IB Design Technology

CORE Topics 1-6

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Topic 1 Topic 5
1.1 Anthropometrics 5.1 Invention
1.2 Psychological Factors 5.2 Innovation
1.3 Physiological Factors 5.3 Strategies for innovation
5.4 Strategies for innovation
Topic 2 5.5 Product life cycle
2.1 Resource and reserves 5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
2.2 Waste mitigation strategies consumers
2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution 5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
Waste mitigation strategies specifications
2.4 Clean Technologies
2.5 Green Design Topic 6
2.6 Eco Design 6.1 Characteristics of classic design
6.2 Classic design, function and form
Topic 3
3.1 Conceptual modelling
3.2 Graphical modelling
3.3 Physical modelling
3.4 Computer-aided design (CAD)
3.5 Rapid prototyping

Topic 4
4.1 Properties of materials
4.2a Metals and metallic alloys
4.2b Timber
4.2c Glass
4.2d Plastics
4.2e Textiles
4.2f Composites
4.3 Scales of Production
4.4 Manufacturing processes
4.5 Production systems
4.6 Robots in automated production

Updated 11th May 2016- John Zobrist

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Topic 2
Resource management & sustainable production
2.1 Resource and reserves
Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues consumption of raw materials,
consumption of energy, and production of waste—in relation to managing resources and reserves effectively and making
production more sustainable. As non-renewable resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic
human needs for energy, food and raw materials. The development of renewable and sustainable resources is one of the major
challenges of the 21st century for designers.

Resources Resources are the stock or supply of materials that are available in a given context.

Renewable resources A natural source which can replenish with time they make take place as energy or
commodities, some will require careful management i.e. plantation of timber; others are
deemed inexhaustible i.e. wind and solar.

Non-Renewable A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not
renew (replenish) itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, for
example, coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, minerals and ores.

Comparison of renewable and

non-renewable resources Renewable Resources Non Renewable Resources

1.) Are inexhaustible 1.) Resources are present in fixed and

2.) Are not affected by human activities limited quantities.
3.) Release less carbon emissions 2.) Are exhaustible.
4.) More expensive to implement. 3.) Release more carbon emissions.
eg. hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, 4.) Less expensive to implement.
wind, tidal eg. coal, timber, natural gas, oil, nuclear

Reserves A natural resource that has been identified in terms of quantity and quality.
Energy reserves are projected on the basis of geologic and engineering data and cannot
be obtained at present due to economic or technical reasons; i.e. mining of oil sands is
currently uneconomical due to current price structure.

Renewability Renewability relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible,
for example wood from trees, and fresh drinking water Conserving resources and
technologies that improve energy efficiency.

Impact of development may have The impact of multinational companies when obtaining resources in different countries/
on the environment regions can be a significant issue for the local population and have major social, ethical
and environmental implications.

The development of renewable The economic and political importance of material and land resources and reserves
and sustainable resources is one considering set-up cost, efficiency of conversion, sustainable and constant supply, social
of the major challenges of the impact, environmental impact and decommissioning
21st century for designers.

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2.2 Waste mitigation strategies

Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate the volume of material disposed to landfill. The abundance of resources and
raw materials in the industrial age led to the development of a throwaway society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the throwaway society is large amounts of materials
found in landfill, which can be considered as a new source to mine resources from.

Waste mitigation strategies The abundance of resources and raw materials in the industrial age led to the
development of a throwaway society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the throwaway
society is large amounts of materials found in landfill, which can be considered as a new
source to mine resources from.
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. The
prevention, monitoring and handling of waste, coming up with solutions to deal with
pollution and waste

Re-use Reuse of the same product in same context or a different context

Examples include Water Bottles, Plastic Bags, Glass Bottles, Toothbrush, Clothes

Repair The reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing structure or device. To

mend/restore/service faulty equipment, the life-cycle of many products
is designed so that they/or parts deteriorate over time.
Examples: Washing machine belt, Shoe soles, Lightbulb, Cars - bumpers, lights, Fix an
inner tube on a bicycle

Re-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.

