Concurrency Management in OS

Concurrency in Operating System

In this article, you will learn the concurrency in the operating system with its
principles, issues, advantages and disadvantages.

What is Concurrency?

It refers to the execution of multiple instruction sequences at the same time. It

occurs in an operating system when multiple process threads are executing
concurrently. These threads can interact with one another via shared memory
or message passing. Concurrency results in resource sharing, which causes
issues like deadlocks and resource scarcity. It aids with techniques such as
process coordination, memory allocation, and execution schedule to maximize
throughput.

Principles of Concurrency

Today's technology, like multi-core processors and parallel processing, allows

multiple processes and threads to be executed simultaneously. Multiple
processes and threads can access the same memory space, the same declared
variable in code, or even read or write to the same file.

The amount of time it takes a process to execute cannot be simply estimated,

and you cannot predict which process will complete first, enabling you to build
techniques to deal with the problems that concurrency creates.

Interleaved and overlapping processes are two types of concurrent processes

with the same problems. It is impossible to predict the relative speed of
execution, and the following factors determine it:

1. The way operating system handles interrupts

 2. Other processes' activities

3. The operating system's scheduling policies

Problems in Concurrency: Some of them are as follows:

1. Locating the programming errors

It's difficult to spot a programming error because reports are usually repeatable
due to the varying states of shared components each time the code is executed.

2. Sharing Global Resources

Sharing global resources is difficult. If two processes utilize a global variable

and both alter the variable's value, the order in which the many changes are
executed is critical.

3. Locking the channel

It could be inefficient for the OS to lock the resource and prevent other
processes from using it.

4. Optimal Allocation of Resources

It is challenging for the OS to handle resource allocation properly.

Advantages of Concurrency in OS

1. Better Performance

It improves the operating system's performance. When one application only

utilizes the processor, and another only uses the disk drive, the time it takes to
perform both apps simultaneously is less than the time it takes to run them
sequentially.

2. Better Resource Utilization

It enables resources that are not being used by one application to be used by
another.

3. Running Multiple Applications

It enables you to execute multiple applications simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Concurrency

1. It is necessary to protect multiple applications from each other.

2. It is necessary to use extra techniques to coordinate several applications.

3. Additional performance overheads and complexities in OS are needed

for switching between applications.

Issues of Concurrency: Various issues of concurrency are as follows:

1. issues of Non-atomic operations

Operations that are non-atomic but interruptible by several processes may

happen issues. A non-atomic operation depends on other processes, and an
atomic operation runs independently of other processes.

2. Deadlock

In concurrent computing, it occurs when one group member waits for another
member, including itself, to send a message and release a lock. Software and
hardware locks are commonly used to arbitrate shared resources and
implement process synchronization in parallel computing, distributed systems,
and multiprocessing.

3. Blocking
A blocked process is waiting for some event, like the availability of a resource
or completing an I/O operation. Processes may block waiting for resources, and
a process may be blocked for a long time waiting for terminal input. If the
process is needed to update some data periodically, it will be very undesirable.

4. Race Conditions

A race problem occurs when the output of a software application is determined

by the timing or sequencing of other uncontrollable events. Race situations can
also happen in multithreaded software, runs in a distributed environment, or is
interdependent on shared resources.

5. Starvation

A problem in concurrent computing is where a process is continuously denied

the resources it needs to complete its work. It could be caused by errors in
scheduling or mutual exclusion algorithm, but resource leaks may also cause
it.

Concurrent system design frequently requires developing dependable

strategies for coordinating their execution, data interchange, memory
allocation, and execution schedule to decrease response time and
maximize throughput
CPU Scheduling in Operating Systems

Scheduling of processes/work is done to finish the work on time. CPU

Scheduling is a process that allows one process to use the CPU while
another process is delayed (in standby) due to unavailability of any resources
such as I / O etc, thus making full use of the CPU. The purpose of CPU
Scheduling is to make the system more efficient, faster, and fairer.

Whenever the CPU becomes idle, the operating system must select one of the
processes in the line ready for launch. The selection process is done by a
temporary (CPU) scheduler. The Scheduler selects between memory
processes ready to launch and assigns the CPU to one of them.

What is a process?

In computing, a process is the instance of a computer program that is

being executed by one or many threads. It contains the program code and
its activity. Depending on the operating system (OS), a process may be
made up of multiple threads of execution that execute instructions
concurrently.

How is process memory used for efficient operation?

