ST.

MARYS HIGH SCHOOL -WEBUYE

HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT FORM ONE PHYSICS

INSTRUCTIONS

1) IN SECTION A, DO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.

2) IN SECTION B, WRITE NOTES ON THE GIVEN CHAPTERS. THE NOTES ARE PROVIDED.

SECTION A

1. Identify the mistake(s) in the following SI units and hence write them
correctly.
(a) Amperes(a)
(b) Candela(cand)
(c) Metres(M)
(d) Kalvin
(e) Seconds
(f) Kilograms
(g) Pascals
(h) Newtons

2. There are two types of physical quantities: basic and derived quantities, state
the difference between the two.
3. State any four career opportunities in Physics.

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4. A length 550cm of a thin thread wraps around a cylinder exactly 25 times.
22
Calculate the circumference and the radius of the cylinder. (Take π= 7 ).

5.Express the following in SI units

9 g/cm3

0.009 cm2

900mm

6.A sphere of diameter 6.0 mm is molded into a uniform wire of diameter

22
0.2mm. Calculate the length of the wire. (takeπ= 7 )

7.Water level in a burette is 24 cm3. If 100 drops of water fall from the burette
and the average volume of one drop is 0.12 cm3. What is the final water level in
the burette?

8.The figure alongside shows a measuring cylinder which contains water initially
at level A. When a solid of mass 11g is immersed in water the level raises to B.
Determine the density of the solid.

9.A solution contains 40cm3 by volume of alcohol and 60cm 3 water. If the density
of the alcohol is 0.79g/cm3 and water is 1.0g/cm3. Calculate the density of the
solution.

10.Define density and give its SI units.

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11.A burette shows a liquid level as 20cm 3. Ten drops of the same liquid each of
volume 0.5cm3 are added. Calculate the new liquid level.

12.An empty density bottle has a mass of 15g. When full of alcohol of density
0.8g/cm3, its mass is 47g. Calculate:-

i) The volume of the bottle.

ii) Its mass when full of water.
iii) It mass when full of mercury of density 13.6g/cm3.

13.A measuring cylinder contains 8 cm 3 of water. A small piece of brass of mass

24g is lowered carefully into a measuring cylinder so that it is carefully
submerged, if the density of the brass is 8g/cm 3, what is the new reading of the
level of water in the cylinder in m3.

14.Eureka can of mass 60g and cross sectional area of 60cm 2 is filled with water
of density 1g/cm3. Apiece of steel of mass 20g and density 8g/cm 3A is lowered
carefully into the can as shown

Calculate;

a) The total mass of water and the Eureka can before the metal was
lowered.
b) The volume of water that over flowered.
c) The final mass of the eureka can and its contents
d) In finding the density of liquid, why is the method of using density
bottle more accurate than the one of using a measuring cylinder.
15.25cm3 of a liquid x of density 1.2g/cm 3 is mixed with liquid of volume 30
cm3 and 0.9g/cm3 without change in volume. Calculate the density of the
mixture.

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 16.The mass of an empty density bottle is 25.0g. Its mass when filled with
water is 50.0g and when filled formalin its mass is 60.0g. Calculate.
a) Mass of water
b) Volume of water.
c) Volume of bottle.
d) Mass of formalin.
e) Volume of formalin.
f) Density of formalin.

17.Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid whose mass is 40g and whose
dimensions in cm are 30 x 4 x 3

18. What are non-contact forces?

19.Bristles of a brush spread in water but cling together when the brush is
retrieved out of water. The clinging together of bristles is due to surface tension
of water on the surface of bristles.

A drop of water from a burette or water tap grows and stretches out before
it falls off due to surface tension on the surface of the drop.

20.A steel needle placed carefully on the surface of water does not sink.
21.When a small drop of detergents is placed on water, the floating needle
moves rapidly away from it and sinks when more detergent is added

22.A match stick wrapped at one end with soap starts moving immediately in
one direction when placed on the surface of water.

23.A mass of 7.5kg has a weight of 30N on a certain planet. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on this planet.

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24.The figure below shows two glass tubes of different diameter dipped in
water.

Explain why h2 is greater than h1

25.A block of a soap stone of dimension 4m by 2m by 3m is 48kg and is made to

rest on a smooth horizontal surface
a) Calculate the minimum pressure it exerts on the surface.
b)Calculate the maximum pressure it will exert on the surface
26.A girl standing upright exerts a pressure of 15000 N/m 2 on the floor. Given
that the total area of contact of shoes and the floor is 0.02m2.
a) Determine the mass of the girl.
b) Determine the pressure she would exert on the floor if she stood on one
foot.
27.A block of copper of density 8.9 g/cm 3 measures 10 cm ×6 cm ×4 cm . Given that
the force of gravity is 10Nkg-1, determine:
a) The maximum pressure.
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert on a horizontal surface.
c) The diagram below shows a u- tube filled two liquids, x and y. If the
density of liquid y is 1.00 g/cm3, determine the density of liquid x.

28.The diagram below show a mercury manometer. Some dry gas is present in
the closed space. If the atmospheric pressure is 105000N/m 2 and density of
mercury 13600kg/m3, determine pressure of the gas (take g=10N/kg).

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 29.The barometric height in a town is 70cm mercury. Given that the standard
atmospheric pressure is 76cm mercury and the density of mercury is
13600kg/m3, determine the altitude of the town. (Density of air is
1.25kg/m3).
(Note: Standard pressure refers to the atmospheric pressure at sea level).

30. The figure below shows how to empty water from a large tank into a low
lying tank using rubber tubing.

a) Explain why the tube must be filled with water before the emptying process
starts.

b) Soon after the tank begins to empty the lower end is momentarily blocked by
placing a finger at end D.