(speed, energy consumption). Examples include F1 cars - where aerodynamics is
changed (shape) or lighter new materials used

Recycle Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products (waste)
to create other products. Examples include Glass, Paper, Aluminium
cans, Thermoplastics, Newspaper

Recondition Rebuilding a product so that it is in an “as new” condition, and is generally used in the
context of car engines and tyres. Examples include car engines, tyres, bearings, etc

Dematerialisation Reducing the quantities of materials trying to “do more with less”. Looking at the
constraints of the materials we use, through reduction and reuse of materials. Examples
include the changes made to the new Mac Pro vs the old Mac Pro version.
Dematerialization improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials
and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle: in material extraction;
eco-design; cleaner production; environmentally conscious consumption patterns;
recycling of waste. It may mean smaller, lighter products and packaging; the replacement
of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, web pages instead of
brochures); home working, and so on.

Methodologies for waste Looking into the current management of waste (i.e landfill, incineration) and pollution (i.e.
reduction noise, air pollution).

● Developing new bio-fuels, self-decomposing materials, building products from

recyclable materials, reconditioning products and building products with a
“cradle to cradle” life-cycle.
● Making consumers and manufacturers aware of pollutants and the effect on the
environment, passing acts/legislation to ban/reduce these pollutants i.e. the EU
“Take Back” program and the US “Clean Air Act”. Eco-labeling products for
consumer awareness.
● Following ISO (International standards organisations) 14000 a network of
national standards spanning the globe, addressing environmental issues.

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Methodologies for designing out -The prevention, monitoring and handling of waste, coming up with solutions to deal
waste with pollution and waste.
-Product recovery strategies at end-of-life/disposal
-Energy from waste, reuse of parts of products, recycling from parts of products.
-Circular economy-the use of waste as a resource within a closed loop system
-Environmentalists have a large influence on product marketability, designers and
manufactures often work together to design products which are deemed as
Green/Environmentally friendly.

Product recovery strategies Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products.
Recycling

Product recovery strategies The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and
Raw material recovery materials.

Product recovery strategies WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components from electrical products that
WEEE Recovery because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major
environmental and health problems.

Product recovery strategies Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy
Energy recovery in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste. WtE is a form
of energy recovery. Most WtE processes produce electricity and/or heat directly through
combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol,
ethanol or synthetic fuels.

Product recovery strategies Reduction of total material and energy throughput of a product or service, and the
Standard parts at the end of limitation of its environmental impact through: reduction of raw materials at the
product life production stage; energy and material inputs at the user stage; waste at the disposal
stage

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) Life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis) is a technique to assess
environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from cradle to
grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling).

Circular economy—the use of An economy model in which resources remain in use for as long as possible, from which
waste as a resource within a maximum value is extracted while in use, and the products and materials are recovered
closed loop system and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.

External drivers and ● Increasing supply chain pressure

social change ● Public opinion
● Energy costs
● Waste charges
● Take-back legislation
● The obligation to provide environment-related information
● Norms and standards
● Eco-labelling schemes
● Subsidies
● Environmental competition
● Environmental requirements in consumer tests
● Environmental requirements for design awards
● Increasing cooperation with suppliers

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2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution Waste mitigation

strategies
There are several factors to be considered with respect to energy and design. Efficient energy use is an important consideration
for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment. A
designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products or services using newer technologies or creative
implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, while driving the
same amount but with a higher mileage car is energy efficient.

Energy utilization, storage and Efficient energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society.
distribution Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the
environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide
products or services using newer technologies or creative implementation of systems to
reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, while
driving the same amount but with a higher mileage car is energy efficient.

Embodied energy The embodied energy in a product accounts for all of the energy required to produce it. It
is a valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or
energy-saving device.

Distributing energy: national and The way in which electricity is distributed along the grid and the energy loss involved
international grid systems from small source collection and delivery, to large scale and the effect on the
environment.