The process memory is divided into four sections for efficient operation:
• The text category is composed of integrated program code, which is
read from fixed storage when the program is launched.
• The data class is made up of global and static variables, distributed and
executed before the main action.
• Heap is used for flexible, or dynamic memory allocation and is managed
by calls to new, delete, malloc, free, etc.
• The stack is used for local variables. The space in the stack is reserved
for local variables when it is announced.
What is Process Scheduling?
Process Scheduling is the process of the process manager handling the
removal of an active process from the CPU and selecting another process
based on a specific strategy.
Process Scheduling is an integral part of Multi-programming applications.
Such operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into
usable memory at a time and the loaded shared CPU process uses repetition
time.
There are three types of process schedulers:
• Long term or Job Scheduler
• Short term or CPU Scheduler
• Medium-term Scheduler

Why do we need to schedule processes?

• Scheduling is important in many different computer environments. One
of the most important areas is scheduling which programs will work on the
CPU. This task is handled by the Operating System (OS) of the computer
and there are many different ways in which we can choose to configure
programs.

• Process Scheduling allows the OS to allocate CPU time for each

process. Another important reason to use a process scheduling system is
that it keeps the CPU busy at all times. This allows you to get less
response time for programs.

• Considering that there may be hundreds of programs that need to work,

the OS must launch the program, stop it, switch to another program, etc.
 The way the OS configures the system to run another in the CPU is called
“context switching”. If the OS keeps context-switching programs in and
out of the provided CPUs, it can give the user a tricky idea that he or she
can run any programs he or she wants to run, all at once.

• So now that we know we can run 1 program at a given CPU, and we

know we can change the operating system and remove another one using
the context switch, how do we choose which programs we need. run, and
with what program?

• That’s where scheduling comes in! First, you determine the metrics,
saying something like “the amount of time until the end”. We will define
this metric as “the time interval between which a function enters the
system until it is completed”. Second, you decide on a metrics that
reduces metrics. We want our tasks to end as soon as possible.

What is the need for CPU scheduling algorithm?

CPU scheduling is the process of deciding which process will own the CPU
to use while another process is suspended. The main function of the CPU
scheduling is to ensure that whenever the CPU remains idle, the OS has at
least selected one of the processes available in the ready-to-use line.
In Multiprogramming, if the long-term scheduler selects multiple I / O binding
processes then most of the time, the CPU remains an idle. The function of
an effective program is to improve resource utilization.

If most operating systems change their status from performance to waiting

then there may always be a chance of failure in the system. So in order to
minimize this excess, the OS needs to schedule tasks in order to make full
use of the CPU and avoid the possibility of deadlock.
Objectives of Process Scheduling Algorithm:

• Utilization of CPU at maximum level. Keep CPU as busy as possible.

• Allocation of CPU should be fair.
• Throughput should be Maximum. i.e. Number of processes that
complete their execution per time unit should be maximized.
• Minimum turnaround time, i.e. time taken by a process to finish
execution should be the least.
• There should be a minimum waiting time and the process should not
starve in the ready queue.
• Minimum response time. It means that the time when a process
produces the first response should be as less as possible.
Different terminologies to take care of in CPU Scheduling algorithm?

• Arrival Time: Time at which the process arrives in the ready queue.
• Completion Time: Time at which process completes its execution.
• Burst Time: Time required by a process for CPU execution.
• Turn Around Time: Time Difference between completion time and arrival
time. Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time
• Waiting Time (W.T): Time Difference between turnaround time and burst
time. Waiting Time = Turn Around Time – Burst Time

CPU Scheduling Criteria

Different CPU Scheduling algorithms have different structures and the
choice of a particular algorithm depends on a variety of factors. Many criteria
have been suggested for comparing CPU scheduling algorithms. The
criteria include the following:

1. CPU utilization: The main objective of any CPU scheduling algorithm is

to keep the CPU as busy as possible. Theoretically, CPU utilization can
range from 0 to 100 but in a real-time system, it varies from 40 to 90
percent depending on the load upon the system.

2. Throughput: A measure of the work done by the CPU is the number of

processes being executed and completed per unit of time. This is called
throughput. The throughput may vary depending on the length or duration
of the processes.

3. Turnaround time: For a particular process, an important criterion is how

long it takes to execute that process. The time elapsed from the time of
submission of a process to the time of completion is known as the
turnaround time. Turn-around time is the sum of times spent waiting to get
into memory, waiting in the ready queue, executing in CPU, and waiting
for I/O. The formula to calculate Turn Around Time

Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time.

4. Waiting time: A scheduling algorithm does not affect the time required to
complete the process once it starts execution. It only affects the waiting
time of a process i.e. time spent by a process waiting in the ready
queue. The formula for calculating Waiting Time

Waiting Time = Turnaround Time – Burst Time.