I. Determine pressure difference between point A and D.

II. what will be the pressure experienced by the finger at point D. (take density
of water= 1000kg/m3 and pa= 100,000N/m2
III. The figure below shows a lift pump

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31. Explain why, when the piston is;
a) Pulled upwards, valve A opens while valve B closes.
b) Pushed downwards, valve A closes while valve B opens
c) After several strokes, water rises above the piston as shown below.

State how water is removed from the cylinder through the spout.
32.A lift pump can lift water up to a maximum height of 10m. determine the
maximum height to which the pump can raise paraffin.(take density of
paraffin as 800kgm-3and density of water as 1000kgm-3)

33.State one factor that determines the height to which a force pump can lift
water. The figure below shows a lift pump

Explain why, when the piston is;

(a) Pulled upwards, valve A opens while valve B closes.
(b) Pushed downwards, valve A closes while valve B opens
(c) After several strokes, water rises above the piston as shown below.

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34.State how water is removed from the cylinder through the spout.
35.A lift pump can lift water up to a maximum height of 10m. determine the
maximum height to which the pump can raise paraffin.(take density of paraffin
as 800kgm-3and density of water as 1000kgm-3)
36.State one factor that determines the height to which a force pump can lift
water.
37.A piston whose diameter is 1.4m is pushed into a cylinder containing a fluid,
If the pressure produced in the cylinder is 4.0 x 105 pa, Calculate the force
applied on the piston.
38. An octopus is resting in the ocean. If the octopus is at a depth of 47m in sea
whose water has a density of 1200 kg/m3, calculate the pressure experienced by
the octopus (Take atmospheric pressure = 1.0125 x 105 Pa)
39.Explain why if air gets in the brake system would reduce the efficiency of the
brakes. (2marks)
40.A concrete block of mass 50kg rests on the surface of the table as shown
below.

What is the maximum pressure that can be exerted on the bench by the
block?
41.A hole of area 4.0cm² at the bottom of a tank 5m deep is closed with a cork.
Determine the force on the cork when the tank is filled with water. (Take g =
10msˉ² and density of water = 1000kgmˉ³).

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42. A measuring cylinder of height 25cm is filled to a height of 15cm with water
and the rest is occupied by kerosene. Determine the pressure acting on its base
(density of water = 1gcmˉ³ density of kerosene = 0.8gcmˉ³ and atmospheric
pressure = 103,000pa).
43.State one advantage of hydraulic brakes over mechanical brakes.
44.Explain why a lady wearing sharp heeled shoes is not likely to skid on a
slippery muddy road.
45. Why does atmospheric pressure decrease towards higher altitude?
46.Show that Pressure in fluids is given by P= hρg
47.Give a reason why nose bleeding is likely to occur at the top of a mountain.
48. A block of glass of density 2.5g/cm 3 has dimensions 8 cm by 10cm by 15cm.
It is placed on one of its faces on a horizontal surface. Calculate:-
a) The weight of the block
b) The greatest pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface.
c) The least pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface.
49.The reading of a mercury barometer is 75.58 cm at the base of a mountain
and 66.37cm at the summit. Calculate the height of the mountain (Density of
mercury = 13.6g/m3 and density of air= 1.25kg/m3
50. In a hydraulic brake, the master piston has an area of4mm 2 and the wheel
piston each has an area of 4 cm 2. Find the forces applied to the wheel when a
force of 10N is applied on the master piston.
51.The figure below shows a hydraulic press

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The two pistons are of areas10mm2 and 20mm2 respectively. A force of 100N is
applied on the smaller piston, find the load that can be lifted on the larger
piston if:
a. The piston has negligible weight and no frictional forces exist.
b. The pistons have negligible weight and frictional10N and 40N respectively.
The smaller piston has the weight 5N the larger piston has a weight of 10N and
the frictional forces are negligible.

Chapter Five PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

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ASSIGNMENT :

WRITE THE FOLLOWING NOTES ON:

1)PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER.

2)THERMAL EXPANSION.

3)HEAT TRANSFER. [ONLY]

NB:TO BE CHECKED THE FIRST WEEK OF REPORTING AFTER THE

HOLIDAY.  The chalk dust is observed to be in constant random
motion. This is due to the continuous collision of chalk dust
particles with the water molecules which are in continuous
random motion.
Introduction
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Gases (The Smoke Cell
Experiment)

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.  Consider the set up below for the smoke cell experiment.
 Matter is not continuous but it is made up of every tiny particles
hence participate nature of matter.
 Particulate nature of matter therefore refers to the existence of
matter in very tiny particles.

Experiment to demonstrate that Matter is made up of Tiny Particles

i) Use of a Piece of Paper

 A piece of paper can be cut continuously until when the small
pieces cannot be cut into pieces any further. This suggests that
 Note: The smoke is introduced into the smoke cell by
the sheet of paper is made of tiny pieces of paper. Hence matter
burning the straw and letting the smoke fill the smoke cell
is made up of tiny particles.
from the other end. Smoke is used here because smoke
particles are light and bright.
 The converging lens is used to focus/ concentrate
converge the light to the smoke cell thereby illuminating
the smoke.Themicroscope assists the observer see the
illuminated smoke particles clearly.
 The bright specks are observed moving randomly in the
ii) Diluting Potassium Permanganate Solution
smoke cell.The bright specks are the smoke particles which
 The process of diluting purple potassium manganese (VII) can
scatter / reflect light shining on them. They move
continue until the solution appears colorless.
randomly due to continuous collision with invisible air
 This suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate are
particles which are in continuous random motion.
spread evenly in water and each dilution process spread them
further. This is a proof that matter is made up of tiny particles
which can be separated.

