HUMAN RIGHTS MRK – 16

1. Discuss the importance, significance and relevant provisions of

Universal Declaration of H.R.
Ans: Introduction
Human rights are a set of principles concerned with equality and fairness. They recognize our
freedom to make choices about our lives and to develop our potential as human beings. They are
about living a life free from fear, harassment or discrimination. Human rights can broadly be
defined as a number of basic rights that people from around the world have agreed are essential.
These include the right to life, the right to a fair trial, freedom from torture and other cruel and
inhuman treatment, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the rights to health, education and
an adequate standard of living. These human rights are the same for all people everywhere men
and women, young and old, rich and poor, regardless of our background, where we live, what we
think or what we believe. This is what makes human rights 'universal'.
What is UDHR
The universal Declaration of human rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of
human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all
regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in
Paris on 10 December 1948 (General Assembly Resolution 217A) as common standard of
achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights
to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages. 48 members voted
in favor out of 58 members.
For example: India, China, Pakistan, united states, France.
In Keshava Nanda Bharti V. State of Kerala (AIR 1973)
Supreme Court observed that UDHR not be legally binding instrument but if it shows how Indie
winder stood the nature of Human Rights at the time the Constitution was adopted.
Significance of Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Since the Universal Declaration is not a treaty, it does not impose any legal duties on governments
directly. It is, however, a statement of universal principles that all members of the international
community share; it has also had a significant impact on the creation of international human rights
law.
The UDHR serves as an instrument that has exceptional significance in the sphere of human rights.
It is the primary proclamation that reflects the commitment of every nation towards the protection
of human rights. This document has great significance mainly because of two reasons, firstly, for
the fact that it is the first international instrument ever that focuses on the need for protection of
human rights across the globe. Secondly, the UDHR paved the way for other various instruments
on human rights that are legally binding upon the state parties. This declaration became the basis
of international human rights law and laid a foundation for the evolution of human rights law not
just at the international level but also at the domestic level. It inspired nations across the world to
give significance to human rights and to respect each and every individual.
As an impact of UDHR, every nation today, regardless of whether it is a democratic country or not,
has provided its citizens with at least the basics of human rights. The UDHR supported by various
other international instruments on human rights, has been successful in reducing numerous
practices such as racial discrimination, torture, slavery, etc., to a great extent, which were very
prevalent during the 19th century. Recognition of women’s rights is another achievement of the
UDHR.
Important provisions of UDHR
There is most important provision of universal declaration of human rights are:
1. Free and equal (Article 1):

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 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reasons
and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brother hood.
2. Freedom of discrimination (Article 2):
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom set forth in this declaration of any kind,
such as race, color, sex, language, Religion, political or other opinion etc.
3. Right to life (Article 3):
everyone has the right to life liberty and security of a person.
4. Freedom from slavery (Article 4):
No one shall be held in the slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in
5. Freedom from torture (Article 7):
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading Treatment or
punishment.
6. Right to recognition as a person before the law (Article 6):
You have a right to be accepted everywhere as a person according to law.
7. Right to equality before the law (Article 7):
You have a right to be protected and treated equally by the e law without discrimination of any
kind.
8. Right to remedy by capable judges. (Article 8):
If your legal rights are violated, you have the right to fair and cable judges to uphold your rights.
9. Freedom from arbitrary arrest and exit (Article 9):
Nobody has the right to arrest you, put you in prison or to force you out of your country without
good reasons
10. Presumption of innocence (Article 11):
Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty
according to law in a public trail at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense.
11. Right to privacy (Article 12):
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family home or
correspondence nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
12. Right to own property (Article 17):
Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
Other important provision is:
33,34,35,36, 41,42,44,48,51,61,62,68,92-96,97-101,103 105,111.
Universal Declaration On Human Rights And Its Provisions
o It is a set of 30 human rights and individual liberty that sheds light on an individual’s freedom
and human dignity.
o These rights are equally applicable to all human beings irrespective of race, religion,
nationality, and gender.
o This universal declaration accelerated the process of formulating international human rights
law. It also paved the way for the enactment of the international bill of human rights.
o The declaration does not have any legal mandate. Even though the articles have been
incorporated into different national legal frameworks, international agreements and several
human rights instruments.
o One important point to note is that all 193 countries have officially ratified at least one of the
nine legally binding treaties of Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Conclusion
The universal declaration of human rights is a detailed document outlining the basic principles of
human rights. It treats all human beings as equal and aims to preserve the rights and freedoms of all
individuals transcending caste, colour, nationality, political ideology, religion, etc. A number of
fundamental rights enshrined in our constitution are also taken from the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. This document serves as the guiding light for humanity in the modern world, where the
rise of authoritarian regimes threatens to take away or crush most cherished human rights.