5. Response time: In an interactive system, turn-around time is not the best
criterion. A process may produce some output fairly early and continue
computing new results while previous results are being output to the user.
Thus, another criterion is the time taken from submission of the process
of the request until the first response is produced. This measure is called
response time. The formula to calculate Response Time

Response Time = CPU Allocation Time (when the CPU was

allocated for the first) – Arrival Time

6. Completion time: The completion time is the time when the process
stops executing, which means that the process has completed its burst
time and is completely executed.

7. Priority: If the operating system assigns priorities to processes, the

scheduling mechanism should favor the higher-priority processes.

8. Predictability: A given process always should run in about the same

amount of time under a similar system load.

What are the different types of CPU Scheduling

Algorithms?

Preemptive Scheduling
Preemptive scheduling is used when a process switches from the running
state to the ready state or from the waiting state to the ready state. The
resources (mainly CPU cycles) are allocated to the process for a limited
amount of time and then taken away, and the process is again placed back in
the ready queue if that process still has CPU burst time remaining. That
process stays in the ready queue till it gets its next chance to execute.

Non-Preemptive Scheduling
Non-preemptive Scheduling is used when a process terminates, or a process
switches from running to the waiting state. In this scheduling, once the
resources (CPU cycles) are allocated to a process, the process holds the CPU
till it gets terminated or reaches a waiting state. In the case of non-preemptive
scheduling does not interrupt a process running CPU in the middle of the
execution. Instead, it waits till the process completes its CPU burst time, and
then it can allocate the CPU to another process.
Key Differences Between Preemptive and Non-
Preemptive Scheduling

1. In preemptive scheduling, the CPU is allocated to the processes for a

limited time whereas, in Non-preemptive scheduling, the CPU is allocated
to the process till it terminates or switches to the waiting state.

2. The executing process in preemptive scheduling is interrupted in the middle

of execution when a higher priority one comes whereas, the executing
process in non-preemptive scheduling is not interrupted in the middle of
execution and waits till its execution.

3. In Preemptive Scheduling, there is the overhead of switching the process

from the ready state to the running state, vise-verse, and maintaining the
ready queue. Whereas in the case of non-preemptive scheduling has no
overhead of switching the process from running state to ready state.

4. In preemptive scheduling, if a high-prior The process The process non-

preemptive low-priority process frequently arrives in the ready queue then
the process with low priority has to wait for a long, and it may have to starve.
, in non-preemptive scheduling, if CPU is allocated to the process having a
larger burst time then the processes with a small burst time may have to
starve.

5. Preemptive scheduling attains flexibility by allowing the critical processes

to access the CPU as they arrive in the ready queue, no matter what
process is executing currently. Non-preemptive scheduling is called rigid
as even if a critical process enters the ready queue the process running
CPU is not disturbed.

6. Preemptive Scheduling has to maintain the integrity of shared data that’s

why it is cost associative which is not the case with Non-Preemptive
Scheduling.
 PREEMPTIVE NON-PREEMPTIVE
Parameter SCHEDULING SCHEDULING

Once resources(CPU Cycle) are

In this resources(CPU
allocated to a process, the
Cycle) are allocated to a
Basic process holds it till it completes
process for a limited
its burst time or switches to
time.
waiting state.

Process can not be interrupted

Process can be
Interrupt until it terminates itself or its time
interrupted in between.
is up.

If a process having high

If a process with a long burst
priority frequently arrives
time is running CPU, then later
Starvation in the ready queue, a
coming process with less CPU
low priority process may
burst time may starve.
starve.

It has overheads of
Overhead scheduling the It does not have overheads.
processes.

Flexibility flexible rigid

Cost cost associated no cost associated

In preemptive
CPU It is low in non preemptive
scheduling, CPU
Utilization scheduling.
utilization is high.

Preemptive scheduling Non-preemptive scheduling

Waiting Time
waiting time is less. waiting time is high.

Response Preemptive scheduling Non-preemptive scheduling

Time response time is less. response time is high.
 PREEMPTIVE NON-PREEMPTIVE
Parameter SCHEDULING SCHEDULING

Decisions are made by Decisions are made by the

Decision the scheduler and are process itself and the OS just
making based on priority and follows the process’s instructions
time slice allocation

The OS has greater The OS has less control over the

Process
control over the scheduling of processes
control
scheduling of processes

Higher overhead due to Lower overhead since context

Overhead frequent context switching is less frequent
switching

Examples of preemptive
Examples of non-preemptive
scheduling are Round
Examples scheduling are First Come First
Robin and Shortest
Serve and Shortest Job First.
Remaining Time First.

