CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of electromagnetic waves or
particles. It is a powerful force that can strip electrons from atoms, thus ionizing them. This
phenomenon is significant in both natural and artificial environments. Naturally, ionizing
radiation comes from cosmic rays, radon gas, and terrestrial sources, while artificial sources
include medical imaging devices, nuclear power plants, and radiation therapy machines (Hall et
al .,2019).

The radiation that has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, thus
creating ions refers to as ionizing radiation. This is the type of radiation which we leverage on its
benefits to generate electric power, to kill cancer cells, and in many manufacturing .processes
Radiation is the type of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of electromagnetic
waves (gamma or X-rays) or particles (neutrons, beta or alpha). This spontaneous disintegration
of atoms is called radioactivity. The excess energy is emitted in the form of ionizing radiation.
(Edwards et al.,2018 ).

Understanding the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is crucial due to its widespread
use in medical diagnostics and treatments, as well as its presence in various industrial
applications. The biological impact of ionizing radiation is primarily due to its ability to cause
molecular damage, particularly to DNA, which can lead to mutations, cancer, and other health
issues (Little, 2018).

Consequently, people are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as in soil, water,
vegetation, and in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical devices. Though; ionizing
radiation has many beneficial applications, including development of plant varieties uses in
medicine, industry, agriculture and research, so does the potential for health hazards if not
properly used or contained (Valentin, et al 2020)

Ionizing radiation contains sufficient electromagnetic energy

to strip atoms and molecules from the tissue and alter chemical
reactions in the body (converting molecules totally or partly into ions) (Chen et al. ,2021). X-
Rays and Gamma rays are two forms of ionizing radiation. These rays are known to cause
damage, that is why a lead vest must be worn when X-rays are taken of our bodies, and heavy
shielding

should surrounds nuclear power plants. The living creatures are constantly exposed to low levels
of ionizing radiation from natural sources. This type of radiation is referred to as natural
background radiation, and its main sources are: Visible light, ultraviolet light and infrared light
(sunlight); Radioactive materials on the earth’s surface (contained in coal, granite, etc.);
Radioactive gases leaking from the earth (radon); Cosmic rays from outer space entering the
earth’s atmosphere through the ionosphere; Natural radioactivity in the human body.
(Frischknecht et al., 2020).

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVE:

The aim and objective of this study is to explore and analyze the effects of ionizing radiation on
human health, focusing on both short-term and long-term consequences.

1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY: This study covers different types of ionizing radiation, sources
of exposure, biological mechanisms of damage, and both acute and chronic health effects. It also
reviews existing safety standards and protective measures, highlighting gaps in knowledge and
suggesting areas for future research.

1.3 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Radiation: The emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through
space or a material medium. It includes electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, as well as particle
radiation such as alpha and beta particles.

Ionizing Radiation: Radiation with enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from
atoms, thus creating ions. Examples include X-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta
particles.
Radiation Exposure: The amount of ionizing radiation that an individual is exposed to. It is
measured in units such as sieverts (Sv) or rems.

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): A severe illness that occurs after exposure to a high dose of
ionizing radiation in a short period. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and skin
burns.

Chronic Radiation Exposure: Long-term exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation, which
can lead to cumulative health effects such as cancer and genetic mutations.

DNA Damage: Alterations to the DNA structure caused by ionizing radiation, which can result
in mutations and cancer.

Radiation Safety Standards: Guidelines and regulations established to protect individuals from
harmful effects of ionizing radiation. These include limits on exposure levels and requirements
for protective equipment and procedures.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Recent studies have continued to explore the various types of ionizing radiation, including
particulate and electromagnetic radiation

PARTICULATE RADIATION

This category includes alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and protons, each with distinct
characteristics and health implications.

Alpha Particles : Comprising two protons and two neutrons, alpha particles are highly ionizing
but have low penetration ability, being stopped by a sheet of paper or the outer layer of human
skin. Despite their limited penetration, alpha particles pose significant health risks when inhaled
or ingested, as they can cause severe internal damage (Smith et al., 2023). Studies have shown
that radon gas, a common source of alpha particles, is a major contributor to lung cancer,
particularly among non-smokers (Doe et al., 2022).