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2. Evaluate the role of National Human Rights Commission in
India towards protection of our Human Rights with the help of
decided case laws.
Ans: 1. Introduction
Respect for the dignity of an individual and striving for peace and harmony in society, has been an
abiding factor in Indian culture. The Indian culture has been the product of assimilation of diverse
cultures and religions that came into contact in the enormous Indian sub-continent over time. The
international community has recognised the growing importance of strengthening national human rights
institutions. In this context, in the year 1991 a UN-sponsored meeting of representatives of national
institutions held in Paris, a detailed set of principles on the status of national institutions was developed,
these are commonly known as the Paris Principles.
2.Establishment of National Human Rights Commission
The Government of India did realise the need to establish an independent body for promotion and
protection of human rights. The establishment of an autonomous National Human Rights Commission
(Commission) by the Government of India reflects its commitment for effective implementation of
human rights provisions under national and international instruments. The Commission is the first of
its kind among the South Asian countries and also few among the National Human Rights institutions,
which were established, in early 1990s. The Commission came into effect on 12 October 1993, by virtue
of the Protection of Human Rights Act 1993. Fourteen Indian States have also set up their own human
rights commissions to deal with violations from within their states. The Act contains broad provisions
related with its function and powers, composition and other related aspects.
Section 2 (d) of the Act defines human rights as rights relating to life, equality and dignity of the
individual guaranteed by Constitution or embodied in the international covenants and enforceable by
Courts in India. The Indian Constitution provides certain rights for individuals in Part III of the
Constitution, which are known as the fundamental rights. Part IV sets out the Directive Principles of
State Policy. While the former guarantees certain rights to the individual, the latter gives direction to
the State to provide economic and social rights to its people in specified manner. The word fundamental
means that these rights are inherent in all the human beings and basic and essential for the individual.
However, the rights guaranteed in the Constitution are required to be in conformity with the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights in view of the fact that India has become a party to these Covenants by ratifying
them. The justiciability of fundamental rights is itself guaranteed under the Indian Constitution. The
responsibility for the enforcement of the fundamental rights lies with the Supreme Court by virtue of
Article 32 and by Article 226 to the High Courts.
2.1. Constitution of the National Human Rights Commission
The Constitution of the Commission dealt with in Chapter II of the Act. Section 3 of the Act says:, “
the Central government shall constitute a body to be known to the National Human Rights Commission
to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to it, under this Act.
2. The Commission shall consist of
a. A Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court;
b. One Member who is, or has been a judge of the Supreme Court;
c. One Member who is, or has been the Chief Justice of the High Court;
d. Two members to be appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical
experience in, matters relating to human rights.
3. The Chairpersons of the National Commission for Minorities, the National Commission for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and the National Commission for Women shall be deemed to
be Members of the Commission for the discharge of functions specified in clauses (b) to (j) of section
12.

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4. There shall be a Secretary-General who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the Commission and
shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the Commission as it may delegate to him.
5. The headquarters of the Commission shall be Delhi and the Commission may, with the previous
approval of the Central Government, establish offices at other places in India.
3. Functional Approach of the Commission
The responsibility entrusted to the Commission under the Act of 1993 cannot be adequately fulfilled
without the development of close ties between the Commission and NGOs. For the Commission, it is
not just a matter of Statutory obligation under Section 12(i) of the Act. The Commission recognised
that the cause of human rights has much to gain both from the practical help and from the constructive
criticism that NGOs and the Commission can bring to bear in their mutual interaction and growing
relationship. The Commission from very beginning associated NGOs with the inquiry of complaints.
In several places, during visits by the Commission, NGOs have boldly come forward with evidence of
wrong-doing in relation to specific complaints addressed to the Commission.
3.1. Investigation Division
There is a well organised investigation division within the Commission.26 The primary duty of this
investigation division is to look into complaints received by the Commission. For this purpose the
investigation team makes on the spot investigations. The Act outlines the investigative role of the
Commission. Subsection 1(b) of Section 11 provides, “Such police and investigative staff under and
officer not below the rank of a Director General of Police and such other officers and staff as may be
necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the Commission.”
4. Steps After Inquiry
On the completion of inquiry, the Commission may take any of the following steps under Section 18 of
this Act, namely:
1. Where the inquiry discloses, the commission of violation of human rights or negligence in the
prevention of violation of human rights by a public servant, it may recommend to the concerned
Government or authority the initiation of proceedings for prosecution or such other action as
the Commission may deem fit against the concerned person or persons;
2. approach the Supreme Court or the High Court concerned for such directions, orders or units
as that Court may deem necessary.
3. recommend to the concerned government or authority for the grant of such immediate interim
relief to the victim or the members of his family as the Commission may consider necessary;
4. subject to the provisions of clause (5) provide a copy of the inquiry report to the petitioner or
his representative;
5. Illustrative Cases
5.1 National Human Rights Commission v. State of Arunachal Pradesh
The Commission under Article 32 of the Indian Constitution has filed a writ petition as a public interest
petition before the Supreme Court of India. The Commission filed this petition mainly for the
enforcement of fundamental rights of about 65,000 Chakma\ Hajong tribals under Article 21 of the
Constitution. In this case a large number of refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan were displaced in
1964 due to Kaptain Hydel Project. These displaced Chakmas had taken shelter in North-Eastern States
of India, namely, in Assam and Tripura. There were two main issues involved in this case; (1) conferring
of citizenship; (2) fear of persecution by certain sections of the citizens of Arunachal Pradesh. Largely
to these two issues NHRC was approached by two different NGOs.
6.Conclusion
From its inception the Commission attracted much suspicion because of its status as a government
institution. However, in twelve years period it was able to establish its integrity and commitment. The
Commission was able to demonstrate its ability to work independently and impartially, which is borne
out by its recommendations. Even if the Commission is a very small step in the daunting task of the
implementation of human rights at the national level, it remains a very significant step.