Different types of CPU Scheduling Algorithms

Let us now learn about these CPU scheduling algorithms in operating
systems one by one:

1. First Come First Serve:

FCFS considered to be the simplest of all operating system scheduling

algorithms. First come first serve scheduling algorithm states that the
process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first and is
implemented by using FIFO queue.

Characteristics of FCFS:
• FCFS supports non-preemptive and preemptive CPU scheduling
algorithms.
• Tasks are always executed on a First-come, First-serve concept.
• FCFS is easy to implement and use.
• This algorithm is not much efficient in performance, and the wait time is
quite high.
Advantages of FCFS:
• Easy to implement
• First come, first serve method
Disadvantages of FCFS:
• FCFS suffers from Convoy effect.
• The average waiting time is much higher than the other algorithms.
• FCFS is very simple and easy to implement and hence not much efficient.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on First come, First serve Scheduling.
 2. Shortest Job First(SJF):

Shortest job first (SJF) is a scheduling process that selects the waiting
process with the smallest execution time to execute next. This scheduling
method may or may not be preemptive. Significantly reduces the average
waiting time for other processes waiting to be executed. The full form of SJF
is Shortest Job First.

Characteristics of SJF:
• Shortest Job first has the advantage of having a minimum average
waiting time among all operating system scheduling algorithms.
• It is associated with each task as a unit of time to complete.
• It may cause starvation if shorter processes keep coming. This problem
can be solved using the concept of ageing.
Advantages of Shortest Job first:
• As SJF reduces the average waiting time thus, it is better than the first
come first serve scheduling algorithm.
• SJF is generally used for long term scheduling
Disadvantages of SJF:
• One of the demerit SJF has is starvation.
• Many times, it becomes complicated to predict the length of the upcoming
CPU request
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on Shortest Job First.
 3. Longest Job First(LJF):

Longest Job First(LJF) scheduling process is just opposite of shortest job

first (SJF), as the name suggests this algorithm is based upon the fact that
the process with the largest burst time is processed first. Longest Job First is
non-pre-emptive in nature.

Characteristics of LJF:
• Among all the processes waiting in a waiting queue, CPU is always
assigned to the process having largest burst time.
• If two processes have the same burst time then the tie is broken
using FCFS i.e. the process that arrived first is processed first.
• LJF CPU Scheduling can be of both preemptive and non-preemptive
types.

Advantages of LJF:
• No other task can schedule until the longest job or process executes
completely.
• All the jobs or processes finish at the same time approximately.

Disadvantages of LJF:
• Generally, the LJF algorithm gives a very high average waiting
time and average turn-around time for a given set of processes.
• This may lead to convoy effect.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on the Longest job first scheduling.

4. Priority Scheduling:

Pre-emptive Priority CPU Scheduling Algorithm is a pre-emptive method

of CPU scheduling algorithm that works based on the priority of a process.
In this algorithm, the editor sets the functions to be as important, meaning
that the most important process must be done first. In the case of any
conflict, that is, where there is more than one processor with equal value,
then the most important CPU planning algorithm works on the basis of the
FCFS (First Come First Serve) algorithm.

Characteristics of Priority Scheduling:

• Schedules tasks based on priority.
• When the higher priority work arrives while a task with less priority is
executed, the higher priority work takes the place of the less priority one
and
• The latter is suspended until the execution is complete.
• Lower is the number assigned, higher is the priority level of a process.

Advantages of Priority Scheduling:

• The average waiting time is less than FCFS
• Less complex

Disadvantages of Priority Scheduling:

• One of the most common demerits of the Preemptive priority CPU
scheduling algorithm is the Starvation Problem. This is the problem in
which a process has to wait for a longer amount of time to get scheduled
into the CPU. This condition is called the starvation problem.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on Priority Pre-emptive Scheduling algorithm.

5. Round robin:

Round Robin is a CPU scheduling algorithm where each process is

cyclically assigned a fixed time slot. It is the preemptive version of First come
First Serve CPU Scheduling algorithm. Round Robin CPU Algorithm
generally focuses on Time Sharing technique.

Characteristics of Round robin:

• It’s simple, easy to use, and starvation-free as all processes get the
balanced CPU allocation.
• One of the most widely used methods in CPU scheduling as a core.
• It is considered preemptive as the processes are given to the CPU for a
very limited time.

Advantages of Round robin:

• Round robin seems to be fair as every process gets an equal share of
CPU.
• The newly created process is added to the end of the ready queue.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on the Round robin Scheduling algorithm.