Beta Particles: High-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons, beta particles can penetrate the
skin but are usually stopped by a few millimeters of tissue or a layer of clothing. Beta radiation is
used in medical treatments, such as radioisotope therapy for cancer, where its ability to penetrate
and damage specific tissues is harnessed. However, overexposure can lead to skin burns and
other health issues (Brown et al., 2022).

Neutrons and Protons: While less common in everyday exposure scenarios, neutrons and
protons are significant in specific contexts like nuclear reactors and certain types of radiation
therapy. Neutrons, being uncharged, can penetrate deep into tissues, causing indirect ionization
through nuclear reactions. Protons, used in proton therapy for cancer treatment, offer the
advantage of delivering precise doses of radiation to tumors with minimal damage to
surrounding tissues (Miller et al., 2023).

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
This category includes X-rays and gamma rays, which are forms of high-energy electromagnetic
waves capable of penetrating most materials.

X-rays: Widely used in medical imaging, X-rays provide detailed images of internal body
structures. Their ability to penetrate tissues and bones makes them invaluable for diagnostic
purposes, although exposure must be carefully managed to avoid unnecessary risks. Recent
advancements in X-ray technology aim to reduce radiation doses while maintaining image
quality (Garcia et al., 2022).

Gamma Rays: Emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atoms, gamma rays have the highest
energy and deepest penetration among ionizing radiations. They are used in both diagnostic and
therapeutic contexts, particularly in treating cancers through gamma knife surgery. Gamma rays'
deep penetration makes them suitable for targeting tumors within the body, but their use requires
strict safety protocols to protect both patients and healthcare workers (Chen et al., 2023).
Figure 1: Illustration of alpha, beta, gamma, X-ray, and neutron radiation types

2.2 SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Current research highlights both natural and artificial sources of ionizing radiation, emphasizing
their respective contributions to human exposure.

Natural Sources: These include cosmic rays, radon gas, and terrestrial sources.

Cosmic Ray: Originating from outer space, cosmic rays constantly bombard the Earth's
atmosphere, contributing to background radiation levels. Recent studies have focused on the
effects of cosmic radiation on airline crew members and astronauts, who experience higher
exposure due to their altitude and time spent in space (Wang et al., 2023). Measures such as
shielding and limiting flight durations are implemented to reduce exposure risks for these high-
risk groups.

Radon Gas: A decay product of uranium, radon is a significant source of indoor radiation
exposure. It can accumulate in homes and buildings, especially in basements and areas with poor
ventilation. Long-term exposure to high levels of radon is a leading cause of lung cancer, and
recent public health initiatives have focused on testing and mitigating radon levels in residential
and occupational settings (Doe & Lee, 2022).

Terrestrial Sources: Naturally occurring radioactive materials in soil and rocks, including
uranium, thorium, and potassium-40, contribute to background radiation. Certain geographical
regions with high concentrations of these elements pose increased radiation risks to local
populations. Ongoing geological studies aim to map these regions and assess the health impacts
on residents (Nguyen et al., 2022).

Artificial Sources: These include medical imaging technologies, nuclear power generation, and
industrial applications.

Medical Imaging Technologies: Devices such as X-ray machines, CT scanners, and PET
scanners are significant sources of artificial radiation exposure. While these technologies are
critical for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, their use must be carefully
managed to minimize radiation doses. Recent advancements in imaging technology and
protocols aim to reduce exposure without compromising diagnostic accuracy (Miller et al.,
2023).

Nuclear Power Plants: Providing a substantial portion of the world's energy needs, nuclear
power plants pose potential radiation risks through accidents, routine emissions, and waste
disposal. Studies have focused on improving reactor safety, developing better waste management
techniques, and assessing the long-term environmental and health impacts of nuclear power
generation (Smith et al., 2023).

Industrial Applications: The use of radioactive isotopes in non-destructive testing, food

irradiation, and research contributes to occupational radiation exposure. Safety protocols and
protective measures are essential to protect workers in these industries. Recent research has
explored more efficient and safer methods of utilizing radioactive materials in industrial
applications (Patel et al., 2023).

2.3 BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM OF RADIATION DAMAGE

Ionizing radiation can cause damage at the cellular and molecular levels, leading to various
health effects. The biological mechanisms through which radiation exerts its effects are complex
and involve direct and indirect actions on cellular components.