Explain why it is possible to dissolve sugar in water without any noticeable

increases in volume of water.The sugar particles occupy the small
intermolecular spaces of water molecules. This behaviour of sugar suggests
that matter is made up of very tiny particles.

Brownian motion

 Brownian motion refers to the random movement of liquid and

gas particles.

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To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Liquids

 Consider the set- up alongside in which chalk dust is sprinkled

on the surface of water in the beaker and the beaker covered
using a transparent lid. The behaviour of chalk dust is then
observed with the help of a hand lens as shown below.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter Example

 The above experiments on Brownian motion constitute the Using a block diagram and correct terminology show how one state
kinetic theory of matter which states that matter is made up of of matter changes to the other when the temperature is changed.
Define all terminologies used.
tiny particles which are in continuous random motion.
i) Melting- is the process by which a solid changes to a liquid at
Arrangement of Particles in Matter
fixed temperature.
ii) Evaporation - is the process by which a liquid changes to a
Solids gas at any temperature.
iii) Condensation - is the process by which a gas changes to a
 Particles are closely packed together in an organized manner liquid at fixed temperature.
and in fixed position. iv) Freezing - is the process by which a liquid changes to a
 Particles in solid do not move randomly but instead vibrate solid at fixed temperature.
about their fixed positions (vibratory motion) because of very v) Sublimation - is the process by which a solid changes to
strong intermolecular force (cohesive force).This explains why gas directly without passing the liquid state.
solids have fixed volume and definite shape. vi) Deposition - is the process by which a gas changes to
solid directly without passing the liquid state.

Diffusion

 Diffusion refers to the process by which particles spread

from region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration. Noticeable diffusion takes place in liquids
and gases due to their continuous random motion.
Liquids
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids
 Particles in liquids are not closely fixed as in solids but move
 Consider the set up below used to investigate diffusion in
about randomly (Brownian motion). This is because the
liquids. Concentrated copper (II) sulphate (blue in colour) is
intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than those in solids.
carefully and slowly introduced into the beaker through a
 The same reason explains why liquids have no fixed shape but
funnel to obtain two layers.
assume the shape of the container.
 The intermolecular force in liquids is stronger than in gases a
reason as to why liquidshave fixed volume but gases don’t.

Gases

 Particles in gases are further apart and have an increased  After some time, it is observed that the boundary between
random motion compared to liquid particles. the two liquids disappears and a homogenous pale blue
 This is because of very weak intermolecular forces in gases mixture is obtained. This is because there is a greater rate

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particles as compared to liquids and solids. The same reason of movement of water particles from the water layer to
explains why gases have no definite shape and volume. copper (II) sulphate layer. At the same time there is greater
movement of copper (II) sulphate particles from the
copper (II) sulphate layer to the water layer.
 Note: If hot liquids are used, formation of the mixture will
be faster because the particles move faster due to
increased kinetic energy.

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 Demonstrating Diffusion in Gases (b) On the diagram, show the observation
(c) If the experiment was performed at a high temperature will you
 Consider the set up below used to demonstrate diffusion in expect it to take longer or shorter time to form white deposit?
gases Explain.
Shorter time. This is because an increase in temperature increases
the kinetic energy of the particles of the gases and hence
increased rate of diffusion of the gases.

Diffusion through Porous Materials

 When the cardboard is removed and the two jars pressed

together, it is observed that a homogenous pale brown mixture
forms in the two jars. This is because bromine gas spreads into
gas jar containing air at a greater rate. At the same time air
spreads into gas jar containing bromine at a greater rate.
 Note: Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids because:
(a) Gases have low density.
(b) Gases have high kinetic energy.
(c) Gases very weak cohesive forces.

Rates of Diffusion of Gases  Initially, hydrogen gas diffuses into the porous pots at a
faster rate than air diffusing out. As a result, air bubbles
 Different gases have different rates of diffusion depending on out of water as shown in figure i).
their density or relative masses.  When the gas supply is stopped hydrogen gas diffuse out
 A gas with a higher density has heavier particles and therefore of the pot through the fine holes at a faster rate than air
its rate of diffusion is lower than the gas with lower density. gets back into the pot. This decreases the gas pressure in
the pot and as a result the higheratmospheric pressure
Example acting on the water surface in the beaker to pushes water
up the tube as in figure ii).
 In the figure below, ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas diffuse and Note:The beaker is used to confine the hydrogen gas
react.
around the porous pot. It is obvious that air is denser than
hydrogen gas.

(a) State and explain the observation made after sometime.

 A white deposit is formed near the cotton wool soaked in concentrated in
hydrochloric acid. The ammonia gas is less dense and has light particles
thus it will diffuse faster than the hydrochloric gas which is dense.

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Revision Exercise

1. What is matter?
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment that you would use
to show that matter is made up of tiny particles.
3. During a class discussion, Emmanuel observed that Brownian motion
was only exhibited by small particles.
(a) Is this observation correct?
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
4. State the kinetic theory of matter.
5. Distinguish between the three states of matter in terms of the
intermolecular forces.
6. What factor determines the state of matter?
7. Explain why solids are not compressible while gases are.
8. Define Brownian motion.
9. During Brownian motion experiment, the smoke particles must be
small and light. Explain why it is necessary that the particles be light.
10. Smoke is introduced into smoke cell which is then viewed under a
microscope.
(a) What do you observe through the microscope?
(b) What conclusion can be drawn from this observation?
11. Temperature affects Brownian motion. Explain.
12. Lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on a clean water surface in a
large tray. A red hot needle is plunged into the centre of the water
surface. State and explain what is observed.
13. Define diffusion.
14. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the process of diffusion in;
(i) Liquids
(ii) Gases.
15. Name and explain the factors that affect the rate of diffusion in gases.