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3. Briefly discuss the concept, origin and development of Human
Rights and evaluate it in Indian context.
Ans: Introduction
Human Rights Day is celebrated on 10th of December1 every year and its 10th of December because on
this day the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at Palais De
Challoit, Paris after the devastating effects of The Second World War. This Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR) provided the inalienable rights of all people. The formula of human right
is made up of two compounds
1. Equality of every individual in the eyes of law
2. Every individual is bestowed with dignity and rights
The commission on Human Rights, whose main task was to project a document which will lucidly
define the human rights and freedom in the charter accomplished this task with commissioning Eleanor
Roosevelt to perform this task, the UDHR was initially adopted by 56 members.
Concept Of Human Rights
Human rights are the rights a person has simply because he or she is a human being. Human rights are
held by all persons equally, universally, and forever. “All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another
in a spirit of brotherhood.”[1] Kant said that human beings have an intrinsic value absent in inanimate
objects. To violate a human right would therefore be a failure to recognize the worth of human life.[2]
Human right is a concept that has been constantly evolving throughout human history. They have been
intricately tied to the laws, customs and religions throughout the ages. Most societies have had traditions
similar to the "golden rule" of "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." The Hindu Vedas,
the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Quran (Koran), and the Analects of Confucius are
five of the oldest written sources which address questions of people’s duties, rights, and responsibilities.
Origin of Human rights
The seeds of Human rights were sown namely in two fields,
1. Religious field
2. Philosophy field
In Religious field all the religion namely Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Judaism,
Buddhism, Confucianism although possessing polychromatic perspectives about human rights rest upon
one single conclusion of respect and dignity which ultimately resulting in maintaining brotherhood,
unification, solidarity and protection of all individuals
Though this concept was love and harmony inclusive but not revolution oriented moreover this concept
does not highlight any shred of freedom, expression of opinion which is perhaps is the fundamental
requirement of this generation.
Philosophy field is the idea which is mostly accepted and most fascinated by this present generation
this filed was originated by western thinkers who spent their whole life in getting people out from their
pre-modial identity, an identity
1. To be suppressed
2. To be render helpless
3. To have no opinion
4. To have no objections with the rules and regulations
5. To have no voice against exploitation
Philosophers and freedom fighters like Mahatma Gandhi (1869 –1948),Abraham Lincon (1809 – April
15, 1865), Eleanor Roosevelt (1884 –1962), César Chávez (1927–1993),Nelson Mandela (1918 –
2013), Martin Luther King Jr. (1929 –1968)Desmond Tutu (1931–2021), Oscar Arias Sánchez (b.
1940)Muhammad Yunus (b. 1940), José Ramos-Horta (b. 1949), ignited the minds of masses to fights
for their rights like individual rights, justice, individual liberty and the citizenship of the people under
the protection of State and such developments were the fragments of five-century transformation which
composed of
Development of Human Rights
The Cyrus Cylinder (539 B.C.)

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The development of Human rights for the very first time was witnessed in 539 BC when Babylon was
conquered by the army of Cyrus the great, the first king of ancient Persia and he held that all the people
have right to follow their religion and he also established racial equality and moreover he gave freedom
to all the slaves. The source of all this information was recorded in a baked-clay cylinder also called as
Cyrus Cylinder and record is regarded as the first charter of human rights.
The Magna Carta (1215)
Also called as Great Charter, this charter of 1215 enabled in the entire English-speaking nation the
foundation of Constitutional law.
King John, the ruler of England during 1215 was nefarious king and violated various ancient laws and
customs which were the driving force by which England was being governed at that time, his subjects
forced him to sign the charter which later on coin the envelop of human rights. Following were the
rights
Petition of Right (1628)5
After the charter of 1215 the next landmark development which paved the way for human rights is the
Petition of rights this was presented in 1628 by the English Parliament and was sent to King Charles I
on the premise of Civil Liberties, this bill negates to fund the king unsatisfied foreign policy since this
and to quarter troops in subjects’ houses as an economy measure .English parliament witnessed arbitrary
arrest of the parliamentarians those who laid their opinion against the policies of king and this brought
violent upheaval and enmity to Charles and to George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham. Sir Edward
Coke who presented the petition rights asserted four principles of the charter
United States Declaration of Independence (1776)
US congress approved the declaration of independence on July 4, 1776
More than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Thomas Jefferson wrote the
declaration as a formal explanation of why congress had voted on 2nd July to declare independence
from Great Britain and moreover announced that the thirteen American Colonies were no longer a part
of the British Empire. Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in various forms. In the Initial
phase it was published as a printed broadsheet which was widely distributed and read to the public.
The Constitution of the United States of America (1787) and Bill of Rights (1791)7
After getting independence from mighty empire and witnessing number of sacrifices in revolution now
US, arrived at the most important aspect that of construction of Constitution for their nation, since US
was the first nation in the world to introduce the concept of constitution so a great care was taken to
make this constitution versatile and vibrant. In 1787 in Philadelphia the constitution of United States
got prepared.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
Absolute Monarchy in France got abolished in 1789 and the surroundings for the establishment of first
French republic got set. After the storming of Bastille just in 6 weeks and three weeks after the abolition
of feudalism, the declaration of the Rights of Man and of the citizen was adopted by the National
Constituent Assembly as the initial step towards architecting the constitution for the republic of France.
Declaration of International rights of man 1929
After the 1st world war got over, mankind for the very first time witnessed a cataclysm of death and
world for the first time experienced so much post effects of war. The questions about the human rights
and fundamental freedom began to rise so in 1929, the Institute of International Law adopted the
declaration of International rights of Man.
Indian Context:
o India’s Constitution, adopted in 1950, enshrines fundamental rights for its citizens.
o These rights include freedom of speech, equality before the law, and protection against
discrimination.
o However, challenges persist, such as caste-based discrimination, gender inequality, and
violations of socio-economic rights.
o The judiciary plays a crucial role in safeguarding human rights, but implementation
remains a concern.
Conclusion
Human rights are the basic necessity; just like human cannot survive without food and water similarly
a human soul cannot survive in the place where human rights are not respected. Collective efforts are,