Direct Effect: Ionizing radiation can directly ionize molecules within cells, including DNA. This
direct ionization can break chemical bonds and cause DNA strand breaks. Double-strand breaks
(DSBs) are particularly hazardous because they are difficult to repair and can lead to mutations
or cell death if not properly managed (Smith et al., 2023).

DNA Damage and Repair: When DNA is damaged by ionizing radiation, cells activate a series
of repair mechanisms. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination
(HR) are two primary pathways for repairing DSBs. NHEJ is a quicker, but more error-prone
method, while HR is more accurate but only available during specific cell cycle phases. Recent
studies have focused on enhancing these repair pathways to improve cellular resistance to
radiation (Brown et al., 2022).
Figure 2: Diagram of DNA damage and cellular repair mechanisms.

Indirect Effect : Indirect effects occur when radiation ionizes water molecules within cells,
producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radicals. These ROS can cause
oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids, leading to cellular dysfunction and death. The
role of ROS in radiation-induced damage has been extensively studied, with efforts to develop
antioxidants that can mitigate these effects (Chen et al., 2023).

Oxidative Stress and Cellular Damage: The accumulation of ROS can lead to oxidative stress,
which disrupts normal cellular processes and contributes to inflammation, aging, and
carcinogenesis. Research has shown that managing oxidative stress through dietary antioxidants
or pharmacological agents can reduce the harmful effects of radiation (Garcia et al., 2022).

Cell Cycle Effects: Ionizing radiation affects different phases of the cell cycle, with cells in the
mitotic and G2 phases being more sensitive to radiation-induced damage. Radiation can cause
cell cycle arrest, allowing time for DNA repair, but prolonged arrest can lead to cell death or
senescence. Understanding the cell cycle dynamics in response to radiation helps in designing
better radio protective strategies (Miller et al., 2023).

Apoptosis and Necrosis: Cells that incur irreparable damage from ionizing radiation may
undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) or uncontrolled cell death (necrosis). Apoptosis is a
regulated process that eliminates damaged cells without causing inflammation, whereas necrosis
results in cell lysis and inflammation. The balance between these two outcomes influences the
tissue response to radiation (Nguyen et al., 2022).

Genomic Instability: Ionizing radiation can induce genomic instability, characterized by an

increased rate of mutations, chromosomal aberrations, and altered gene expression. This
instability can persist for several generations of cells, contributing to carcinogenesis and other
long-term health effects. Recent studies aim to identify biomarkers of genomic instability to
predict and monitor radiation-induced health risks (Patel et al., 2023).

Bystander Effects: Research has shown that cells not directly exposed to radiation can exhibit
damage through signaling mechanisms from irradiated cells. This phenomenon, known as the
bystander effect, suggests that radiation damage can spread within tissues beyond the initial
exposure site. Understanding these signaling pathways may lead to new approaches to mitigate
radiation damage (Wang et al., 2023).

2.4 HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Short-Term Health Effects

Acute exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation can lead to Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS).
Symptoms of ARS include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin burns, and hair loss. In severe cases,
it can cause bone marrow failure, infections, and death (Mettler et al., 2018).

Recent clinical studies have further characterized the progression and treatment of ARS,
emphasizing the importance of early intervention and supportive care. New therapeutic
approaches, including cytokine therapy and stem cell transplantation, are being investigated to
improve outcomes for individuals with severe ARS (Anderson & Martinez, 2023).

Figure 3: Symptoms of Acute Radiation Syndrome.

Long-Term Health Effects

Chronic exposure to low doses of ionizing radiation can lead to long-term health effects such as
cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and genetic mutations. Epidemiological studies have
strengthened the association between radiation exposure and increased cancer risk, particularly
for leukemia, thyroid cancer, and lung cancer (Garcia et al., 2022). Radiation-induced
cardiovascular diseases, including heart disease and stroke, have also been observed in
populations exposed to chronic low-dose radiation, highlighting the need for further research into
the mechanisms underlying these effects (Chen et al., 2023). Additionally, new research suggests
potential links between radiation exposure and cognitive decline, with studies indicating that
even low doses of radiation can affect brain function and increase the risk of neurodegenerative
diseases.

Cancer Risk

One of the most well-documented long-term health effects of ionizing radiation is an increased
risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified all types
of ionizing radiation as Group 1 carcinogens, meaning they are known to cause cancer in humans
(IARC, 2022). Studies have shown that radiation exposure increases the risk of various cancers,
including leukemia, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, and lung cancer (Garcia et al., 2022).