6. Shortest Remaining Time First:

Shortest remaining time first is the preemptive version of the Shortest job
first which we have discussed earlier where the processor is allocated to the
job closest to completion. In SRTF the process with the smallest amount of
time remaining until completion is selected to execute.

Characteristics of Shortest remaining time first:

• SRTF algorithm makes the processing of the jobs faster than SJF
algorithm, given its overhead charges are not counted.
• The context switch is done a lot more times in SRTF than in SJF and
consumes the CPU’s valuable time for processing. This adds up to its
processing time and diminishes its advantage of fast processing.
Advantages of SRTF:
• In SRTF the short processes are handled very fast.
• The system also requires very little overhead since it only makes a
decision when a process completes or a new process is added.

Disadvantages of SRTF:
• Like the shortest job first, it also has the potential for process starvation.
• Long processes may be held off indefinitely if short processes are
continually added.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on the shortest remaining time first.

7. Longest Remaining Time First:

The longest remaining time first is a preemptive version of the longest job
first scheduling algorithm. This scheduling algorithm is used by the operating
system to program incoming processes for use in a systematic way. This
algorithm schedules those processes first which have the longest processing
time remaining for completion.

Characteristics of longest remaining time first:

• Among all the processes waiting in a waiting queue, the CPU is always
assigned to the process having the largest burst time.
• If two processes have the same burst time then the tie is broken
using FCFS i.e. the process that arrived first is processed first.
• LJF CPU Scheduling can be of both preemptive and non-preemptive
types.

Advantages of LRTF:
• No other process can execute until the longest task executes completely.
• All the jobs or processes finish at the same time approximately.

Disadvantages of LRTF:
• This algorithm gives a very high average waiting time and average turn-
around time for a given set of processes.
• This may lead to a convoy effect.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on the longest remaining time first.
 8. Highest Response Ratio Next:

Highest Response Ratio Next is a non-preemptive CPU Scheduling

algorithm and it is considered as one of the most optimal scheduling
algorithms. The name itself states that we need to find the response ratio of
all available processes and select the one with the highest Response Ratio.
A process once selected will run till completion.

Characteristics of Highest Response Ratio Next:

• The criteria for HRRN is Response Ratio, and the mode is Non-
Preemptive.
• HRRN is considered as the modification of Shortest Job First to reduce
the problem of starvation.
• In comparison with SJF, during the HRRN scheduling algorithm, the CPU
is allotted to the next process which has the highest response ratio and
not to the process having less burst time.
Response Ratio = (W + S)/S
Here, W is the waiting time of the process so far and S is the Burst time of
the process.

Advantages of HRRN:
• HRRN Scheduling algorithm generally gives better performance than
the shortest job first Scheduling.
• There is a reduction in waiting time for longer jobs and also it encourages
shorter jobs.
•
Disadvantages of HRRN:
• The implementation of HRRN scheduling is not possible as it is not
possible to know the burst time of every job in advance.
• In this scheduling, there may occur an overload on the CPU.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on Highest Response Ratio Next.

9. Multiple Queue Scheduling:

Processes in the ready queue can be divided into different classes where
each class has its own scheduling needs. For example, a common division is
a foreground (interactive) process and a background (batch) process.
These two classes have different scheduling needs. For this kind of
situation Multilevel Queue Scheduling is used.
The description of the processes in the above diagram is as follows:
• System Processes: The CPU itself has its process to run, generally
termed as System Process.
• Interactive Processes: An Interactive Process is a type of process in
which there should be the same type of interaction.
• Batch Processes: Batch processing is generally a technique in the
Operating system that collects the programs and data together in the form
of a batch before the processing starts.

Advantages of multilevel queue scheduling:

• The main merit of the multilevel queue is that it has a low scheduling
overhead.
Disadvantages of multilevel queue scheduling:
• Starvation problem
• It is inflexible in nature
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on Multilevel Queue Scheduling.

10. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling (MLFQ) CPU Scheduling is like

Multilevel Queue Scheduling but in this process, can move between the
queues. And thus, much more efficient than multilevel queue scheduling.

Characteristics of Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

• In a multilevel queue-scheduling algorithm, processes are permanently
assigned to a queue on entry to the system, and processes are not
allowed to move between queues.
• As the processes are permanently assigned to the queue, this setup has
the advantage of low scheduling overhead,
• But on the other hand, disadvantage of being inflexible.
Advantages of Multilevel feedback queue scheduling:
• It is more flexible
• It allows different processes to move between different queues

Disadvantages of Multilevel feedback queue scheduling:

• It also produces CPU overheads
• It is the most complex algorithm.
To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer
to our detailed article on Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling.