CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL SLAUGHTERING, DRESSING CUTTING AND MEAT GRADING

2. 1. Preparing livestock for stunning

Animals should be adequately rested, preferably overnight, particularly if they have travelled for
sometimes over long distances. However, pigs and poultry are usually slaughtered on arrival as time and
distances covered while travelling is relatively short and holding in pens is stressful for them. Animals
should be watered while holding in pens. When ready for slaughter, animals should be driven to the
stunning area in a quiet and orderly manner. Animals should never be beaten nor have their tails twisted.
Animals should be held in appropriate restraining device(s) before stunning or bleeding to ensure stability
of the animal so that the stunning operation can be carried out properly.
Before slaughter, livestock should be fasted for 12-24 hours to:
o Makes evisceration easier.
o Minimise migration of bacteria from Gastro-Intestinal tract to the muscles;
o and should be given free access to water because it facilitates electrical stunning,
o provides for easier blood and pelt removal, and brightens lean colour.
2. 2. Stunning
It is desirable to render an animal unconscious before it is slaughtered in order to eliminate pain,
discomfort and stress from the procedure. The animal should be rendered unconscious for long enough as
during bleeding, death should occur before the animal would have regained consciousness. There are three
main technologies used to effect stunning: Percussion (mechanical), Electrical and Gas. If the tongue is
hanging straight down, limp and floppy, the animal is definitely stunned: if it is curled this is a sign of
possible sensibility. The heads of poultry that have been stunned with electricity should hang straight
down after stunning. Birds that have not been properly stunned will show a strong righting reflex and raise
their heads. . Stunned animals should be bled immediately after stunning.
2.2.1. Percussion stunning
This method produces a physical shock to the brain and can be done using captive bolt or gunshot.
a) Captive bolt
This method works on the principle of a gun and fires a blank cartridge and it propels a short bolt (metal
rod) that penetrates the skull bone and produces concussion by damaging the brain or increasing
intracranial pressure, causing bruising of the brain. The captive bolt is suitable for cattle, pigs, sheep and
goats as well as horses and camels stunning.
b) Gunshot
When the animals are too fractious to be handled in the normal way, such as when they cannot be loaded
on the farm or led into the stunning restraint, gunshot with a free, soft-nosed bullet is effective. A 22-
calibre bullet is sufficient for most animals. If the animal is to be slaughtered on a farm, it should be
accurately shot while standing or lying on soft ground to prevent the bullet from ricocheting.
2.2.2. Electrical Stunning
This method of stunning is well suited for pigs, sheep or goats and poultry ostriches. Its use in cattle or
other large species may result in excessive haemorrhage in the muscles or spinal fractures. Electrical
stunning induces electroplectic shock or epileptic state in the brain. The strength of the current is a
combination of amperage and voltage appropriate for the species. Approximate current/time guides for
different species are presented in the table 3.
Poultry can be stunned electrically using a water bath. Here birds are dragged through a trough of water
supplied with a low-voltage current.

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Table 3: Recommended current and time characteristics for electrical stunning
Species Amps Volts Time (sec).
Pig (bacon/porker) min. 1.25 max. 125 max. 10 (until EPS*)
Sheep/goat 1.0-1.25 75-125 Max. 10 (until EPS*)
Poultry 1.5-2 kg broiler 2.0 50-70 5
turkey 2.0 90 10
* EPS is electroplectic shock.
Electrical stunning is also used for fish stunning.
2.2.3. Gas stunning
The use of carbon dioxide (CO 2) gas is a method of stunning suitable for pigs and poultry. Animals are
stunned using various concentrations of CO2 in the air. Concentrations of CO2 for the stunning of pigs are
about at least 80 % in air for 45 seconds and for poultry about 65% for 15 seconds. Currently Argon gas
is being tested for stunning purposes but the costs may be higher than that of CO2.
About one third of world fish consumption now comes from fish farms. Trials on killing methods used in
some farmed fish shown that their stunning with CO2 resulted in an acidosis at slaughter and meat with
more gaping and softer texture compared with fish killed by concussion. CO2 stunning causes considerable
stress in salmon and trout, and it is falling from favour. Using deoxygenated water of live chilling-CO2
stunning systems are less stressful.
2. 3. Bleeding
Bleeding is the part of the slaughter process where the main blood vessels of the neck are severed in order
to allow blood to drain from the carcass, resulting in the death of the animal from cerebral anoxia. The
bleeding knife should continuously be sharpened. Incisions should be swift and precise. In poultry, sheep,
and goats, the throat is cut behind the jaw. The standard method for the bleeding of cattle is to open the
skin at the neck between brisket and jaw through a 30 cm longitudinal cut. In pigs, a longitudinal bleeding
stick is made into the chest to sever the deep vessels. For poultry, the of bleeding cone can be used. For
all cuts, the jugular and carotid vessels should be completely severed. If all vessels are not cut, bleeding
may be incomplete, causing excessive retention of blood in the tissue, which can result in early spoilage
of meat.
2.3.1. Bleeding on a rail (vertical bleeding)