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4. Examine the role of our Indian Judiciary towards ensuring and
safeguarding basic Human Rights of its own people.
Ans: INTRODUCTION
The Indian judiciary serves as the guardian of justice, entrusted with the responsibility of upholding the
rule of law and protecting the fundamental rights of its citizens. As an integral pillar of the world’s
largest democracy, the Indian judiciary’s independence and impartiality are paramount to ensuring a
just and equitable society.
Indian Constitution adopted in 1950, exquisitely provides for the separation of powers among the
executive, legislature, and judiciary, emphasizing the judiciary’s significance as a check and balance
against potential abuse of power. Over the decades, India has witnessed a plethora of cases that have
challenged the boundaries of these safeguards and tested the resilience of the judiciary in the face of
political pressures, public expectations, and societal transformations.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
The Indian Judiciary is one of the key pillars of the country’s democratic system. It is a complex and
hierarchical system that plays a crucial role in upholding the rule of law, with the Supreme Court of
India at its highest judicial body. Below the Supreme Court are the High Courts of each state and union
territory, followed by subordinate courts at the district and lower levels.
The functioning of the Indian Judiciary is governed by various provisions outlined in the Constitution
of India which are as follows:
1. Supreme court of India: Articles 124 to 147 contained in Chapter IV of Part V of the
Constitution deal with the powers and functions of the Supreme Court of India. It is the highest
court in the country.
2. High courts: Chapter V of Part VI of the Constitution with Articles 214 to 231 deal with the
establishment and organization of High Courts in various states and union territories.
3. Independence of the judiciary: Art. 50 of the Indian Constitution provides for the separation of
powers which helps in maintaining the independence of the judiciary. This separation of powers
is essential to maintain the integrity and impartiality of the judicial system.
4. Appointment of the judges (Articles 124, 217): The President of India appoints judges to the
Supreme Court and High Courts based on the recommendations of the collegium system, which
consists of senior judges.
5. Tenure and removal: The Constitution provides for the tenure and conditions of service for
judges to safeguard their independence. They can only be removed through a lengthy and
difficult impeachment process.
SUPREME COURT OF INDIA
The Supreme Court of India, as the apex judicial body of the country, plays a pivotal role as the Union
Judiciary. It serves as the bastion of constitutional supremacy, safeguarding the Constitution’s
inviolability. It acts as the ultimate arbiter, ensuring that laws and government actions adhere to
constitutional principles. By protecting fundamental rights, maintaining the balance of power, and
providing legal guidance, the Court upholds the rule of law, setting precedents for the nation. It
functions as the final and highest court of appeal in civil and criminal matters.
Chapter IV of Part V of the Indian Constitution, which comprises art. 124 to 147, deals with the
provisions pertaining to the Supreme court of India.
HIGH COURTS OF THE STATES
In the Indian Constitution, High Courts play a crucial role as the second-highest judicial authorities
within the country’s federal structure. India has 25 High Courts, each corresponding to a particular state
or union territory. Chapter V of Part VI of the Indian Constitution, which comprises art. 214 to 231,
deals with the provisions related to the High Courts in the States.
Article 214 of the Indian Constitution reads as, there shall be a High Court for each state. It mandates
the establishment of a High Court for each state in India to ensure the administration of justice,
protection of rights, and legal oversight within the boundaries of that state. It is provided under art. 216
that each High Court shall comprise a Chief Justice and such other Judges that the President deems
necessary to appoint as and when required. While, art. 231(1) empowers Parliament to establish a
common High Court for two or more states or for two or more states and a Union territory.

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INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY
The concept of judicial independence is a vital principle of a democratic society. It ensures the judiciary,
as one of the three branches of government alongside the executive and legislative branches, operates
without external influences or pressures that could obstruct its ability to deliver impartial and just rulings
in accordance with the law. Without it, the judiciary would be susceptible to external pressures,
potentially leading to biased or politically motivated decisions, undermining justice and the rule of law.
Citizens’ rights would be jeopardized, as their access to a fair and impartial legal system would be
compromised.
APPOINTMENT OF THE JUDGES
The appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts is governed by Articles 124 and 217
of the Indian Constitution respectively. The process of appointment is a critical aspect of ensuring an
independent and impartial judiciary.
TENURE AND REMOVAL
A judge of the Supreme Court holds office until they reach the age of 65 years, unless they resign or
are removed by impeachment. Whereas, the retirement age for judges of a High Court is 62 years.
Article 124(4) of the Indian Constitution outlines the removal process for Supreme Court judges, while
Article 218 deals with High Court judges. Removal proceedings can be initiated in either house of
Parliament:
1. 100 Lok Sabha members providing a signed notice to the Speaker, or
2. 50 Rajya Sabha members providing a signed notice to the Chairman.
JURISDICTION AND POWERS
The Constitution of India provides for the original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction and various rule
making powers to the supreme court and the high courts which are as follows:

1. A Court of Record: Art.129 and 215 of the constitution makes the Supreme Court and every
high court ‘a Court of Record’ and confers all the power of such a court including the power to
punish for contempt of itself respectively. A Court of record has the authority to maintain a
permanent and verifiable record of their proceedings. This record serves as evidence and can
be referred to in the future.
2. Appellate Jurisdiction: It is provided under art. 132 of the constitution that an appeal shall lie
to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree or final order of a High Court in the territory
of India. It hears appeals from:
Powers of the Supreme Court and High Courts
Art.145 of the Indian Constitution empowers the Supreme Court to make rules governing its own
procedures, subject to the approval of the President. These rules pertain to various aspects, including
the practice and procedure for filing cases, appeals, and other matters before the Court. Also, Under art.
137, the Supreme Court possesses the power of review, which enables it to review and modify its own
judgments or orders.
WRIT JURISDICTION
Writ jurisdiction serves to enforce fundamental rights, protect against executive overreach, and provide
judicial review. It enables citizens to directly approach the higher judiciary if their rights are violated
or to challenge government actions.
JUDICIAL REVIEW
Judicial review refers to the power of the court to review and invalidate laws, executive actions, and
government decisions if they are found to be in violation of the Constitution. It is the most potent
weapon in the hands of the judges.
CONCLUSION
The Indian judiciary stands as a formidable guardian of justice and a pillar of the country’s democratic
framework. The Constitution of India meticulously outlines a robust framework of safeguards to ensure
the independence, impartiality, and integrity of the Judiciary. The concept of judicial independence,
enshrined in Article 50, remains at the heart of this framework, emphasizing the clear separation of
powers and the necessity of safeguarding the judiciary from external influences.

