot up. d.
Unless there was a natural disaster, the prices of the commodities shot up.

10.
a. While you do as I tell you, you will not succeed.
b. Unless you do as I tell you, you will not succeed.
c. You do as I tell you, nor will you succeed.
d. You do as I tell you, yet you will succeed.

Direction (for questions 11-13): Identify the correctly punctuated statement:

11.
a. She said to me “I live on the outskirts of the city.”
b. She said to me, “i live on the outskirts of the city.”
c. She said to me, “I live on the outskirts of the city.”
d. She said to me, “I live on the outskirts of the city”

12.
a. He said to his friend, “I will, to be honest, do whatever I can.”
b. He said to his friend, “I will, to be honest, do whatever I can”
c. He said to his friend “I will, to be honest, do whatever I can.”
d. He said to his friend, “I will to be honest do whatever I can.”
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Conjunctions, Clauses and Punctuation

13.
a. The selection process on the whole seemed to favour blue eyed boys.
b. The selection process, on the whole, seemed to favour blue eyed boys.
c. The selection process, on the whole, seemed to favour blue-eyed boys.
d. The selection-process, on the whole, seemed to favour blue-eyed boys.

Direction (for questions 14 and 15): Identify the type of statement:

14. They attended the convocation today the governor had been invited as the chief guest.

a. Complete sentence b. Fragment

c. Run-on sentence d. Phrase

15. Sow an act and you reap a habit; sow a habit and you reap a character; sow a character
and you reap a destiny.

a. Complete sentence b. Fragment

c. Run-on sentence d. Clause

16. Pick out the title that is correctly punctuated.

a. The Picture of Dorian gray. b. The Picture of Dorian Gray. c. The Picture of
dorian Gray. d. The picture Of Dorian Gray.

Direction (for questions 17-20): Identify the figurative speech used in the given

sentences: 17. Electricity tends to play hide and seek during winters.

a. Metaphor b. Simile
c. Personification d. Alliteration

18. He is as pure as the driven snow.

a. Metaphor b. Simile
c. Personification d. Alliteration

19. “The Sun in the West was a drop of burning gold that slid near and nearer
the sill of the world.”

a. Metaphor b. Simile
c. Personification d. Alliteration

20. She had shut the door with a terrible thud.

a. Metaphor b. Simile
c. Onomatopoeia d. Pun

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 Chapter
11 Comprehension

Comprehension

Comprehension refers to the power of understanding something. The art of answering questions
based on an unseen passage helps us to develop clear and precise understanding.

Some suggestions for answering questions based on unseen passages are:

1. Read the question first as it saves time to know what you are reading for.
2. Try to grasp the questions asked.
3. Underline the key words in the question and look in for the key words in the passage.
4. Try to figure out what the words mean in context.
5. Now, read the passage. Read the passage as quickly as you can. Look for the answer as you
read. When you find the answer, take notice of it, but don't stop reading yet. Read the entire
passage.
6. Try to get a general idea of the passage. You are not expected to know the meaning of all the
words in the passage.

Practice Questions
Direction (for questions 1-11): Read the following passage and answer the questions that
follow:

If we want to accomplish any undertaking, we must work firmly till the end. No responsibility or task
is unattended with difficulties. Sheridan, a famous orator of England, endeavoured to make a
speech in the Parliament, but failed and sat down in great discomfiture. His friends advised him to
try his hand at something else. He responded, “It is in me and I shall come out.” Later, he
succeeded in becoming one of the most articulate orators of his day. The Earl of Beaconsfield also
broke down amid his maiden speech. He, however, told the audience, “I have several times begun
many things and have often succeeded. A time will come when you will hear me.” These words
proved to be prophetic. We should not, therefore, be discouraged by disappointment. There is a
sort of unevenness in everything that we do. Our hopes are liable to be frustrated, but we must not
be daunted.

1. The author feels that one must work ______ till the goal is accomplished.

a. irregularly b. recklessly
c. sporadically d. steadily

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Comprehension

2. What does the word “unattended” mean in the given context?

a. Alone b. Not conjoined

 c. Forgotten d. Unwatched

3. What does the term “discomfiture” mean?

a. Haste b. Fatigue
c. Lethargy d. Uneasiness

4. The author believes that Sheridan and The Earl of Beaconsfield succeeded
because of ______.

a. perseverance b. humility
c. honesty d. pride

5. Which word can be best used in place of “articulate” in the given passage?

a. Confident b. Determined
c. Rapid d. Eloquent

6. What does the term “orator” mean?

a. Reader b. Listener
c. Speaker d. Writer

7. What does “prophetic” mean?

a. Old b. Predictive
c. Wise d. Respected

8. The author is of the opinion that almost everything that we attempt to do______.

a. is always going to fail b. is merely a matter of fate c. mostly faces some

impediments d. cannot be influenced by anything

9. What is meant by “maiden speech”?

a. The first speech given by a newly elected member.

b. The last speech given by an elected member.
c. The first speech made on a particular day.
d. Final address before one retires or dies.

10. What does the idiom “try one’s hand at something” mean?

a. To hope for something b. To work for someone c. To attempt to do

something new d. To cook

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Comprehension

11. Which word can replace the word “daunted” in the above passage?

a. Discouraged b. Annoyed
c. Provoked d. Alienated

Direction (for questions 12-20): Read the following poem and answer the questions that
follow.
Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer

To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake

To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
-Robert Frost.

12. What does the term “woods” mean in the poem?

a. Timber b. Firewood
c. Forest d. Planks

13. The poet stops by the woods to ______.

a. meet the owner.

b. ascertain who owns them.
c. collect wood for his fireplace.
d. to observe the snowfall in the woods.

14. Identify which part of speech and the degree of comparison does the given
word correspond to:
“Darkest”

a. Comparative adjective b. Comparative adverb c. Superlative adjective

d. Superlative adverb

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Comprehension

15. The poet thinks that the horse is giving its bells a shake because ______.

a. it is thoroughly enjoying the snowfall

b. it finds halting at that place to be unusual
c. The bells are uncomfortable
d. it is terrified

16. Which part of speech do the words “lovely, dark and deep” correspond to?

a. Adverb b. Preposition
c. Adjectives d. Conjunction
 17. The poet does not stop by the woods for a long time because ________.

a. his horse is not complying

b. he fears the owner
c. he does not find the scene comforting
d. he is reminded of his duties and responsibilities

18. What does the word “sleep” symbolize?

a. Death b. The end of day’s work

c. Leisure d. Freedom

19. What does the word “downy” mean?

a. Frozen b. Soft and fluffy

c. Preserved d. Cold

20. “My little horse must think it queer/To stop without a farmhouse near.”
Which figure of speech is used in the given sentence?

a. Simile b. Pun
c. Onomatopoeia d. Personification

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Tenses

Chapte Tenses
r 12

The tense of a verb indicates the time, state and degree of completion of an action.

There are three tenses:

The Present Tense: It indicates that the action is being done at the present time or is habitual.
Example: I drink tea.
The Past Tense: It denotes an action that was done in the past.
Example: I drank tea.

The Future Tense: It shows that the action will be done in the future.
Example: I will drink tea.

There are however four forms of the three main tenses:

1. Indefinite/Simple
2. Continuous/Progressive
3. Perfect
4. Perfect continuous

Note that continuous is also known as progressive and simple is also known as indefinite.
Person Positive Negative Interrogative

First I was I was not/I wasn’t Was I?

We were We were not/We weren’t Were we?

Secon You were (singular and You weren’t Were you?

d plural)

Third He/she/it/they was/were Wasn’t/weren’t Was he? Was she? Was

it? Were they?

Tense Indefinite Continuous (- Perfect Perfect Continuous (have

ing) (has/have / or has been/had been/will
had/will have + have been + ing)
v3)

Present I write. I am writing. I have written. I have been writing.

Past I wrote. I was writing. I had written. I had been writing.

Future I will write. I will be writing. I will have written. I will have been writing.

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Tenses

Present Tense

• Present indefinite: It is used to indicate an action that shows a habit, a

universal truth, a saying etc.
• Present continuous: It is used to express an action that is still going on. •
Present perfect: It is used to indicate an action that has been completed just
now.
• Present perfect continuous: Used to express an action that initiated in the
past and is still continuing.

Past Tense

• Past indefinite: Is used to denote an action that took place in the past. • Past
 continuous: Is used to express an action that was going on in the past. • Past
perfect: It is used to indicate an action that had been completed before another
initiated.
• Past perfect continuous: It is used to indicate an action that had not been
completed before another action initiated in the past.

Future Tense

• Future indefinite: It refers to an action that will take place in the future. •
Future continuous: It is used to indicate an action that will be going on at
sometimes in the future.
• Future perfect: It is used to express a completed action in the future. • Future
perfect continuous: It refers to a particular action that will continue up to a
particular point in time in future.

Practice Questions:
Direction (for questions 1-11): Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate

words: 1. He ______ here for the past fifteen minutes.

a. have been b. has been

c. will have been d. will be

2. The girl ______ before her mother arrived.

a. will have been b. had slept

c. has been sleeping d. will be sleeping

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Tenses

3. They were so poor, they ______ three square meals a day.

a. do not had b. does not have c. do not have d. did not have

4. She ______ employed for a month now.

a. has been b. will have been c. had been d. have been

5. Water ______ at hundred degree Celsius.

a. boiled b. has been boiling c. boils d. was boiling

6. The main points of the lecture ______

a. has to be remembered b. have to be remembered c. is to be remembered

d. has been

7. Everybody likes them. They ______ a sweet disposition.

 a. have b. have been c. will be having d. will have been having

8. By the time she understood the issue, there ______ enormous ruckus.

a. has been b. will be

c. will have been d. had been 9. Do they ______ a conference

every year?

a. organize b. organized c. will organize d. organizing

10.He ______ for a job now a days.

a. looks b. will look c. looked d. is looking

11.She ______ always been a great source of encouragement.

a. was b. has
c. will d. is

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Tenses

Direction (for questions 12-17): Identify the most appropriate sentence:

12.
a. They have been knowing me since I was a child.
b. They have knowing me since I was a child.
c. They have known me since I was a child.
d. They will know me since I was a child.