The most hygienic system of bleeding and dressing is to shackle the animal immediately after stunning,
then hoist it on to a moving rail. The animal is hoisted and bleed until the blood flow is negligible when
carcass dressing should begin without further delay.

2.3.2. Horizontal Bleeding

The animal is bled on a horizontal surface (floor, table…). Horizontal bleeding gives faster bleeding rates
and a greater recovery of blood. This may be due to certain organs and blood vessels being put under
pressure when animals are hoisted, thus trapping blood and restricting the flow. Bleeding on the floor is
very unhygienic. The operation should take place easily cleaned stainless-steel table.

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 2. 4. Religious or ritual slaughter (Halal and Kosher)
Most developed and many developing countries of the world require by law an animal to be rendered
unconscious before it is slaughtered. This is in order to ensure that the animal is not stressed during
slaughter. However, exceptions are made for the Jewish (Kosher) and Muslim (Halal) slaughter of
livestock. Here stunning generally is not allowed and the animal is bled directly using a sharp knife to cut
the throat and sever the main blood vessels. This results in sudden and massive loss of blood with loss of
consciousness and death.
A number of factors must be given serious consideration before this type of slaughter is acceptable:
❖ Animals that are slaughtered according to Kosher or Halal requirements should be securely
restrained, particularly the head and neck, before cutting the throat. The knife that is used to cut the throat
and the carotid and jugular blood vessels must be razor sharp and without blemishes and damage.
❖ Animals should not be shackled and hoisted before bleeding. This causes them severe discomfort
and stress. Hoisting should be done only after the animal has lost consciousness.
❖ Operator competence is of great importance in order to carry out satisfactory religious slaughter.
Many Muslim authorities permit electric stunning of cattle, sheep and poultry. However, any kind of pre-
stunning for livestock to be slaughtered according to the Jewish kosher method has not yet been accepted.
2. 5. Commercial method of poultry slaughtering
2.5.1. Large and medium scale
Nearly all procedures are automatic, and birds’ contact with surfaces or poultry workers is kept to a
minimum.
Medium scale operators use similar facilities like large scale operators. In large and medium scale
operations, birds are hung upside down by their legs from an overhead conveyor which then carries them
through a highly organised processing system. They are electrically stunned and killed, scaled and
defeathered by machine. In medium scale operations of up to about 1000 birds/hour, evisceration, neck
and gizzard removal can be manually carried.
2.5.2. Small Scales Slaughtering Facilities
In small-scale slaughtering facilities, birds are slaughtered manually. Stunned poultry are held in a
bleeding cone, with the head and neck pulled downwards through the opening in the cone. After bleeding,
the birds are scalded in hot water.
2.6. Dressing of carcass

The object of carcass dressing is to remove all the damaged, unnecessary or contaminated parts and to
standardise the presentation of carcasses prior to weighing. Dressing stapes vary with the animal species.
With all species, during evisceration, care must be taken in all operations not to puncture the viscera.

2. 6. 1. Dressing of pig
2.6.1.1. Scalding and dehairing

Scalding in water at around 60°C for about six minutes loosens the hair in the follicle. Too low a
temperature and the hair will not be loosened and too high a temperature and the skin will be cooked and
the hair difficult to remove. Dehairing is done with a specially formed scraper (bell scraper or knife).
Another simple method is to dip the pig in a bath containing a hot resin adhesive. The pig is removed from
the bath and the resin allowed to set partially when it is peeled off pulling the hair with it from the root.
This is less labour-intensive than scraping and produces a very clean skin. Another method of removing
dirt and hair in one operation is to skin the carcass (when the skin is required for leather goods). After
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dehairing, the carcass is singed. Singeing removes any remaining hairs, shrinks and sets the skin,
decreases the number of adhering microorganisms and leaves an attractive clean appearance. After
singeing, black depots and singed hairs are scraped off and the carcass is thoroughly cleaned before
evisceration begins.