Chapter SixTHERMAL EXPANSION

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Definition Thermometric Liquids

 Thermal expansion refers to increase in volume of a body when  They include:

heated. a) Mercury
b) Alcohol
c) Oil of creosote
Temperature
Properties of a Good Thermometric Liquid
 Temperature is the degree (extent) of hotness or coldness of a
body on some chosen scale. a) It should not wet glass.
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer and it is a basic b) It should expand uniformly (regularly).
quantity whose SI unit is the Kelvin. c) It should be a good conductor of heat.
 Degree Celsius (0C) is another unit in which temperatures can be d) It should be visible.
measured. e) It should have high boiling point.
 Temperature is a scalar quantity. f) It should have low freezing point.
 Note:Water cannot be used as a thermometer liquid
Thermometers because:
(a) It wets glass,
 A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. (b) It expands irregularly (anomalously),
There are many types of thermometers, each designed for a (c) It is a bad conductor of heat,
specific use. (d) It is invisible (colourless),
(e) It has a relatively high freezing point.
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer (Common Thermometer)
Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric
 The liquid commonly used in a liquid – in – glass thermometer is
Liquids
mercury. Alcohol can also be used.
 Note: A liquid used in thermometer is commonly known as Mercury Alcohol
thermometric liquid.

Features of a Liquid –In – Glass Thermometer It has a high boiling point It has a low boiling point
(3570C). (780C).
(a)
It has a relatively higher It has a low melting point
melting point (– 390C). (-1150C).

It is a good thermal It is a poor thermal

conductor. conductor.
A Bulb
 Contains the thermometric liquid. It is thin walled to increase It expands regularly. Its expansion is slightly
sensitivity of the thermometer (i.e. allow quick transfer of heat). irregular.
(b) Capillary Bore
 It allows the liquid in the bulb to rise and fall when temperature It does not wet glass. It wets glass.
changes.
 It has a small diameter to increase its accuracy so that a small It is opaque and silvery. It is transparent and
change in temperature can easily be measured. therefore has to be
(c) Glass Stem coloured to make it visible.
 It is made up of thick glass to strengthen the thermometer and
therefore protect the liquid inside.  Notes
 Thick glass also acts as a magnifying glass to magnify the liquid I. Alcohol thermometer is the best for use in very cold
thread. conditions becauseits freezing point is very low (-1150c)
but cannot be used in a very high temperature because

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 its boiling point is relatively low (78 0C).
II. Mercury thermometers is best for use in high
temperature because of its high boiling points (357 0c) but
cannot be used in very low temperature because it has a
relatively high freezing point (-390c).

Calibrating Liquid-in –Glass Thermometer 1) An uncalibrated mercury thermometer is attached to a cm scale

which reads 14 cm in pure melting ice and 30cm in steam. If it
 A thermometer has two main fixed points: reads 10 cm in freezing mixture, what is the temperature of the
I. The upper fixed point (1000c) freezing mixture?
0
II. The lower fixed point (0c) o ¿ melting ice , 14 cm corresponds¿ 0 C
 The upper fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the o 0
¿ steam , 30 cmcorresponds ¿ 100 ¿ C
thermometer in steam of water boiling at standard atmospheric
pressure of 76 cmHg.
o ∴ 1000 C−00 C corresponds¿ 30 cm−14 cm
0
 The lower fixed point is marked by putting the bulb of the
o 100 C corresponds 16 cmlength
0
thermometer in pure melting ice. 1cm ×100 C 0
 The range between upper fixed point and lower fixed point is
o 1 cm corresponds ¿ =6.25 C
16 cm
sub divided into equal divisions of 10C each. o Temperature of the freezing mixtureis :
0 0 0
The Celsius (Centigrade) and Kelvin (Thermodynamic Temperature) 0 C+(10−14)× 6.25 C=−25 C
Scale
2) A faulty thermometer reads 18 ℃ at ice point and 80 ℃ at
 The Celsius scale has fixed points at 0 0C and 1000C while the steam point. Determine the correct temperature when it reads
Kelvin scale has fixed points at 273 K for pure melting ice and 60 ℃.
373 K for steam or pure boiling water at standard atmospheric 0 0
o At ice point , 18 C corresponds¿ actually 0 C
pressure. o
 Temperature on Celsius scale and Kelvin scale are related by: 0 0
At steam point , 80 C corresponds ¿ actually 100 C
T ( K )=θ ( ℃ ) +273. o
0 0 0 0
Absolute Zero Temperature (80 C−18 C)corresponds ¿ actually(100 C−0 C)
o 620 C faulty corresponds¿ actually 100 0 C
 This is the lowest temperature on Kelvin scale in which the o
energy of the particles in a material is zero. 0 0
 Its value is zero Kelvin (-2730C). 0 1 C ×100 C 0
1 C faulty corresponds ¿ actually 0
=1.6 C
62 C
o
0
Correct temperature when faulty one reads 60 C is:
0 ℃+ ( 60−18 ) ×1.6 ℃=67.2 ℃

Exercise

1) A faulty mercury thermometer reads 15 ℃ when dipped into

melting ice and 95 ℃ when in steam at normal atmospheric
pressure. What would this thermometer read when dipped into
a liquid at 25 ℃
2) When marking the fixed points on a thermometer it is observed
Examples that at 0 ℃ the mercury thread is of length 2cm and 9 cm at

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3) Convert each of the following from Celsius to Kelvin 100 ℃. What temperature would correspond to a length of
(Hint :use T ( K )=θ ( ℃ ) +273.) 4cm?
a) -200C
T =−20+273=253 K Clinical Thermometer
b) 00C
 It is a special type of thermometer used for measuring
T =0+273=273 K
human body temperature whose temperature range is
c) 100C
about 350C- 430C.
T =10+273=283 K
d) -2730C