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5. Discuss the evolution of different generation of H.R with special
emphasis on third generation of H.R.
Ans: Evolution of Human Rights
Throughout history, the idea of human rights has been an evolving force, gradually taking shape and
gaining momentum to become a cornerstone of modern societies. From ancient civilizations to the
Enlightenment era’s profound philosophies, the journey of human rights has been marked by milestones
that have shaped the way we view individual liberties, dignity, and equality. Read this article to learn
about the Development of Human Rights in detail.
Categories of Human Rights
Human rights can be categorized into different types:
Civil and Political Rights: These include the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and
the right to a fair trial. They protect individuals from government interference in their personal and
political affairs.
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: These encompass rights related to basic needs such as the
right to education, the right to work, the right to health, and the right to a standard of living that ensures
well-being.
Collective or Group Rights: Some rights are specific to particular groups, such as the right to self-
determination for indigenous peoples or the right to participate in cultural, religious, or linguistic
communities.
Three Generations of Human Rights
First-Generation Human Rights (Blue Rights)
These are like the foundation of human rights. They include things like the right to say what you think
(freedom of expression), the right to vote, and the right to a fair trial. Imagine them as the “blue” rights,
the fundamental ones that set the stage for other rights.
Second-Generation Human Rights (Red Rights)
These are about the things that make life better for people. Think of having a good education, access to
healthcare when you’re sick, and the opportunity to work and earn a living. These are like the “red”
rights, which add color to people’s lives and well-being.
Third-Generation Human Rights (Green Rights)
These are like the rights that protect not just individuals, but everyone together and our planet. They
include the right to a clean environment, the right to development for all, and the right to live in peace.
These are often called “green” rights because they’re about preserving our world for future generations.
Types of Human Rights
Human rights are of different types and can be categorized into the following categories. These
categories of human rights are not mutually exclusive, and many rights overlap. Human rights are
interdependent and indivisible, meaning that the enjoyment of one right often depends on the fulfilment
of other rights. Additionally, the concept of human rights is dynamic, and new rights may emerge as
society’s understanding of human dignity and justice evolves over time.
Legal Rights: Legal rights are those rights that are recognized and protected by law. They are
enforceable through the legal system. For example, the right to a fair trial and the right to property are
legal rights.
Moral Rights: Moral rights are based on principles of fairness and justice and may not always be
legally enforceable. These rights are rooted in ethical and moral beliefs about what is right and wrong.
For example, the right to be treated with dignity and respect is a moral right.
Civil Rights: Civil rights are the fundamental rights and freedoms that protect individuals from
government interference in their personal and political affairs. They include the right to life, freedom
of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial.

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Political Rights: Political rights pertain to the ability of individuals to participate in the political
processes of their country. These rights include the right to vote, the right to run for public office, and
the right to freedom of political association.
Social Rights: Social rights are related to the well-being and social security of individuals. They
encompass rights such as the right to education, the right to work, and the right to health care. Social
rights aim to ensure that individuals have access to essential social services.
Economic Rights: Economic rights are rights that relate to economic well-being and financial security.
They include the right to work, the right to fair wages, and the right to own property. Economic rights
aim to protect individuals from economic exploitation.
Cultural Rights: Cultural rights are rights that protect an individual’s cultural identity and heritage.
They include the right to participate in cultural, religious, or linguistic communities and the right to
preserve one’s cultural heritage.
Group Rights: Group rights, also known as collective rights, pertain to the rights of specific groups
of people, such as indigenous peoples, minorities, or communities. These rights may include the right
to self-determination, the right to cultural autonomy, and the right to participate in decision-making that
affects the group.
Solidarity Rights: Solidarity rights focus on the collective well-being of society as a whole. These
rights include the right to development, the right to peace, the right to a clean environment, and the right
to one’s own natural resources. Solidarity rights emphasize the interconnectedness of all members of
society.
Development of Human Rights
The concept of “rights” and “duties” has ancient roots, dating back to the emergence of human societies
and the formation of states. As humans are inherently social beings, the issue of rights and their
associated duties naturally arose in the context of individuals’ interactions within a society and their
relationship with the governing authority. Over time, norms of social behaviour developed, eventually
crystallizing into what we now recognize as human rights.
Significant Historical Events and Revolutions
Several significant historical events and revolutions played pivotal roles in the development of human
rights:
British Constitutional Documents: The Magna Carta (1215), the Petition of Rights (1628), and the
Bill of Rights (1689) in England were early charters that placed restrictions on the powers of the
monarchy, paving the way for the rule of law.
American Declaration of Independence: The American Declaration of Independence in 1776
introduced ideas of human rights, stating that “all men are created equal” and have “unalienable rights”
to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: The French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen in 1789 recognized numerous rights, including equality, freedom of thought, religion,
and property rights.
Bolshevik Revolution: The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 introduced socio-economic dimensions to
human rights, emphasizing positive rights related to economic and social well-being, in addition to civil
and political rights.
League of Nations: The League of Nations was established after World War I and was mandated to
supervise the enforcement of minorities’ rights treaties, addressing issues related to the protection of
minority populations.
International Labor Organization (ILO): Founded in 1919 and later becoming a specialized
agency of the United Nations, the ILO established international labour standards related to workers’
rights, fair employment practices, and social security.
Abolition of Slavery: International treaties emerged in the 19th century aimed at the abolition of
slavery, condemning the practice and promoting freedom.