2.6.1.2. Evisceration

For evisceration, while the carcass is vertically hung, loosen and tie off the rectum. Cut along the middle
line through the skin and body wall from the crotch to the neck. Cut through the pelvis and remove the
bladder and sexual organs. In males the foreskin must not be punctured as the contents are a serious source
of contamination. Remove the abdominal and thoracic viscera intact. Avoid contact with the floor or
standing platform. The kidneys are usually removed after the carcass has been split down the backbone.
The head is usually left on until chilling.

2. 6. 2. Dressing of cattle and small ruminants

2.6.2.1. Skinning of cattle

The outer side of the hide must never touch the skinned surface of the carcass to avoid contamination.
Operators must not touch the skinned surface with the hand that was in contact with the skin.

a) Combined Horizontal/Vertical Methods

Head. After bleeding, while the animal is still hanging from the shackling chain, the horns are removed,
and the head is skinned. The head is detached by cutting through the neck muscles and the occipital joint.

Legs. The legs are skinned and removed at the carpal (foreleg) and tarsal (hind leg) joints. The forelegs
should not be skinned or removed before the carcass is lowered on to the dressing cradle or the cut surfaces
will be contaminated.

Flaying. The skin is cut along the middle line from the sticking wound to the tail. Using long firm strokes
and keeping the knife up to prevent knife cuts on the carcass, the brisket and flanks are skinned, working
backwards toward the round (Figure 1). Skin udders without puncturing the glandular tissue and remove,
leaving the super mammary glands intact and attached to the carcass. At this point raise the carcass to the
half-hoist position, the shoulders resting on the cradle and the rump at a good working height.

Clear the skin carefully from around the vent (anus) avoiding puncturing it and cut the abdominal wall
carefully around the rectum. Tie off with twine to seal it. Skin the tail avoiding contamination of the
skinned surface with the hide. Raise the carcass free of the floor and finish flaying.

b) Vertical Methods

Hide removal is carried out on the hanging carcass. The operations are as in the combined
horizontal/vertical method, but as it is not possible to reach the hide from ground level more than one
operator is generally needed. A single operator may work with a hydraulic platform which is raised and
lowered as required. Automatic hide pullers are used in high-throughput slaughterhouses.

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 2.6.2.2. Skinning of Small Ruminants

Sheep fleeces can carry large volumes of dirt and faeces into the slaughterhouse. It is difficult to avoid
contamination of sheep and lamb carcasses when the fleece is heavily soiled. The fleece or hair must never
touch the skinned surface, neither must the operator touch the skinned surface with the hand that was in
contact with the fleece.

a) Combined Horizontal/Vertical Method

The animal is turned on its back and cuts are made from the
knuckles down the forelegs. The neck, cheeks and shoulders
are skinned. The throat is opened up and the gullet (food pipe)
is tied off. The skin on the hind legs is cut from the knuckles
down to the tail root. The legs are skinned and the sheep is
hoisted by a gambrel inserted into the Achilles tendons. A rip
is made down the midline and skinning proceeds over the
flanks. The pelt is then pulled down over the backbone to the
head. If the head is for human consumption, it must also be
skinned. The hanging carcass is lowered on to a horizontal
surface. Two operators usually work together on each lamb
performing the legging operations and opening the skin to the
stage where it can be pulled off the back.

Figure 1: Cutting lines for hide removal

b) Vertical Method

The animal is shackled by one hind leg and left to bleed. Dressing starts with the free leg which is skinned
and the foot removed. A gambrel is inserted into this leg and hung on a runner on a dressing rail. The
second leg is freed from the shackle, skinned and dressed, then hooked on to the other end of the gambrel.
The skin is opened down at the midline and cleared from the rump to the neck, breast and flanks. The
animal is therefore suspended by all four legs belly uppermost. Skinning continues as in the combined
horizontal/vertical method.

2.6.2.3. Evisceration

a) Cattle

The brisket is sawed down the middle. In the combined horizontal/vertical system this is done with the
animal resting on the cradle. The carcass is then raised to the half-hoist position and the abdominal cavity
is cut carefully along the middle line. The carcass is then fully hoisted to hang clear of the floor so that
the viscera fall out under their own weight. They are separated into thoracic viscera, paunch and intestines
for inspection and cleaning. If any of the stomachs or intestines are to be saved for human consumption,
ties are made at the oesophagus/stomach, stomach/duodenum boundaries, the oesophagus and rectum
having been tied off during hide removal. This prevents cross-contamination between the paunch and the
intestines.

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 b) Small Ruminants

A small cut is made in the abdominal cavity wall just above the brisket, and the fingers of the other hand
are inserted to lift the body wall away from the viscera as the cut is continued to within about 5 cm of the
cod fat or udder. The omentum is withdrawn, the rectum (tied off) loosened, and the viscera freed and
taken out. The food pipe (tied off) is pulled up through the diaphragm. The breastbone is split down at the
middle, taking care to not puncture the thoracic organs which are then removed.

Poultry dressing
There are four terms used to describe different scalding conditions: soft, semi, sub and hard. The soft scald
uses a water temperature of 50 °C, semi-scald water temperatures are 53 °C to 55 °C. Soft and semi-scald
are more used with broilers and heavy fowl. The sub-scald temperature is 59 °C to 60 °C, this scald
temperature is used for turkey and chickens. Hard-scald uses a water in excess of 60 °C. The carcasses
are then plucked and eviscerated, mostly manually. After evisceration, carcasses are spray washed and
chilled or frozen rapidly before being dispatched or further processing into portions or poultry products.
2.7. Carcass Washing

The primary object of carcass washing is to remove visible dirt and blood stains and to improve
appearance after chilling. Water must be potable. Washing is no substitute for good hygienic practices
during slaughter and dressing since it is likely to spread bacteria rather than reduce total numbers. Wiping
cloths must not be used. Soiled carcasses should be sprayed immediately after dressing before the soiling
material dries, thus minimising the time for bacterial growth.

2.7. Refrigeration of Carcass

Carcasses should go in the cooler as soon as possible after weighing and should be as dry as possible. The
object of refrigeration is to delay bacterial growth thus extend the shelf life and allows maturation. Chilling
meat postmortem from 40°C down to 0°C and keeping it cold will give a shelf life of up to three weeks
(table 4). As a general guide, a deep muscle temperature of 6–7° C should be achieved in 28 to 36 hours
for beef, 12 to 16 hours for pigs and 24 to 30 hours for sheep carcasses. Chilled meat must be kept cold
until it is used, sold or cooked. An ideal storage temperature for fresh meat is just above its freezing point,
which is about - 1°C (- 3°C for salted products).

2.8. Meat cutting and utilisation of meat cuts

Four essential points when cutting beef (or any other meat animal carcass) are:

• Cut across the meat when possible.

• Use sharp knives and saws for speed and good skill.
• Keep the cutting table orderly and have a place for everything.
• Be clean and sanitary during the operation.

There are different ways to cut the fore- and hindquarters of beef depending on its use, the wishes of the
consumers, and the quality of the carcass. Meat can be used for further processing (generally poor quality)
or for direct consumption (generally higher-quality and thicker-fleshed carcasses) as fresh meat in the
form of steaks and roasts.

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2.8.1. Beef cutting
2.8.1.1.Halving

Halving is done immediately after the animal dressing and the carcass must be sawed into equal sides
through the centre of the backbone.
2.8.1.2.Quartering
Quartering down is the division of a side of beef between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs into fore-and
hindquarters. The large muscle exposed when this cut is made is used for grading based on colour,
marbling, firmness and texture.
2.8.1.3.Splitting

a) Bone-in method

It is based on the bone and muscle structure of the carcass and is used to cut out what is commonly referred
to as a wholesale or primal. The carcass quarter is cut in a prescribed fashion. Common wholesale or
primal cuts of beef from the forequarter are the square-cut chuck, shank, brisket, plate and rib, and from
the hindquarter the flank, loin and round (figure 2). The kidney knob consisting of kidney and fat is
removed from the loin. Since the hindquarter contains a higher proportion of tender cuts, it is usually in
greater demand and returns higher prices.

Figure 2: The beef pork half carcass and their cuts

a) Muscle-Boning Method

One excellent approach to the cutting up of meat animal carcasses which is becoming more popular is the
procedure commonly referred to as “muscle-boning.” While this procedure is particularly adaptable to
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large carcasses such as beef, it can be successfully used on carcasses or cuts of any size. Muscle-boning
is also popular amongst those who do not have meat saws but want to cut up a whole carcass with a knife
while removing the bone. Thick layer of carcass subcutaneous fat should be removed in order to expose
the muscles. Once the fat is removed, a boning knife can be used to separate each large individual muscle
or group of muscles. This is done along the seams of connective tissue that encases each muscle. Once
separated the muscle mass is then cut from the bone, thus the term “muscle-boning.”

The advantages of this procedure are numerous; however, the principal reasons for using it are to obtain
small-sized portions for sale or preparation; to permit each muscle or muscle combination to be handled
or prepared according to its individual characteristics of size, tenderness, flavour or fibre orientation; and
to remove much of the bone and fat that would otherwise take up packaging and storage space.

2.8.2. Pork Cutting

Halving is done immediately after the animal dressing and saw into equal sides through the centre of the
backbone. The primal cuts of pork are the ham, the fore-end or the forequarter, loin and belly. The hind
foot is removed by sawing through the hock joint at a right angle to the long axis of the leg (figure 3). In
order to obtain a long-cut ham the division is made between the last two (fifth and sixth) lumbar vertebrae.
The long cut is composed of a rump or chump portion and a leg portion comprising centre section and
shank portion. The ham is commonly merchandised in smaller portions (topside, silverside, thick flank,
shank).
2.8.3. Lamb cutting

This procedure may also be followed for the processing of deer, goats, sheep or other animal carcasses of
similar size. Lamb carcasses are generally not split into halves after dressing because they are not thick
enough in any location to create cooling problems. The lamb carcass is first cut by removing the thin
cuts, i.e. flank, breast and foreleg (Figure 4). After removing the thin cuts from both sides, the kidneys,
kidney fat and diaphragm are removed. Next, the carcass is turned over and the neck removed.

Figure 4: The lamb carcass and its cuts (a), the broiler cuts

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2.8.4. Poultry Cutting
All poultry is processed in a similar manner. It is either cooked whole or segmented in a number of ways
depending on how it is to be used. A bird can be split in half lengthwise through the backbones and keel
bone, or it can be split into a front quarter and a hind quarter. The front quarter of the bird contains the
breast and wing meats, while the hindquarter contains the legs. It is common to further break the poultry
into segments. For maximum yield and precise processing, poultry can be segmented by cutting through
the soft natural joints of the bird. The term 8-cut chicken is used to describe a chicken segmented into two
drumsticks, two thighs, and both breasts split in half across the rib bone (one half may contain the wing).
This procedure is always done with the bone in. These segments can be processed further to boneless
skinless cuts if desired. Figure 6 shows a fully segmented chicken.
2.9. Types of animal tissue suitable for meat processing, quality and grades
The main soft tissues of the carcass are: muscle, mainly skeletal (30– 65 %), fatty (10–45 %) and
connective tissues. Other animal tissues used as food, and to some extent in meat processing, are the
internal organs (heart; liver; tongue trimmed of all the hyoid bones, tonsils, and mucous membranes,
lungs; kidneys) and the blood. Tripe is mainly used as a casing for sausages. Whole blood is used to make
blood sausage, liver sausage, and blood pudding. Blood plasma can be used for meat emulsions (batter).
2.9.1. Different qualities of meat used as raw material for different product qualities
Manufacturers must aim for uniform quality of their products. To attain this, raw materials must be
standardised for different qualities. Good quality carcasses are usually divided into primal cuts (ham,
shoulder, loin, neck, etc.). The remainder of the carcass and trimmings from the primal cuts are
standardised into different qualities of meat. Basic parameters for simple quality standards are size and
shape of meat pieces, amount of visible fatty and connective tissues, and chemical composition. Meat
must not contain skin, lymphatic glands, particles of bones, bristles, large blood vessels or blood clots.
2.9.1.1. Different Qualities of Meat

a) First Quality (Meat I).