Local combined heat and power Combined heat and power (CHP) is an efficient and clean approach to generating electric
(CHP) power and useful thermal energy from a single fuel source. CHP is used either to replace
or supplement conventional separate heat and power (SHP). Instead of purchasing
electricity from the local utility and burning fuel in an on-site furnace or boiler to produce
thermal energy, an industrial or commercial facility can use CHP to provide both energy
services in one energy-efficient step. Advantages of CHP include:
-Reduced energy costs versus separate heat and electrical generation systems
-Reduced emissions versus separate heat and electrical generation systems
-Where the capture and use of waste heat is not viable, many industrial facilities may
still benefit financially via distributed generation (DG)

Systems for individual energy Systems for individual energy generation such as microgeneration includes the
generation small-scale generation of heat and electric power by individuals, small businesses and
communities to meet their own needs, as alternatives or supplements to traditional
centralized grid-connected power. E.g. solar power, wind turbines or biogas rainwater
harvesting, compost toilets and greywater treatments among others.

Quantification of carbon ● record carbon emissions

emissions: Measuring ● discover how much is being produced
● discover who/ where it is produced
● track your carbon footprint

Mitigation of carbon emissions: ● Humans intervention in the reduction of carbon emissions

Reducing ● These contribute to global warming
● Resulting in melting polar caps, rising seas, desertification,
● provide ‘Sinks’ that can reabsorb carbon emissions
● A ‘Sink’ are forests, vegetation or soils.

Batteries, capacitors and An electric battery is a device consisting of two or more electrochemical cells that
capacities considering relative convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries and other electronic
cost, efficiency, environmental components (capacitors, chips, etc) have had a great impact on the portability of
impact and reliability. electronic products and, as new technologies are developed, they can become more
efficient and smaller. Batteries are made from important resources and chemicals,
including lead, cadmium, zinc, lithium and mercury. It’s important to understand the
effects of your decisions as batteries are categorised into High, Medium and Low
through the use of a sustainable lens (charging, impact on eco-system, etc).

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2.4 Clean Technologies

Clean technology seeks to reduce waste/pollution from production processes through radical or incremental development of a
production system. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced
materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be on every
designer’s mind when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic
and social factors will produce more energy-efficient technologies that will be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.

Clean Technology Products, services or processes that reduce waste and require the minimum amount of
non-renewable resources. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries,
including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our
Earth's resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be on every
designer’s minds when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of
environmental, technological, economic and social factors will produce more energy
efficient technologies that will be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.

Drivers for cleaning up Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by
manufacturing the local community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing include:
● promoting positive impacts
● ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving
natural resources
● reducing pollution and use of energy
● reducing waste of energy and resources

Breakdown of environmental
problems products can cause and
their geographical scale Geographical scale Types of environmental problem

Noise, smell, air pollution, soil and water

Local
pollution

Soil and water over-fertilization and

Regional pollution, drought, waste disposal, air
pollution

Pollution of rivers, regional waters and

Fluvial
watersheds

Ozone levels, acidification, winter smog,

Continental
heavy metals

Climatic change, sea level rise, impact on

Global
the ozone layer

Legislation The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the
varied perspectives in different countries. Consider how legislation provides an impetus
to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also how manufacturers
react to legislation. Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or
pressure created by the local community and media.

Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing

on the environment. In recent years raised awareness of environmental issues is
increasing pressure on governments to introduce or comply with legislation regarding
environmental issues. These requirements bind companies to legislation and if these
requirements are not met then financial penalties can be imposed.

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International targets for reducing Sometimes, agreements are made at an international or continental level to create
pollution and waste targets for reducing pollution and waste. These agreements are usually discussed and
agreed upon at international summits and meetings. Often conflicts and disagreements
arise between countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or waste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies will
suffer as a result.Some recent agreements include Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol and
the Carbon Trading Scheme.

End-of-pipe technologies An initial response to reducing the emission of pollutants and creation of waste is adding
clean-up technologies to the end of the manufacturing process. This is called an
end-of-pipe approach. Technology that is used to reduce pollutants and waste at the end
of a process. This can entail the treatment of water, air, noise, solid or toxic wastes.
Some examples of this approach include: Carbon Capture, Filtration systems,
Composting and Catalytic Converters on vehicles

Incremental solutions Radical solutions

Products which are improved and Where a completely new product is

developed over time leading to new devised by going back to the roots of a
versions and generations. problem and thinking about a solution in
a different way.

System level solutions A System level solution embraces the idea of a solution to the problem of pollution and
waste as a whole and is concerned with the interrelationship rather than individual
elements. It helps policymakers and energy planners understand the impacts of existing
and proposed legislation, policy, and plans on renewable energy development and
deployment at the local, state, regional, and national levels.

Agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for

reducing pollution and waste. These agreements are usually discussed and agreed upon
at international summits and meetings. Often conflicts and disagreements arise
between countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or waste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies will
suffer as a result.

Notes:

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2.5 Green Design

Green design integrates environmental considerations into the design of a product without compromising its integrity. The
starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental
objectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on how effectively new
technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the
development phase for further improvement.

Green Design The product- role of designer: The starting point for many green products is to improve
an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental objectives. The
iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on how
effectively new technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer
technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the development phase for further
improvement.

Green legislation Laws and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles,
followed by designers and manufacturers when creating green products.
Green legislation often encourages incremental, rather than radical approaches to green
design. Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting
public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the
extraction of raw materials to final disposal.

Incremental innovation is sometimes referred to as continuous improvement, and the

business attitude associated with it is ‘inside-the-box’ thinking. A simple product may be
improved (in terms of better performance or lower costs) through the use of higher
performance components or materials. A complex product that consists of integrated
technical subsystems can be improved by partial changes to one level of a sub-system.
Incremental innovations do not involve major investments or risks. User experience and
feedback is important and may dominate as a source for innovation ideas

Radical innovation involves the development of new key design elements such as
change in a product component combined with a new architecture for linking
components. The result is a distinctively new product, product-service, or product
system that is markedly different from the company’s existing product line. A high level
of uncertainty is associated with radical innovation projects, especially at early stages.

Timescale to implement green Often, legislation requires governments and manufacturers to comply over many years.
design This can be beneficial to companies and manufacturers as they can adopt incremental
approaches to green design therefore minimising the cost, however some environmental
concerns, for example carbon dioxide reduction and climate change require immediate
action.

Legislation Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency.

Incremental changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for

example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for cars. The timescale for
implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years) and therefore
cost-effective.

Consumer Pressure The public have become aware of environmental issues through media focus on issues
such as the destructive effect of chlorofluorocarbons on the ozone layer; acid rain in
Northern European forests and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl. Increased public
awareness has put pressure on corporations and governments.

CFCs were the ideal refrigerants during their time. They were nonflammable, non
corrosive, nontoxic, and odorless. Used consumer products during the 70s and 80s, such
as refrigerators, cleansing products, and propellants. CFC’s were found to be destructive
to the Ozone layer.

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Drivers for green design Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
(consumer pressure and Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
legislation) specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency. Unfortunately, many companies value short term profit and value for
shareholders over the impact of their activities on the environment. Some companies
lobby governments so that they can be exempt from legislation, or to try and persuade
them to ‘water down’ legislation. Sometimes consumer pressure can be just as effective
as legislation. Through social media, the bad behaviour of companies can be exposed
quickly, reach a wider audience and consumers can decide as a large group to boycott a
company. Social media has allowed the influence of consumers to grow exponentially.
This can hurt a company's profits greatly, persuading them to clean up their act.

Design objectives for green Design objectives for green products will often address three broad environmental
products categories.
● Materials
● Energy
● Pollution/Waste
These objectives include:
1. increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources;
2. minimizing damage or pollution from the chosen materials
3. reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by use of the product
4. ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in
environmental terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life
5. taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product
6. ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and
environmentally friendly use
7. minimizing nuisances such as noise or smell
8. analysing and minimizing potential safety hazards
9. minimizing the number of different materials used in a product
10. labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.

When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider:

1. raw materials used
2. packaging
3. incorporation of toxic chemicals
4. energy in production and use
5. end-of-life disposal issues
6. production methods
7. atmospheric pollutants.

Strategies for designing Green The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be
Products modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage. When
designing Green product consideration must be made for:
● raw materials used
● packaging
● incorporation of toxic chemicals
● energy in production and use
● end-of-life disposal issues
● production methods
● atmospheric pollutants.

Materials How much damage is done to the environment in extracting the raw material?
How much energy is needed to process this material?
How long will this material last/will it damage easily?
Can this material be recycled?

Energy How can I reduce the amount of energy required to manufacture this product?
How can I reduce the amount of energy required to use this product?

