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Next-Generation Solar Cells
Next-Generation Solar Cells
Principles and Materials
Yoon-Bong Hahn
Tahmineh Mahmoudi
Yousheng Wang
Published by
Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
101 Thomson Road
#06-01, United Square
Singapore 307591
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.jennystanford.com
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through
the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.
Preface xiii
1. Electromagnetic Radiation 1
1.1 Light and Photon 1
1.2 Photometry 4
1.3 Blackbody Radiation 6
1.4 Planck’s Radiation Law 8
1.5 Solar Spectrum 8
Index 301
Preface
Electromagnetic Radiation
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75 H 2O
Figure 1.2 Solar spectral photon flux densities at the top of Earth’s atmosphere, at the Earth surfaces with estimated absorption of water,
in vivo BChl pigment, carotenoids. BChla and BChlb and green sulfur bacteria. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [4], Copyright 2021,
Elsevier.
Light and Photon
3
4 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.2 Photometry
Photometry is the science of measurement of light in a way that
takes the sensitivity of human eyes. Contrary to radiometry, which
measures light in wider wavelengths including UV and IR regions,
photometry only measures in the visible spectral region (360 nm
~ 830 nm), where human eyes are sensitive. Human eyes are sensitive
to three regions of frequencies, known as blue (~419 nm), green
(~531 nm), and red (~558 nm). Observed colors are composed of a
broad range of these three regions. The most dominant wavelength
in a color is the color’s hue. The saturation of the color is the amount
of distribution in wavelengths in the color. For example, a highly
saturated color contains a narrow set of wavelengths [5].
The concept of color by the human eyes is measurable by
tristimulus values, which is the foundation of color language, and
refers to the Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE) color
system. Tristimulus values measure light intensity based on defined
primary RGB (red-green-blue) color values, presented as X, Y, and Z
coordinates, and can define precise color values around the world
(Fig.1.3a).
A chromaticity diagram is a full plot of all visible colors sensible
by average human eyes (Fig. 1.3b). The xy values indicate the
contribution of the three primaries (RGB), and the boundaries
indicate the highest saturation of spectral colors. In the chromaticity
diagram, hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation at different
Photometry 5
(a)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.9
(b)
0.8
0.7
0.6
500
0.5
y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x
Figure 1.3 (a) The CIE standard observer color matching functions to map
blackbody into XYZ coordinates. Reprinted with permission from [6], Copyright
2021, Elsevier. (b) The CIE 1931 color space chromaticity diagram. The Planckian
locus is the path that a blackbody color emission through the diagram as the
blackbody temperature rises.
‘AM0,’ meaning air mass at ‘zero atmosphere.’ Solar cells used for
space power applications, like those on communications satellites,
are generally characterized using AM0.
The spectrum after passing through the atmosphere to sea level
with the sun directly overhead is referred to ‘AM1,’ meaning air mass
at ‘one atmosphere.’ Solar cell panels do not generally operate under
exactly one atmosphere’s thickness: if the sun is at an angle to the
Earth’s surface the effective thickness will be greater. Many of the
world’s major population, solar installations, and industries lie in
this area. Therefore, an AM number representing the spectrum at
mid-latitudes is much more common, i.e., AM1.5 is used for mid-
latitudes, meaning 1.5 atmosphere thickness. AM1.5 corresponds
to a solar zenith angle of 48.2°. The solar industry has been using
AM1.5 for all standardized testing or rating of terrestrial solar cells
or modules, including those used in concentrating systems.
References
Problems
1.1 Explain the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and photon
energy.
12 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.2 The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction
band of solid material is called the ‘bandgap.’ What is the minimum
wavelength in nm required to promote an electron from the valence to
the conduction band of a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.5 eV?
1.3 Explain Planck’s radiation law.
1.4 The solar spectrum intensity is defined by the AM parameter, briefly
explain the AM parameter and the difference between AM1.5, AM1,
and AM0.
1.5 If the absolute temperature of a black body is increased from T to
1.414T, by what factor is the total emitted power per unit area (RT)
increased? (Use Stefan’s law.)
1.6 Light with wavelength of 525 nm is green. Calculate the energy in
joules for green light photon.
1.7 What is the wavelength of light with frequency of 3.42 × 1011 Hz?
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The atomic structure of Si, a unit cell of single-crystal Si, and
crystalline Si structure.
Carrier Concentration 15
Figure 2.2 The bonding model for c-Si at T = 0 K and T > 0 K. At a temperature
higher than 0 K a Si–Si bond breaks, forming a mobile electron and a hole.
16 Physics and Properties of Semiconductors
2.3 Doping
In semiconductors, doping is defined as replacing c-Si atoms with
other elements to manipulate electron and hole concentrations.
The replacement can be done by atoms in groups (III) or (V) of the
periodic table with three and five valence electrons, respectively,
such as boron (B) and phosphorous (P) [4]. The doping process is
demonstrated using the bonding model shown in Fig. 2.3.
Figure 2.3 The doping process (a) P atom replaces a Si atom in the c-Si lattice
resulting in a free electron, (b) B atom substitutes a Si atom resulting in a hole
in the c-Si lattice.
Vd = mx (2.1)
In Eq. (2.1), the proportionality factor (m) is called the “mobility”
of a carrier. Thus, the carrier mobility is equal to the drift velocity of
a carrier for a unit electric field.
The flow of charge carriers due to the applied voltage or electric
field is called ‘drift current.’ The drift current density of electrons
and holes is obtained by Eq. (2.2), and the total drift current density
by Eq. (2.3).
J N = qnmnx and J P = qpm px (2.2)
2.5 Diffusion
Diffusion is the carrier’s movement from a higher concentration
region to a lower concentration region to attain an equilibrium. In
a doped semiconductor, the unbalanced distribution of the charge
carriers is the driving force for diffusion. Diffusion does not need
an external field and it occurs due to the repulsive forces among
carriers with the same charge that is highly concentrated in an area.
Diffusion current is in the same direction as the movement of holes
and opposite to that of electrons. Diffusion current can be expressed
by Eq. (2.4), and total current by drift and diffusion can be obtained
by Eq. (2.5).
Jdiff = qDn —n (2.4)
Recombination 19
2.6 Recombination
Electrons in the conduction band are in a metastable state and will
eventually stabilize to a lower-energy position in the valence band.
When this occurs, an electron has to move into an empty valence-
band state. Therefore, when the electron stabilizes back down into
the valence band, a hole is also effectively removed. This process is
called recombination, i.e., the process of annihilation or destruction
of electrons and holes. Contrary to recombination, ‘generation’ is a
process where electrons and holes are created. In the case of radiative
recombination, an electron in the conduction band recombines with
a hole in the valence band and the excess energy is emitted in the
form of a photon. In the case of non-radiative recombination, when
an electron and a hole combine the excess energy is released in the
form of a phonon (i.e., a mode of vibration in lattice structure) or
thermal heat in the crystal lattice.
20 Physics and Properties of Semiconductors
(
Rb- b = b np - ni2 ) (2.6)
( )
RAuger = Cnn pn - ni2 + C p p pn - ni2( ) (2.8)
Figure 2.7 p-n junction: (a) The junction and its equivalent circuit symbol
(triangle presents to the p-side), (b) Energy band diagram of p-n junction, and
(c) Schematic band diagram illustrating diffusion and drift processes in the p-n
junction.
22 Physics and Properties of Semiconductors
Figure 2.8 Energy vs. crystal momentum for a semiconductor with a direct
(left) and indirect (right) bandgap.