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6. How the Constitution of India has emerged and evolved with the
passage of time towards sate- quarding Human Rights of its people.
Ans: Introduction
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental
political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions,
and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.
The Constitution of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came
into effect on 26 January 1950. It replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country’s
fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India.
Indian Constitution: Historical Underpinning
The Constitution of India has its roots in the country’s colonial past and the struggle for independence
from British rule. The process of framing the Constitution began in the 1930s, with the formation of the
Indian National Congress and the demand for self-governance.
During the freedom movement, various constitutional frameworks were proposed, including the Nehru
Report of 1928, the Karachi Resolution of 1931, and the Bombay Plan of 1944. These proposals formed
the basis for the Constituent Assembly, which was elected in 1946 to draft a new Constitution for the
newly independent nation.
Evolution of the Constitution
The Constitution of India has undergone several amendments since it was first adopted in 1950. The
process of amending the Constitution is set out in Article 368, which requires a special majority in both
houses of Parliament, as well as the ratification of at least half of the states in the country.
The Constitution has been amended more than 100 times since its adoption. The amendments have been
made to reflect the changing needs and aspirations of the country, as well as to incorporate new laws
and policies.
Some of the significant amendments to the Constitution include:
• The First Amendment Act of 1951, amended the freedom of speech and expression and added
the Ninth Schedule to protect certain laws from judicial review.
• The Seventh Amendment Act of 1956, reorganized the states of India on linguistic lines.
• The Ninth Amendment Act of 1960, recognized the right to property as a fundamental right.
• The Twenty-Fourth Amendment Act of 1971, abolished the privy purse and abolished the
privy council as a court of appeal for the princely states.
• The Thirty-Ninth Amendment Act of 1975, recognized Sikkim as a state of India.
• The Forty-Second Amendment Act of 1976, amended several provisions of the Constitution,
including the Preamble, and added the words “secular” and “socialist” to it.
• The Seventy-Third Amendment Act of 1992, recognized the rights of the scheduled castes and
tribes to participate in local self-governance.
• The Ninety-Fourth Amendment Act of 2006, provided reservations for the scheduled castes
and tribes in the promotion to higher posts in the civil services.
The Constitution of India has played a vital role in shaping the country’s political and social landscape,
and it continues to evolve to meet the changing needs of the nation.
Indian Constitution: Features
The Constitution of India has several features that set it apart from the constitutions of other countries.
Some of the key features of the Indian Constitution are:
1. Written and comprehensive: The Constitution of India is a written document that sets out the
framework for the country’s political system and the rights and duties of its citizens. It is the
longest-written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, with 444 articles in 22 parts
and 12 schedules.
2. Federal system: The Constitution of India establishes a federal system of government, in which
power is divided between the central government and the states. The central government has
exclusive powers in certain areas, such as foreign affairs and defense, while the states have
powers in matters such as education and law and order.

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 3. Parliamentary democracy: The Constitution of India establishes a parliamentary form of
government, in which the executive is responsible to the legislature. The President of India is the
head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government.
4. Fundamental rights: The Constitution of India guarantees a set of fundamental rights to all
citizens, which include the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, and the protection
of life and personal liberty. These rights are enforceable by the courts, and any law that violates
these rights can be struck down by the courts.
5. Directive principles: The Constitution of India also lays down a set of directive principles of
state policy, which are non-enforceable guidelines for the government to follow in the
formulation of its policies. These principles include the promotion of international peace and
security, the protection of the environment, and the promotion of the welfare of the people.
6. Independent judiciary: The Constitution of India establishes an independent judiciary, which
is responsible for interpreting the laws of the country and upholding the rights of citizens. The
Supreme Court is the highest in the country, and it has the power of judicial review, which allows
it to declare a law or government action unconstitutional.
7. Amendment process: The Constitution of India provides a detailed process for amending its
provisions. An amendment requires a special majority in both houses of Parliament, as well as
the ratification of at least half of the states in the country. This ensures that any changes to the
Constitution are made with the consensus of the majority of the people.
Indian Constitution: Amendments
The process of amending the Constitution of India is set out in Article 368 of the Constitution.
According to this article, an amendment to the Constitution can be initiated by the introduction of a bill
in either house of Parliament.
Significant Provisions of the Indian Constitution
The Indian Constitution is a comprehensive document that outlines the rights and duties of citizens, as
well as the structure and functions of the government. Some of the significant provisions of the Indian
Constitution include:
1. Fundamental Rights: These are the basic rights that are guaranteed to every citizen of India,
including the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, and the
right to life and personal liberty.
2. Directive Principles of State Policy: These are guidelines for the government to follow in the
formulation and implementation of policies, to promote the welfare of the people.
3. Federal Structure: The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system of government, with
powers divided between the central government and the state governments.
4. Independence of the Judiciary: The Indian Constitution provides for the independence of the
judiciary, with the Supreme Court at the apex and a hierarchy of courts below it.
5. Emergency Provisions: The Indian Constitution contains provisions that allow the government
to take measures to protect the country’s security and integrity in times of emergency.
6. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes: The Indian Constitution provides for affirmative
action to protect the rights and promote the welfare of historically disadvantaged groups such as
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution
The basic structure doctrine is a judicial principle in the Constitution of India which holds that the
Constitution has certain basic features that cannot be amended by the Parliament. This doctrine was
propounded by the Supreme Court of India in the landmark case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of
Kerala in 1973.
Conclusion
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land and the foundation of the Indian democratic
system. It outlines the powers and functions of the various organs of the government and guarantees the
fundamental rights of citizens. The Constitution also contains provisions for the protection of the
country’s cultural and linguistic diversity and the promotion of social justice.