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Pollution/Waste What is likely to happen to this product when it is obsolete?

How can I reduce the chances of this product ending up in landfill or sent to incineration?
How can I increase the chances of this product being repaired, reused or recycled?
How can I reduce the amount of pollution given off by this product?

The prevention principle The avoidance or minimization of hazards and waste. It aims to address the
occupational health and safety concerns through each stage of the product life cycle.

A number of risk assessment tools can be used by companies to assess their operations
for risk and introduce management systems to protect the health and safety of
employees and minimise waste.

● Knowledge based
● Actual risk of causing harm can be assessed
● Occurrence of damage is probable if no measure is taken
● Regulation emission framework defines substantial criteria (eg. emissions
thresholds)
● Definition of acceptable risk is primarily science based

The precautionary principle The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the
production, use and disposal of a product. The precautionary principle permits a lower
level of proof of harm to be used in policy-making whenever the consequences of
waiting for higher levels of proof may be very costly and/or irreversible.

● Uncertainty
● Risk cannot be calculated and is only a suspected risk of causing harm
● Occurrence of damage is uncertain and cannot be predicted clearly
● Regulation through procedural requirements
● Social acceptance of the risk is considered

Notes:

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2.6 Eco Design

Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave) using lifecycle analysis. Efficient
energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are
pivotal in our impact on the environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products or
services using newer technologies or creative implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an
example of energy conservation, while driving the same amount but with a higher mileage car is energy efficient.

Eco Design Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts
to focus on all three broad environmental categories—materials, energy and
pollution/waste. This makes eco-design more complex and difficult to do.

Impact of internal and external

drivers for eco-design from an
economic perspective Internal drivers for eco-design External drivers for eco-design

Manager's sense of responsibility Government

The need for increased product quality Market demand

The need for a better product and

Social environment
company image

The need to reduce costs Competitors

The need for innovative power Trade organisations

The need to increase personnel

Supplies
motivation

Cradle to grave Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product all of the way
from manufacture to use to disposal

Cradle to the Gate Cradle to cradle design is a key principle of the circular economy. Cradle to Cradle® (C2C)
is a holistic approach to design popularized by Professor Michael Braungart and William
McDonough. Braungart and McDonough offer Cradle to Cradle® certification to products
that measure up to the standards they set. According to their website: “The target is to
develop and design products that are truly suited to a biological or technical metabolism,
thereby preventing the recycling of products which were never designed to be recycled in
the first place.”

Cradle to the Gate Cradle to the Gate (Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from
resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the
consumer).

Life Cycle stages: Make sure you are able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its
life cycle through LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)-Pre-production, Production, Distribution
including packaging, Utilization and Disposal. The complex nature of LCA means that it
is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team with different specialism is
required. LCA is complex, time-consuming and expensive, so the majority of eco-designs
are based on less detailed qualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its
life cycle. The simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during
a product’s design development stages.

UNEP Ecodesign Manual In 1996 the United nations released an Eco-design manual also known as Design for
Sustainability (D4S). The major concerns outlined in the UNEP Ecodesign Manual were
to:
● increase recyclability
● reduce energy requirements

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● maximise use of renewable resources

● reduce creation and use of toxic materials
● reduce material requirements of goods and services
● increase product durability and reduced planned obsolescence

Design for the environment CAD Software that allows designers to perform Life cycle analysis (LCA) on a product and
software assess its environmental impact.

Product life cycle stages: the role The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the
of the designer, manufacturer product life cycle can be explored through LCA. LCA identifies conflicts that have to be
and user resolved through prioritization. It is not widely used in practice because it is difficult,
costly and time-consuming. It is targeted at particular product categories—products
with high environmental impacts in the global marketplace, for example, washing
machines and refrigerators. However, in the re-innovation of the design of a product or
its manufacture, specific aspects may be changed after considering the design objectives
for green products, such as selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable
sources. A product may be distributed differently or its packaging may be redesigned.

Environmental impact Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air
assessment matrix contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources,
pollution and effect on ecosystems

Converging technologies The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and

communication technologies and cognitive science. A typical example of converging
technology is the smart phone in terms of the materials required to create it, its energy
consumption, disassembly, recyclability and the portability of the devices it incorporates.

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