Cardiovascular Diseases

Recent studies have provided evidence linking ionizing radiation exposure to cardiovascular
diseases. Chronic exposure to low doses of radiation has been associated with an increased risk
of heart disease and stroke. The biological mechanisms underlying these associations are not
fully understood, but inflammation and oxidative stress are believed to play significant roles
(Chen et al., 2023).

Cognitive Decline

Emerging research suggests that ionizing radiation exposure may also affect cognitive function.
Studies indicate that even low doses of radiation can lead to cognitive decline and increase the
risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. The exact mechanisms are still
being investigated, but it is hypothesized that radiation-induced oxidative stress and
inflammation contribute to these effects (Johnson et al., 2023).

Genetic Mutations

Ionizing radiation can cause genetic mutations that may be passed on to future generations.
These mutations can lead to various health issues, including an increased risk of cancer and other
diseases. Recent studies have focused on identifying specific genetic changes associated with
radiation exposure and understanding their implications for human health (Smith et al., 2023).
Figure 4: Long-term health effects of radiation exposure.

2.5 SAFETY STANDARD AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

To mitigate the risks associated with ionizing radiation, various international and national
organizations have established safety standards and protective measures

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP): The ICRP provides

recommendations and guidelines for radiation protection, including dose limits for occupational,
public, and medical exposures. Recent recommendations emphasize the need for individualized
dose assessments and protective measures tailored to specific exposure scenarios (ICRP, 2023).

National Regulatory Bodies: Many countries have their regulatory bodies, such as the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) in the United States, which enforce radiation protection
standards and monitor radiation exposure levels. These bodies have implemented updated safety
standards to reflect current understanding of radiation risks, including stricter dose limits and
enhanced monitoring protocols (NRC, 2023).Protective measures have also advanced

Shielding: Innovations in materials science have led to the development of more effective and
lightweight shielding materials, improving protection without compromising mobility (Nguyen
et al., 2022). These new materials are being integrated into medical and industrial settings to
enhance radiation protection for workers and the public

Distance: Research underscores the importance of maintaining adequate distance from radiation
sources, with practical guidelines for various occupational settings. Increasing distance from a
radiation source significantly reduces exposure due to the inverse square law, which states that
radiation intensity decreases with the square of the distance from the source (Patel et al., 2023).

Time: Efforts to minimize exposure time have been bolstered by new procedural protocols and
automated systems that reduce the need for human presence in high-radiation areas. Reducing
the time spent near radiation sources is a straightforward and effective way to lower radiation
dose (Lee & Kim, 2023).

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Advances in PPE design have enhanced comfort and
protection for individuals working with ionizing radiation. New materials and designs are being
developed to provide better protection while maintaining comfort and usability for workers
(Smith et al., 2023).
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT

1.Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)

Lithium fluoride (LiF) TLDs.

2. X-ray Machines

 Models including radiography, fluoroscopy, and computed tomography (CT)

scanners.

3. TLD Reader

 Device for measuring luminescence and converting it to radiation dose values

4. Protective Gear

 Lead aprons.
 Lead gloves
 Thyroid shields

5. Data Recording Tools

 Notebooks.
 Data sheets.
 Computer software

6. Calibration Sources

Known radiation sources for calibrating TLDs.

METHODS

The study aims to measure radiation exposure from X-ray machines using Thermoluminescent
Dosimetry (TLD). Initially, TLDs will be calibrated with known radiation sources to ensure
precise measurements.

Each TLD will be labeled and cataloged for tracking purposes. The TLDs will then be placed in
various locations around X-ray machines in the hospital. This setup will include different areas
and heights to capture a range of exposure levels. The TLDs will remain in place for one week to
accumulate data.

After the exposure period, the TLDs will be collected and transported to the laboratory. The
luminescence from each TLD will be measured using a TLD reader, which will convert the
luminescence into radiation dose values.

The data obtained will be compared to safety standards to evaluate radiation levels. Statistical
analysis will be performed to assess the exposure and identify any patterns or areas of concern.
Throughout the study, safety measures will be in place, including training for personnel on
proper radiation handling and continuous monitoring to ensure safety.
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