T =−273+273=0 K
0
4) Convert each of the following from Kelvin to C
(Hint :use θ ( ℃ )=T ( K )−273.)  The tube has a constrictionwhichbreaks the mercury thread
a) 0K for temperature reading to be taken.
θ=0−273=−273 C
0  After the thermometer has been read the mercury is
b) 167K returned to bulb by a lightly shaking the thermometer.
0  Methylated spirit is used to sterilize the thermometer after
θ=167−273=−106 C use.
c) 283K
 Note: clinical thermometer cannot be sterilized by boiling
θ=283−273=10 ℃
water because it will break since the boiling point of water
d) 3450K
is far above the temperature range of the thermometer.
θ=3450−273=3177 ℃
Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
 This thermometer records the maximum and minimum
temperature reached in a place during a specified period of
time, say a day.

Observation: When the ball is heated, it does not pass

through the ring but when it is left on the ring for
sometimes it passes through. Explanation: When heated,
the ball expands and so cannot go through the ring. When
it is left on the ring for some time the temperature of the
ball decreases and the ball contracts. At the same time the
ring absorbs some heat from the ball its temperature
increases and so it expands allowing the ball to pass
through.

2. The Bar and Gauge Experiment

Question

In the figure below, at room temperature, the bar fits into the gauge.
Mode of Operation of the Six’s Thermometer

 When temperature rises, the alcohol in bulb R expands and

pushes the mercury up the right limb of the u- tube. The
mercury pushes index Y upwards. The lower end of this index
indicates the maximum temperature reached during the

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 specified period.
 When temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb R contracts and
mercury is pulled back, rising up in the left limb. The index X is
therefore pushed upwards. During contraction of alcohol, the
index Y is left behind in the alcohol by the falling mercury. The
minimum temperature is read from the lower end of index X.
To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel
indices to the mercury surfaces.

Expansion and Contraction of Solids (a) Explain what would happen when the bar is heated and you try
to fit it in the gauge.
 When solids are heated they expand (increase in size/ volume) The bar does not fit into the gauge because it expands when
and when cooled they contract (decrease in size/ volume). heated.
Mass of the solid does not change when it contracts or expands. (b) Consider a case where the bar is slightly bigger than the gauge
 Density of the solid increases when the body is cooled (because at room temperature. Explain what you will do to make the bar
volume decreases) and it decreases when the body is heated fit into the gauge.
(because volume increases). Heat the gauge so that it expands and the bar will fit.

Experiments to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction of Solids

Comparing Expansion and Contraction of Different Metals
1. The Ball and Ring Experiment
 The ball and ring experiment apparatus are as shown in the Question
figure below. The ball just passes through the ring at room An experiment was set to compare the expansion of different metals
temperature and pressure. as shown below.

Example

The figure below shows a bimetallic strip at a room temperature

(250C)

(a) Explain how the experiment works

o When the metal bar is heated it expands and pushes the pivoted
pointer and the reading is taken on the scale. Metal bars of the same
size made of different materials are attached to the clamp one at a
time and heated for the same length of time. The readings on the i) Draw the same bimetallic strip when at 900c. Explain the
scale are recorded and compared. observation.
(b) What precautions should be taken to ensure fair result
i) The metals should be of same length and diameter.
ii) The metals should be heated using same burner.
The metal should be heated for same length of time.

Linear Expansivity
When temperature increases above room temperature aluminum
 Linear expansivity is the tendency of a material to expand when expands at a faster rate than copper.
heated. Different materials have different linear expansivities

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 meaning that their rates of expansion or contraction are not the
same except a few materials. ii) Draw the bimetallic strip when at -25 0C. Explain the
 The unit of linear expansivity is measured inper Kelvin. The observation.
following are some examples;

Material Linear Expansivity (K-1)

Aluminum 26 x10-6
When temperature decreases below room temperature aluminum
Brass 19x10-6 contracts at a faster rate than copper.

Copper 16.8x10-6
Applications of Expansion and Contraction of Solids
Iron 12x10 -6
1) Expansion joints in Steam Pipes
 Pipes carrying steam are fitted with loops or expansion
Concrete 11x10-6 joints to allow for expansion when steam is passing
through them and contraction when they are cooled.
Steel 11x10-6 Without the loop the force of expansion and contraction
will cause breakage of the pipes.

The Bimetallic Strip

 Bimetallic strip is made by riveting together two metals of

different linear expansivities. The metal which expands at a
higher rate when heated contracts faster when cooled.
 Consider a bimetallic strip made of iron and brass at room
temperature and pressure in figure (a) below. Brass has a higher
linear expansivity than iron and therefore expands at a faster
rate than iron. When the strip is heated to a temperature
greater than room temperature it bends towards iron as shown
in figure (b) and when the strip is cooled, it bends towards brass
as shown in figure (c) below.

2. Fixing of Railway Line 5. Installation of Telephone/ Electric Wires

 Railway lines are constructed in sections with expansion gaps  They are loosely fixed to allow for contraction. Telephone
and the sections held together by fishplates. The bolt holes in or electric wires appear to be shorter and taut in the
the rails are oval to allow free expansion and contraction of rails morning. When it is hot, the wires appear longer and
as the bolts move freely in the holes. slackened.
 A modern method of allowing for expansion and contraction in
railways is to plane slant the rails so that they overlap.

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 6. The Bimetallic Metal Application
 One of the most common application of a bimetallic strip is
in the in the thermostat. A thermostat is a device for
maintaining a steady temperature. The thermostat shown
3. Fixing of Steel Bridges below is used for controlling the temperature of an iron
 In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the other box. A heater circuit is connected through the electrical
end placed on rollers to allow for expansion and contraction. terminals.