They are meat pieces of relatively uniform size and shape, trimmed of connective tissue, with about 8 %
of visible fatty tissue obtained from larger primal cuts, mostly hindquarters. Meat I is used to make meat
batter for sausages and high-quality canned products.
b) Second Quality (Meat II).
Meat pieces of irregular size and shape, partially trimmed of connective tissue with about 15 percent
visible fatty tissue, obtained mostly from forequarters belong to the meat II, and are used to produce meat
batter, or medium-quality meat products.
c) Lean Trimmings
Lean trimmings are small irregular pieces of meat, with pervading connective and fatty tissue (about 25
percent), obtained during deboning and trimming of primal cuts, Meats I and II, and meat parts of the
head and flank. They are used to make meat batter for all kinds of medium-and low-quality cooked
sausages.
d) Fatty Trimmings
Fatty trimmings are meat pieces containing about 50 percent visible fatty tissue, derived from all trimming
operations. They are used as the fatty ingredient of meat batter of medium and low quality

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 2.9.1.2. Fatty Tissues.
a) Ruminants
Firm (external) fatty tissues are trimmed from the carcass and hump of zebu and are used as the fatty
component of the meat batter or sausage mixture (mutton, goat) or all-beef higher-quality sausages.
Soft (internal) fatty tissues are from kidney and sacral in origin and are not generally used in sausages.
b) Pork
Jowl (firm) contains much muscular (up to 30 %) and connective tissues. It is suitable for different types
of cooked sausages of high quality.
Back fat (firm) is used for semi-dry and dry sausages, and in frankfurter sausages of the highest quality.
Side fat (firm) contains about 60 percent visible fatty tissue. It is used to manufacture medium-quality
cooked sausages made of uncooked or precooked materials.
Table 5: Approximate chemical composition of different qualities of raw materials
Raw materials Water Fat Protein
Muscle Connective tissue Total
Meat I 71 10 16 3 19
Meat II 63 20 12 5 17
Lean trimmings 53 33 10 2 12
Fat trimmings 30 60 7 2 9
External beef fat 27 67 1 5 6
Internal beef fat 5 93 - 2 2
Pork jowl 17 78 3 3 6
Pork back fat 8 90 - 2 2
Pork side fat 32 60 7 1 8
Pork soft fat 5 93 - 3 3
Pork skin 55 15 0 30 30
2.9.2. Grading of Meat and Poultry
The grouping of carcasses according to their degree or relative development of physical characteristics
associated with their desirability or utility constitutes grading. Quality grades are reflective of the eating
quality of meat. The basic considerations in grading meat are twofold:
i) to reflect or measure differences in the proportion of the more desirable to less desirable parts of
the carcass or cut and the ratio of meat to bone, and
ii) to evaluate the characteristics of the meat which are associated with its ultimate palatability.
Meat and poultry can be graded for quality after inspection for wholesomeness. Grading for quality means
the evaluation of traits related to tenderness, juiciness, and flavour of meat; and, for poultry, a normal
shape that is fully fleshed and meaty and free of defects. The grade is stamped on the carcass or side of
beef. Retail packages meat will show the grade mark if they have been officially graded.
2.9.2.1. Beef Grades
Beef is graded as whole carcasses in two ways:
• quality grades - for tenderness, juiciness, and flavour; and
• yield grades - for the amount of usable lean meat on the carcass. There are eight quality grades
for beef. Quality grades are based on the amount of marbling (flecks of fat within the lean), colour,
and maturity.
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 a) Quality Grades
Quality is a characteristic of both the lean and the fat contained and is the most important criterion of
palatability. Quality is measured primarily in terms of (1) marbling, (2) texture, (3) firmness and colour
of lean, and (4) maturity. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Graders evaluate the
distribution on marbling in the ribeye.
Marbling - (intramuscular fat) is the intermingling or dispersion of fat within the lean. Graders evaluate
the amount and distribution of marbling in the ribeye muscle at the cut surface after the carcass has been
ribbed between the 12th and 13th ribs. Degree of marbling is the primary determination of quality grade.
Maturity refers to the physiological age of the animal rather than the chronological age. Because the
chronological age is virtually never known, physiological maturity is used; and the indicators are bone
characteristics, ossification of cartilage, colour and texture of ribeye muscle. Cartilage becomes bone, lean
colour darkens and texture becomes coarser with increasing age.
There are eight distinct grades of beef recognised by the USDA. From the highest to the lowest quality
we have: Prime, Choice, Standard, Commercial, Utility, Cutter, Canner
• Prime grade is produced from young, well-fed beef and has abundant marbling. Prime roasts and
steaks are excellent for dry-heat cooking (roasting, or grilling).
• Choice grade is of high quality, but has less marbling than Prime. Choice roasts and steaks from
the loin and rib will be very tender, juicy, and flavourful and are, like Prime, suited to dry-heat cooking.
Many of the less tender cuts are from the rump and blade chuck. 80% of all cattle are “choice” grade
• Select grade is very uniform in quality and normally leaner than the higher grades. It is fairly
tender, but, because it has less marbling, it may lack some of the juiciness and flavour of the higher grades.
Only the tender cuts (loin, rib, sirloin) should be cooked with dry heat. Other cuts should be marinated
before cooking or braised to obtain maximum tenderness and flavour.
• Standard and commercial grades are frequently sold as ungraded or as "store brand" meat.
• Utility, Cutter, and Canner grades are seldom, if ever, sold at retail but are used instead to make
ground beef and processed products.
Standard, Select, Choice, and Prime cannot be older than 42 months, Utility, Cutter, and Canner have no
age limit. Grades such as Prime, Choice and Select are not acceptable terms for raw cuts of pork or poultry.

b) Yield grades
The yield grades estimate the amount of boneless, closely trimmed retail cuts from the high-value parts
of the carcass (the round, loin, rib and chuck) and it is affected by muscling and amount of fat. Yield
Grades are an indication of cutability or yield of boneless, closely trimmed, retail cuts. The yield grade of

15
a carcass is determined by (1) external fat, (2) kidney, heart and pelvic fat, (3) ribeye area and (4) hot
carcass weight. Yield grades measure the combination of fat and muscle using the following formula:
YG=2.50 + (2.5×adjusted fat thickness in inches) + (0.2×percent kidney, heart and pelvic fat) +
(0.0038 × hot carcass weight)- (0.32 × ribeye area in square inches).
It ranges from "1" to "5" and indicate the amount of usable meat from a carcass. Yield grade 1 is the
highest grade and denotes the greatest ratio of lean to fat; yield grade 5 is the lowest yield ratio.

Figure 5: Relationship between Marbling, Maturity and Quality Grade

2.9.2.2. Veal/Calf and Lamb
There are five grades for Veal/Calf: prime, choice, good, standard, and utility. Prime and choice (or
skull for lamb) grades are juicier and more flavourful than the lower grades. The bones are small, soft,
and quite red. Cuts such as chops can be cooked by the dry-heat methods of roasting, grilling or broiling.
Lamb is produced from animals less than a year old thus, generally, only two grades are found at the retail
level (prime and choice). Most cuts of prime and choice grade lamb (chops, roasts, shoulder cuts, and
leg) are tender and can be cooked by the dry-heat methods (broiling, roasting, or grilling). The less tender
cuts, breast, riblets, neck, and shank can be braised to make them more tender.
2.9.2.3. Pork
Pork is not graded with USDA quality grades as it is generally produced from young animals that have
been bred and fed to produce more uniformly tender meat. Appearance is an important guide in buying
fresh pork. For best flavour and tenderness, meat should have a small amount of marbling. Pork
consistency makes it suitable for a variety of cooking styles. Tender loins are considered to be the most
tender and tasty cut of pork.
2.9.2.4. Poultry.
The USDA grades for poultry are A, B, and C.
• Grade A is the highest quality and indicates that the poultry products are virtually free from
defects such as bruises, discolourations, and feathers. Bone-in products have no broken bones. For whole
birds and parts with the skin on, there are no tears in the skin, and a good covering of fat under the skin.
Also, whole birds and parts will be fully fleshed and meaty.
• Grades B and C poultry are usually used in further-processed products where the poultry meat is
cut up, chopped, or ground.

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