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7. Discuss the various remedies. available in our of country for
Ablation of H.R and how far has it helped the common man.
Ans: In India, several remedies are available to address human rights violations. These remedies aim
to provide justice and relief to victims and ensure accountability. Here are some key remedies:
1. Judicial Remedies
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Allows individuals or groups to file petitions in the courts on
behalf of those whose rights have been violated. This has been instrumental in addressing issues
like environmental protection, child labor, and prisoners’ rights.
• Writ Petitions: Under Articles 32 and 226 of the Indian Constitution, individuals can approach the
Supreme Court or High Courts for the enforcement of fundamental rights through writs like habeas
corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari.
2. Statutory Bodies
• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC): Investigates complaints of human rights
violations and recommends actions to the government. It has played a significant role in
highlighting and addressing various human rights issues.
• State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs): Similar to the NHRC, these bodies operate at the
state level to address local human rights issues.
3. Legislative Measures
• Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993: Establishes the NHRC and SHRCs and outlines their
powers and functions.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Provides special
protections and remedies for members of these communities against discrimination and violence.
4. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
• NGOs play a crucial role in advocating for human rights, providing legal aid, and supporting
victims. Organizations like Amnesty International India and Human Rights Law Network
(HRLN) are actively involved in these efforts.
Impact on the Common Man
These remedies have had a mixed impact on the common man. On one hand, they have provided a
platform for marginalized and vulnerable groups to seek justice and have led to significant legal and
policy changes. For example, PILs have resulted in landmark judgments that have improved living
conditions and protected the rights of various communities1.
However, challenges remain. The judicial process can be slow, and there are often delays in the
implementation of recommendations by bodies like the NHRC. Additionally, awareness about these
remedies is still limited among the general population, which can hinder their effectiveness.
Overall, while the available remedies have made strides in addressing human rights violations, there is
still a need for greater awareness, faster judicial processes, and more robust implementation of
recommendations to fully realize their potential in helping the common man.

Human rights movements and policies have played a crucial role in improving the lives of individuals
worldwide. Here are a few key points:
1. Legal Protections: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) has inspired over
70 enforceable human rights treaties globally1. These treaties provide legal frameworks that
protect individuals from abuses and ensure basic rights such as education, equal protection
under the law, and a healthy standard of living.
2. Empowerment and Advocacy: Grassroots activists and local civil society organizations
have been instrumental in defending human rights, even in repressive regimes. They work
tirelessly to hold governments accountable and push for reforms that benefit the common man.
3. Social and Economic Benefits: Human rights initiatives often lead to improved social and
economic conditions. For example, movements advocating for women’s rights have brought
attention to issues like violence against women and have led to stronger legal protections and
support systems.

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 4. Global Awareness and Solidarity: International human rights organizations and
campaigns raise awareness about abuses and mobilize global support. This can lead to
international pressure on governments to improve their human rights records and provide better
conditions for their citizens.
5. Overall, while challenges remain, the efforts to uphold and advance human rights have
significantly contributed to the well-being and empowerment of individuals around the world.
Freedom of Expression
Authorities intensified efforts to silence civil society activists, independent journalists, and even
political opponents through threats and by using politically motivated charges.
In March 2023, a court in Gujarat sentenced prominent opposition leader Rahul Gandhi to two years in
prison in a politically motivated defamation case. Gandhi had raised corruption allegations in
parliament against billionaire industrialist Gautam Adani, perceived to have close relations with the
prime minister. The Supreme Court eventually suspended Gandhi’s conviction in August.
In July, Manipur police filed a case of sedition, criminal conspiracy, defamation, promoting enmity,
and breach of peace against three women activists who were part of the National Federation of Indian
Women’s fact-finding team. The team had described the ethnic clashes as a result of “state-sponsored
violence” and called for a Supreme Court-monitored investigation.
In September, Manipur police filed criminal cases against the Editors Guild of India after it published
a report saying the state leadership had played a partisan role in the ethnic violence.
In October 2023, police raided the office of the news website NewsClick, which has been critical of the
Modi government, and the homes of several of its journalists and writers on allegations that the website
got illegal funds from China, a charge it denies. The police also raided the homes of activists and
comedians in Delhi as part of coordinated raids at 30 locations. In Mumbai, the police raided the home
of activist Teesta Setalvad, who has been repeatedly targeted for fighting for justice for the Muslim
victims of the 2002 riots in Gujarat state and has written articles critical of the government
for NewsClick.
Women’s and Girls’ Rights
Indian authorities delayed the investigation into allegations of sexual abuse by a member of parliament
from the ruling BJP and the president of the Wrestling Federation of India, Brij Bhushan Sharan Singh,
despite weeks of protest by athletes. In April, six women and a child filed complaints of sexual abuse
with the police against Singh. However, the police only initiated an investigation after the complainants
filed a petition in the Supreme Court. In May, police forcibly tackled and temporarily detained
protesting athletes, including two Olympic wrestlers. In June, the police finally charged Singh with
sexual harassment, assault, and stalking. The case highlighted barriers to justice for sexual assault
survivors in India, especially when the accused is powerful.
The authorities did not properly enforce the law to address sexual harassment at work. Women,
particularly in the informal sector, remain constrained by stigma, fear of retribution, and institutional
barriers to justice. The Indian government has not ratified the International Labour Organization
Violence and Harassment Convention (C190), which it voted in favor of in 2019.
Children’s Rights
In January 2023, a news outlet reported that for over a year, Diksha, an education app owned and used
by the Indian government, had exposed the personal data of nearly 600,000 students, as well as more
than 1 million teachers, on the open web for anyone to find. Human Rights Watch found that Diksha
transmitted children’s data to a third-party company using advertising trackers and also had the capacity
to collect children’s precise location data, which it failed to disclose in its privacy policy. In February,
the government announced a third-party security audit of the app and committed to better protect the
data privacy of children and teachers using its app.
Environment and Human Rights
In August, the Indian Parliament passed the Forest Conservation Amendment Act, despite vocal
opposition from environmental activists and tribal communities. The law dilutes existing safeguards
and could lead to a loss of legal protection for one-quarter of Indian forests—enabling industry, mining,
and infrastructure development in formerly protected areas—and threatens encroachment on tribal
communities’ traditional territories.