 If the iron box becomes too hot the bimetallic strip bends
4. Rivets curving away from the lower contact. This breaks the
 Thick metal plates in ships and other structures are joined contacts and switches off the heater. When it cools, the
together by means of rivets. A rivet is fitted when hot and then bimetallic strip bends closing up the gap between the
hammered flat. On cooling it contracts pulling the two plates contacts and the heater is switched on again.
firmly together.  If the iron box is required to be very hot (i.e. high
temperature), the setting knob is adjusted to push the
metal K such that the contacts are tight together. For low
temperature range the adjusting knob is released so that
the position K is lowered.
 Thermostat is also used to control the temperature of
electric cookers, electric heaters for warming rooms, and
fridges.

Expansion and Contraction of Liquids

To Demonstrate Expansion of Liquids

 Consider the flask below filled with colored water as shown

below.

Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water

1) Support Aquatic Life in Polar Countries During Winter

 During winter water freezers into ice. Ice being less dense
than water floats on water. Since ice is a poor conductor of

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 heat, it insulates the water below against heat loss to air
above it.

2) Anomalous expansion of water leads to formation of ice

bags which pose a great danger to ships.
3) It causes weathering of rocks since when water trapped in
freezes; it expands thus breaking rocks into small pieces.
4) It causes bursting of water pipes when water freezers in
them.
 When the flask is heated it is observed that water in the glass
tube falls slightly and then starts rising. Expansion of Gases
 The initial fall of the water level in the tube is due to expansion
of the flask which gets heated first. The water starts expanding Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion and Contraction of
when heat finally reaches it and it rises up the tube since liquids Gases
expand faster than solids.
 Note: Different liquids expand differently (i.e. they have  Consider the set up below which can be used to
different rates of expansion) demonstrate expansion and contraction of gases.
 If the above experiment was repeated using alcohol and then
methylated spirit for the same length of time and using same
heater, it would have been noted that methylated spirit expands
most followed by alcohol and finally water.

Anomalous Expansion of Water

 Anomalous expansion of water is defined as the unusual

behavior of water in which it contracts when heated and
expands when cooled between 0 and 40C.
 Consider heating ice from -80C until it changes to water and its
temperature increases to 80C. A plot of volume verses
temperature for the water is as in figure (a) while density verses
temperature is as in figure (b) below.

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 When the flask is warmed, it is observed that the level of water 7) The figure below represents a bimetallic strip of metals X and Y
column inside the glass tube drops indicating that the air has at room temperature
expanded. When the flask is warmed further, some bubbles are
seen at the end of the tube in water as air escapes from the
flask.
 When the flask is cooled, water level is observed to rise up the
glass tube because the air inside the flask contracts to create The figure below shows its shape when dipped into crushed ice
space.

Examples

1) The figure below shows a beam balance made out of concrete and
reinforced with steel
Sketch a diagram in the space given below to show the shape when
the strip is heated to a temperature above the room temperature

Use a diagram to explain the behaviour of the shape of the beam when
heated up.

8) Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel does

not crack when subjected to Changes in temperature.
Both concrete and steel have same rates of expansion. Their
The beam expands linearly. The beam remains straight but longer than value of linear expansivity is 11x10-6K
before heating. Both concrete and steel have same rates of expansion. Their
value of linear expansivity is 11x10-6K 9) Aquatic animals and plants are observed to survive in frozen
ponds. Explain this observation.
2) State two liquids which are used in thermometer. Alcohol and Water freezes and the ice formed floats in water because its
Mercury. density is less than that of water, insulating water below it.
3) With a reason, state which of the two liquids in 3 (a) above is used to Temperatures increases down the pond because of anomalous
measure temperature in areas where temperatures are: expansion of water.
(i) Below -400C alcohol, because it has a low freezing point of –115oC.

(ii) 1500C, mercury, because it has a high boiling point of 357oC,

4) What do you understand by the statement ‘lower fixed point’ on a

temperature scale?
This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard/normal
atmospheric pressure;
5) Name two adaptations that can be made to a mercury thermometer
to make it more sensitive.
Using a thin walled bulb Using a narrower capillary
tube
6) The figure below shows a bimetallic strip made of brass and iron. A
marble is placed at end A of the bimetallic strip as shown below:-

State and explain what will be observed when the bimetallic strip is
strongly cooled

On cooling, the brass contracts more than iron, hence become shorter than
iron and forms upwards curve, making the marble to roll and settle at the
centre of the curve.

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 Revision Exercise Explain how rise in temperature causes the pointer to move
in the direction shown.
1. One property of a liquid that is considered while constructing a liquid 9. In the set up shown in figure below, it is observed that the level
in glass thermometer is that the liquid expands more than the glass of water initially drops before starting to rise. Explain.
for the same temperature change. State any other two properties of
the liquids that are considered.
2. Give a reason why a concrete beam reinforced with steel does not
crack when subjected to change in temperature
3. Explain why a glass container with thick walls is more likely to crack
than one with a thin wall when a very hot liquid is poured into it.
4. Figure below shows a circuit diagram for controlling the temperature
of a room.

i) State and explain the purpose of the bimetallic strip.

ii) Describe how the circuit controls the temperature when 10. Give a reason why water is not suitable liquid for use in a
the switch S is closed. thermometer.
5. Figure below shows a fire alarm circuit. 11. The temperature of water in a measuring cylinder is lowered
from about 200c to 00c. Sketch a graph of volume against
temperature assuming that water does not freeze.
12. Figure below shows a flask filled with water. The flask is fitted
with a cork through which a tube is inserted. When the flask is
cooled the water level rises slightly and then falls steadily.
Explain.
Explain how the alarm functions
6. Figure below shows a bimetallic strip at room temperature. Brass
expands more than invar when heated equally.

Sketch the bimetallic strip after being cooled several degrees

below room temperature
7. Figure below shows a bimetallic thermometer.

13. A clinical thermometer has a constriction in the bore just above

the bulb. State the use of this constriction.
14. Figure below shows an aluminum tube tightly stuck in a steel
tube.

8. Figure below shows a flat bottomed flask containing some water. It is

heated directly with a very hot flame. Explain why the flask is likely to
crack.
Explain how the two tubes can be separated by applying a
temperature change at the same junction given that
aluminum expands more than steel for the same
temperature rise.
15. In an experiment to investigate the unusual expansion of water
a fixed mass of water at 0 0C was heated until its temperature
reached 200C. On the axis provided, sketch a graph of density
against temperature of the water from 00c to 200C.

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 Chapter Seven HEAT TRANSFER
Definition of Heat  Wood
 Air
 Heat is a form of energy which flows from a point of higher  Water
temperature to another point of low temperature.  Rubber
 Plastic
Differences between Heat and Temperature
 Glass
HEAT TEMPERATURE
Example

Form of energy that flows Degree of hotness or The figure below shows pieces of wood and iron of equal length and
due to temperature coldness of a body in some diameter maintained in contact by a sheet of paper. A flame is then
passed over the paper several times.
difference. chosen scale.

The flow of heat cannot be Can be measured accurately

measured precisely. using a thermometer.
State and explain the observation made:
SI unit and joules (J). SI unit is Kelvin (k).
The paper gets blacked on the region covering the wooden rod. This is
because wood is a poor conductorof heat and therefore does not
conduct heat from the paper and therefore the paper burns. Iron is a
Modes of Heat Transfer good conductor of heat and conducts heat away from the paper.

 There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
and radiation.
1. Nature of Materials
Conduction  Nature of material means what the material is made of.
 Consider the set up below.
 Conduction is the transfer of heat within an object without the
movement of the object as a whole.

Mechanisms of Heat Conduction

(a) Vibration of molecules

(b) Through free electrons
Classification of Materials In Terms of Conduction
 Materials can be classified as good or poor conductors in terms
of heat conduction.
(a) Good Conductors
 It is observed that the wax attached to copper drops first
Good conductors are materials that can allow heat to pass through followed by that on aluminum, iron lead and that of wood
them e.g. did not drop since wood is a poor conductor.
 Copper Precautions
 Silver
 Aluminium (a) Rods of same diameter to be used.
 Brass (b) Rods equal length to be used.
 Mercury (c) Wax of the same size to be used.
 Iron
 Zinc
 Tin
 Lead etc.
(b) Poor Conductors (Insulators)

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 These are materials which do not readily allow heat to pass
through them e.g.

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2. The Thickness/ Diameter/ Cross Section Area of the Conductor  It is observed that wax on rod B dropped first. Therefore,
 Consider the set up below; thermal conductivity increases with decrease in length of
the conductor.
Precautions
(a) Rods placed at equal distance from heat source.
 It is observed that the wax on the thicker iron rod drops first. (b) Rods of same material used.
This is because more heat flows through a thicker conductor per (c) Wax of the same size used.
unit time. (d) Rods of same thickness used.
 Therefore, conductivity of conductors increases with thickness
Lagging
of the conductor.
Precautions  Lagging refers to the covering of a good conductor of heat
(a) Equal time of exposure of the rods to heat. with an insulating material to reduce heat loss through
(b) Equal length and type of rods used. surface effects.
(c) Same size of wax used.  Consider the set up below;
(d) Rods placed at equal distances from the heat source.

3. Temperature Difference
 Consider the set ups A and B below.

 Plots of temperature variation from the hot end to the cold

end with lagging and without lagging on same axes will be
as follows;

 It is observed that wax in set up B dropped first because of

greater temperature different than in A. Therefore, heat is
transferred faster when temperature difference is greater.

Precautions
(a) The rods of equal diameter used.
(b) Rods of equal length used.
(c) Wax of same size used.
Applications of Lagging
(d) Wax placed at equal distance from one end of the rod in each
case.  Iron pipes carrying steam from boilers or steam wells are
(e) Rods of same material used. covered with thick asbestos material which is an insulator
to reduce heat loss from steam.
2. Length of the Conductor
 Consider the set up below; Thermal conductivity In Liquids

 Liquids are generally poor conductors of heat.

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 To Demonstrate that Water is a Poor Conductor Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
Experiment 1 (a) Cooking utensils and boilers are made of metals that
 Consider the set up below for demonstrating that water is a conduct heat rapidly while their handles are made of
poor conductor of heat. insulators (poor conductors).
 (b) Modern buildings are made of double walls with an
insulator between the walls to minimize heat loss from the
house and therefore maintain stable temperature.
(c) Fire fighters put on suits made of asbestos which is a poor
conductor of heat to keep them safe while putting off fire.
(d) Birds flap their wings after getting wet to introduce air
pockets within their feathers this helps to minimize heat
loss from their bodies.
 After sometimes it is observed that water at the top of the tube (e) In experiments involving heating liquids in glass vessel. The
boils while the ice remained unmelted. Water is a poor vessel is placed on a wire gauge because the gauge is a
conductor of heat. Glass used for making test tube is also a poor good conductor of heat it therefore spreads the heat to a
conductor of heat. large area of the vessel.

Convection
Experiment 2
 Another experiment than can be used to show that water is a  Convection is the process by which heat is transferred
poor conductor of heat is as shown below. through fluids.