13.
a. She was written to him yesterday.
b. She wrote to him yesterday.
c. She will be writing to him yesterday.
d. She will have been writing to him yesterday

14.
a. Life is what you had make of it.
b. Life is what you have been make of it.
c. Life is what you has made of it.
d. Life is what you make of it.

15.
a. The results indicate that the students will be passing the exam with flying colours. b. The
results indicate that the students has passed the exam with flying colours. c. The results
indicate that the students will have been passing the exam with flying colours. d. The results
indicate that the students have passed the exam with flying colours.

16.
a. He have been living abroad since 1990.
 b. He has been living abroad since 1990.
c. He living abroad since 1990.
d. He will have been living abroad since 1990.

17.
a. He is asked to deposited the fine urgently.
b. He will have been ask to deposit the fine urgently.
c. He has been asked to deposit the fine urgently.
d. He will have been asking to deposit the fine urgently.

Direction (for questions 18-20): Identify the tense of the underlined

words: 18.They have left for Mexico this afternoon.

a. Present perfect continuous b. Present continuous

c. Present perfect d. Present indefinite

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Tenses

19.I will be waiting for you.

a. Future perfect continuous b. Future continuous

c. Future perfect d. Future indefinite

20.They had been attempting to reach out to me.

a. Past perfect continuous b. Past continuous
c. Past perfect d. Past indefinite

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Chapter
Voice and Narration 13
Voice and Narration
The voice suggests whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

Example:
• She sent a card.
• A card was sent by her.

In the first sentence the action is carried out by the subject, while in the second sentence, the subject
is being acted upon by the verb. In the first sentence, the Verb “sent” is in the active voice while in
the second sentence, “was sent” is in the passive voice.

There are certain rules to change active sentences to passive voice. They are given below:

• Object of the verb in active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice. • The
subject of the active form becomes the object of the passive form and is usually preceded by
prepositions. Mostly the preposition “by” precedes the object.
• The verb “to be” is generally used in one of its forms with the past participle of the transitive
verb.
• In continuous tenses, ‘being + v3’ is used and in perfect tenses, ‘been + v3’ is used in passive
voice.

Examples:

• The children are enjoying the games. (Active voice)

The games are being enjoyed by the children. (Passive voice)
• She is playing the piano. (Active voice)
The piano is being played by her. (Passive voice)
• They revere you. (Active voice)
You are revered by them. (Passive voice)
• He is washing his car. (Active voice)
His car is being washed by him. (Passive voice)
• Is she aiding him? (Active voice)
Is he being aided by her? (Passive voice)

Note that in active voice the subject of the sentence carries out the sentence's action.

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Voice and Narration

What is meant by Narration in Grammar?

Narration refers to the way the words of a speaker are reported. They can be reported in two ways:

• Direct speech
• Indirect speech

In direct speech, the actual words of the speaker are quoted within inverted
commas. For example: She said to me, “I am not going to work.”
Generally, “said” is used to report the exact words of the speaker and is called the reporting verb and
the words that are quoted within the inverted commas is termed as reported speech.

In indirect speech, the substance of the message is conveyed without quoting the
speaker’s words.
For example: She said that she was not going to work.

Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech

• If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the verb in the reported speech is not
changed. For example: He says, “I am hungry.” (Direct speech)
He says that he is hungry. (Indirect speech)
He will say, “I will go to school.” (Direct speech)
He will say that he will go to school. (Indirect speech)

• If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then the tense of the reported speech is changed into
the corresponding past tense.
For example: She said, “The baby has slept.” (Direct speech)
She said that the baby had slept. (Indirect speech)

Exception: If the reported speech pertains to universal truths or contains habitual information, its
tense remains unchanged.
For example:
• She said, “The Earth revolves around the Sun.” (Direct speech)
• She said that the Earth revolves around the Sun. (Indirect speech)

Changing Words Denoting Time or Space

When changing direct speech to indirect speech, the words that signify time or space are changed to
the words denoting corresponding time or space.
For example: “Now” is changed to “then”.
“Today” is changed to “that day”.
“Tonight” is changed to “that night”.
“Yesterday” is changed to “the previous day”.
“Tomorrow” is changed to “the next day”.
“Last night” is changed to “the night before”.
“Last week” is changed to “the previous week”.

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