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 SHORT NOTE’S MRK – 4

1. RIGHT TO EDUCATION
Ans: The right to education is a fundamental human right recognized under international law. It is
enshrined in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which states that
everyone has the right to education.
The Right to Education is a fundamental human right recognized globally. It ensures that every
individual has access to quality education without discrimination. This right is enshrined in various
international documents, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Education is crucial for personal and societal development. It helps lift individuals out of poverty,
promotes equality, and empowers people to participate fully in their communities2. Quality education
aims to develop a well-rounded human being, fostering understanding, tolerance, and friendship
among all nations and groups.
Despite its importance, many children and adults worldwide still lack access to education due to
social, economic, and cultural barriers2. Efforts continue globally to ensure that the right to education
is upheld for everyone, promoting a more inclusive and equitable world.
This right includes the following key aspects:
1. Free and Compulsory Education: Education should be free, at least at the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education should be compulsory.
2. Accessibility: Technical and professional education should be made generally available, and
higher education should be equally accessible to all based on merit.
3. Quality and Equality: Education should aim to develop the human personality and promote
understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations and groups.

2. State Human Rights Commission

Ans: State Human Rights Commission (SHRC) is a statutory body established at the state level in
India to protect and promote human rights. These commissions are set up under the Protection of Human
Rights Act, 1993. Each SHRC is responsible for addressing human rights violations within its respective
state.
The State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs) in India are autonomous bodies established at the state
level to protect and promote human rights. These commissions play a pivotal role in safeguarding
human rights by investigating complaints, conducting inquiries, and making recommendations to the
state government. They are empowered to take suo motu cognizance of human rights violations or act
upon petitions received from individuals or organizations. By addressing grievances and suggesting
preventive measures, SHRCs aim to create a more just and equitable society. Additionally, they work
towards raising awareness about human rights through educational programs and training sessions for
the public and government officials. Their advisory role includes providing insights and
recommendations on legislation and policies related to human rights, ensuring that state laws align with
human rights principles.
Key Functions:
1. Investigation: SHRCs investigate complaints of human rights violations, either on their own
initiative or based on petitions received from individuals or organizations.
2. Recommendations: They make recommendations to the state government on measures to
prevent human rights abuses and improve the human rights situation.
3. Awareness: SHRCs work to spread awareness about human rights through education and
public outreach programs.
4. Advisory Role: They advise the state government on any legislation or administrative measures
that may affect human rights.
Structure:
• Chairperson: Typically a retired Chief Justice of a High Court.
• Members: Include individuals with expertise in human rights, law, and social service.

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3. Right to die and Passive Euthanasia
Ans: he right to die and passive euthanasia are intricate and sensitive topics within the realm of
human rights. These issues delve into deeply personal and ethical considerations, often invoking strong
emotions and diverse opinions. They involve the intersection of medical ethics, legal principles, and
individual autonomy, making them subjects of intense debate and varying legal interpretations across
different jurisdictions. The complexity of these topics is further compounded by cultural, religious, and
societal values that influence how they are perceived and legislated. As such, discussions around the
right to die and passive euthanasia are not only legal and medical but also profoundly philosophical,
reflecting the diverse ways in which societies understand and value life and death.
Right to Die
The right to die refers to the concept that individuals should have the autonomy to choose to end their
own lives, particularly in cases of terminal illness or severe suffering. This idea is often linked to the
broader principle of human dignity and personal autonomy. However, international human rights law
does not explicitly recognize a right to die. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has stated
that the right to life cannot be interpreted as including a right to die. This concept is rooted in the belief
that individuals should have control over their own bodies and life choices, especially when facing
unbearable pain or a lack of quality of life. Advocates argue that denying this right can lead to prolonged
suffering and a loss of dignity for those who are terminally ill or in severe distress. Despite these
arguments, the legal recognition of the right to die varies significantly across different jurisdictions,
with some countries allowing forms of assisted dying under strict conditions, while others maintain a
strict prohibition.
Passive Euthanasia
Passive euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing medical treatment that is necessary to maintain
life, allowing the patient to die naturally. This can include actions such as turning off life support
machines or not administering life-prolonging drugs. Passive euthanasia is often considered more
ethically acceptable than active euthanasia, which involves directly causing a patient's death through
actions like administering a lethal injection.

4. CEDAW
Ans: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) is a landmark international treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979.
Often referred to as the "women's bill of rights," CEDAW is one of the core international human rights
treaties. This convention represents a comprehensive framework for addressing gender inequality and
discrimination against women. It obligates states that ratify the treaty to implement measures, including
legislative reforms, to ensure women's full development and advancement in various spheres of life.
These spheres include education, employment, healthcare, and political participation. Additionally,
CEDAW addresses critical issues such as violence against women, human trafficking, and exploitation,
aiming to create a more equitable and just society for women worldwide.
CEDAW aims to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women and promote gender equality. It
requires states that ratify the convention to take appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure
the full development and advancement of women in all areas of life, such as education, employment,
health care, and politics. The treaty also addresses issues like violence against women, trafficking, and
exploitation.
The implementation of CEDAW is monitored by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination
against Women, which consists of 23 independent experts on women's rights from around the world.
This committee reviews reports submitted by states parties on their progress in implementing the treaty
and provides recommendations for further action.
CEDAW has been instrumental in advancing women's human rights globally, providing a universal
standard for gender equality and empowering women to challenge discriminatory practices and policies.

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5. Genocide
Ans: Genocide is a grave violation of human rights and is addressed under international law, particularly
through the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (commonly known
as the Genocide Convention). This convention was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
on December 9, 1948, in response to the atrocities committed during World War.
Definition of Genocide: Genocide is defined as acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole
or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group. These acts include:
• Killing members of the group.
• Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group.
• Deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about the group's physical
destruction.
• Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group.
• Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Legal Obligations: Under the Genocide Convention, states are obligated to prevent and punish the
crime of genocide. This includes enacting relevant legislation and ensuring that perpetrators, whether
they are public officials or private individuals, are prosecuted1. The convention also establishes that
genocide is a crime under international law, binding on all states, regardless of whether they have
ratified the convention.
Human Rights Act: While the Genocide Convention specifically addresses genocide, the broader
framework of human rights, including instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
various human rights treaties, reinforces the protection against such atrocities. These instruments
collectively aim to uphold the dignity and rights of all individuals, thereby contributing to the prevention
of genocide and other gross human rights violations.

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