To Demonstrate Convection in Liquids

Experiment 1

 Consider the diagram below in which potassium

permanganate crystal is put at one corner in a beaker
containing water and the beaker heated at that point.

 It is observed that the wax coating on beaker containing

mercury melted while that on beaker containing water did not
melt. This is because mercury is a good conductor of heat while
water is a poor conductor heat.

Thermal Conductivity in Gases

 Gases are poor conductors of heat. The set up below can be  After sometime, it is observed that a purple coloration rises
used to support this fact. up from potassium permanganate forming a circular loop.
This is due to creation of convection currents in water.

Experiment 2

Consider the set up below

 It is observed that the match stick held within the unburnt gas
region does not get ignited because gas is a poor conductor of
heat.

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 It is observed that the purple colouration of potassium 2. Engine Cooling System
permanganate moves in the anti- clockwise direction in the  Engine cooling is enhanced byboth conduction and
tube. This is due to creation of convection current by heat convection processes.
whose direction is anti-clockwise

Convection in Gases

 Consider the set up shown below.

 The metal surface conducts away heat from engine. This

heats up the water setting up convection currents which
circulates as shown in the diagram.
 The hot water is pumped into the radiator which has thin
 It is observed that the smoke is sucked into the box through copper fins that conduct away heat from the water.
chimney P and exits through chimney Q.This is due to  The fins are made of copper because it is the best
convection currents which are set up when the air in the box is conductor of heat. They are painted black because a black
heated. surface is a good absorber of heat.
 Fast flowing air past fins speeds up the cooling process.
APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION IN FLUIDS
3. Domestic Hot Water System
1. Ventilation
 Ventilation refers to the supply of fresh air to the room.

 Warm air exhaled by the occupants of the room rises and gets
out through ventilators since it is less dense. Fresh cold air flows
into the room through windows and doors. This way convection
current is set up and there is always supply of fresh air.

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 Hot water rises up because of the lowering of its density when Application of Thermal Radiation
heated.
 Cold watermovedown from the cold water tank to the boiler 1. Solar Heater
because it is relatively heavier.
 The expansion pipe has an outlet for excess water that could
have resulted from overheating
 The pipe that conveys the hot water and the cylinder arelagged
to minimize heat losses.

Thermal Radiation

 Thermal radiation is the process by which heat is transferred

through vacuum. In thermal radiation therefore matter is not
involved in transfer of heat
 It is through this process of radiation that radiant heat reaches
the earth’s surface from the sun.
 The higher the temperature of a body the more the amount of
thermal radiation.

Absorption and Emission of Radiant Heat

 A good absorber of radiant heat is also a good emitter of radiant

heat while a poor absorber of radiant heat is also a poor emitter
of the heat.
 Consider the set up below.

 Copper pipeis used because it is a good conductor of heat

and will conduct heat into the water inside the pipe. It is
painted black colour is a good absorber of heat.
 The glass coverallow radiant heat from the sun to pass
through and prevents the weaker energy emitted after.
 The black copper collectorabsorbs heat energy and
conducts it to copper pipes which transmit it to the water.
 The insulating materialprevents heat from being lost from
the pipe.
 It is observed that water level in limb A rises up while that in  The copper pipeis coiled severally to increase surface area
limb B falls. This is because boiling tube B receives more heat for absorption of heat.
than boiling tube A warming the air inside it more. The air
expands and therefore pushes down the water in limb B. As a
result water level in limb A rises.

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2. Thermos Flask 3. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted
with bright colours to reflect away heat while those in cold
areas have walls and roofs painted silvery bright to reflect
as much heat as possible back to the house.
4. Kettle, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished surfaces
to reduce heat loss through thermal radiation

Revision Exercise

1. Two similar open tins with equal amounts of water at

800c were left to cool. If tin A is shiny and tin B is
blackened, sketch on the same axes the graphs of
temperature against time for the two tins.
2. The figure below shows a box with two glass tubes A and
B projecting from the top of a rectangular wooden box
 The stopper rubber pad and rubber ring pad prevent heat loss with removable glass front.
through conduction since rubber is a poor conductor of heat
 Silvered wall prevents heat loss through radiation since the
shinny surface is a poor radiator and emitter of heat.
 Vacuum prevent heat loss through conduction and convection
since the two modes of heat transfer require material medium
for transfer of heat.
 Shock absorber prevents breaking of the glass walls due to
pressure from the outside.
 Vacuum seal prevents air from reoccupying the vacuum. It is
through the vacuum seal that air was sucked out.
(i) What will be the direction of the smoke through
3. Green House Effect (Heat Trap) the box?
 Green house effect is a phenomenon in which heat is allowed to (ii) What conclusion can be made from the
pass through a transparent material but does not penetrate to observation?
the outside. This way heat accumulates in the green house (iii) Why are the ventilations for a room made high up
continuously. the roof?
 Green houses are used to provide appropriate conditions in 3. Study the set up below and use it to answer the questions
plants especially in cold areas. that follows:

4. Solar Concentrators

 Concave reflector is used to reflect radiant heat from the sun (a) What does the experiment illustrates?
into a common point (focus). Temperature at this point is very (b) What two factors should one consider when selecting
high therefore the concentrated heat can be used for purposes the rod to be used?
like heating water. (c) State the observations made in this experiment.

4. Explain the Greenhouse effect.

5. Name two examples of greenhouse gases.

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 1. The diagram below shows the essential features of a solar
heating panel. A small electric pump circulates the liquid
through the pipes.

State briefly why:

i. The pipes and metal plates are blackened.

ii. There is a material fibre glass on the panel.
2. The figure below shows an electric iron.

Two
metal plates A and B are riveted to form a bimetal strip as used
above.

(i) Which metal expands more

(ii) Explain how the electric iron works when the power is
on

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