CHAPTER 5

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The shear strength of soil is the shear resistance offered by the soil to overcome
applied shear stresses. Shear strength is to soil as tensile strength to steel. When
you design a steel truss for a bridge, for example, you have to make sure that
the tensile stress in any truss element is less than the tensile strength of steel, with
some safety factor. Similarly, in soil mechanics one has to make sure that the shear
stress in any soil element underlying a shallow foundation, for example, is less than
the shear strength of that particular soil, with some safety factor.
In soils the shear strength, τf , is a function of the applied normal effective stress,
σ′ . The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion (discussed in the next section) provides a
relationship between the two:

τf = c′ + σ′ tan φ′ (5.1)

where c′ is the cohesion intercept of the soil and φ′ is the internal friction angle of
the soil. These two parameters are termed the strength parameters of a soil. They
can be obtained from laboratory and field tests.
Consider the stability of the soil slope shown in Figure 5.1. Soil slopes usually
fail in the manner shown in the figure—at failure, there exists a failure surface
along which the applied shear stress is equal to the shear strength of the soil. Let’s
assume that this particular soil has c′ = 10 kPa and φ′ = 30◦ . Also, let’s assume
that the applied normal effective stress and shear stress at point A are σ′ = 110 kPa

162
Applied Soil Mechanics: with ABAQUS Applications. Sam Helwany
© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-79107-2
 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 163

σ′

τ τ
A

Surface
Failure

FIGURE 5.1 Shear strength concept.

and τ = 40 kPa, respectively. The shear strength offered by the soil at point A can
be calculated using (5.1):
◦
τf = c′ + σ′ tan φ′ = 10 + 110 tan 30 = 73.5 kPa

Note that at point A the applied shear stress τ is 40 kPa, which is less than the
shear strength τf = 73.5 kPa at the same point. This means that point A is not on
the verge of failure. The soil at point A will fail only when the applied shear stress
is equal to the shear strength.
The shear strength of soil has to be determined accurately because it is crucial
for the design of many geotechnical structures, such as natural and human-made
slopes, retaining walls, and foundations (both shallow and deep). The shear strength
parameters can be measured in the field using the vane shear test, for example. They
can be obtained from correlations with the standard number N obtained from the
standard penetration test, or from correlations with the cone resistance obtained
from the cone penetration test. The shear strength parameters can also be measured
in the laboratory using direct shear and/or triaxial compression testing methods
on undisturbed or reconstituted soil samples. These testing methods are described
next. Other laboratory shear tests are available primarily for research purposes,
including simple shear tests and hollow cylinder triaxial tests.

5.2 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

To measure the frictional resistance between wood and steel, a wooden block and
a steel block can be stacked vertically and placed on a rough surface as shown in
Figure 5.2. A constant vertical load F is applied on top of the steel block. Then a
gradually increasing lateral load is applied to the steel block until it starts sliding
against the wooden block. Sliding indicates that shear failure has occurred between
164 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

τ = T/A
Steel
A
σ = F/A φ = tan−1 µ = tan−1 (τf /σ)
T

τf = Tf /A
Rough Surface τ = T/A

Wood

φ
σ = F/A
σ
(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.2 Shear test concept.

the two blocks. Thus, the applied shear stress at failure (τf = Tf /A) is equal to
the shear resistance (or shear strength) between the blocks, where Tf is the applied
lateral force at failure and A is the cross-sectional area of the block. In reference
to Figure 5.2b, the friction factor between the two materials can be calculated as
µ = tanφ = τf /σ, where, φ is the friction angle between the two blocks and σ
is the normal stress applied (= F /A). In this testing arrangement, termed direct
shear, the shear strength at a predetermined shear plane is measured at a constant
normal stress.
The direct shear test for soils uses the same concept as that illustrated above.
The soil is placed in a “split” shear box that consists of two halves, as shown
in Figure 5.3. The box has a square cross section and can accommodate a soil

Actuator
Displacement
Transducer

Vertical F = constant
Displacement

σ = F/A

Actuator τ = T/A
T
Soil
Disp. Transducer Shear Box

Shear
Displacement

FIGURE 5.3 Direct shear test apparatus.

 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 165

specimen 10 cm × 10 cm in plane and 2.5 cm in height. The upper half of the

shear box is not allowed to move laterally, whereas the bottom half can slide
laterally by the action of a horizontal actuator. After placing the soil inside the
box, a loading plate is seated on top of the soil and a vertical load is applied
using a vertical actuator. A gradually increasing lateral displacement (at a constant
rate) is then applied to the bottom half of the box, via the horizontal actuator, to
generate shear stresses within the soil. The shear force, T , is measured using a load
cell attached to the piston of the horizontal actuator. The horizontal displacement
(shear displacement) of the bottom half of the shear box is measured during shearing
using a horizontal displacement transducer. Also, the vertical displacement of the
loading plate is measured during shearing using a vertical displacement transducer.
Figure 5.4 is a photo of a direct shear apparatus.
The results of a direct shear test are plotted in the shear displacement versus shear
stress plane such as the one shown in Figure 5.5a. The vertical displacement of
the loading plate is plotted against the shear displacement as shown in Figure 5.5b.
The test results shown in Figure 5.5a and 5.5b are typical for loose sands. Note
that the shear stress is calculated by dividing the measured shear force by the
cross-sectional area of the soil specimen. Figure 5.5a shows that the shear stress
increases in a nonlinear manner as the shear displacement increases. The shear

FIGURE 5.4 Direct shear test apparatus. (Courtesy of Geocomp)

166 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

τ τ

Peak Strength
τf

Ultimate Strength Ultimate Strength

τf

Shear Displacement Shear Displacement

(a) (c)

Dilation Dilation
Vertical Displacement

Vertical Displacement

Shear Displacement Shear Displacement

Compression Compression
(b) (d )

FIGURE 5.5 Typical direct shear test results on (a, b) loose sand and (c, d) dense sand.

stress approaches failure at τ = τf , where τf is the shear strength of the soil.

Figure 5.5b shows a downward displacement of the loading plate, indicating soil
compression. Loose sand consists of loosely packed grains with large voids in
between. During shearing, some of the voids in the shear zone and its vicinity will
collapse, causing the soil specimen to compress (downward plate displacement).
The behavior of dense sand during shearing is quite different from that of loose
sand even though the two sands are assumed to be identical in terms of their
gradation and specific gravity—they differ only in relative density. In the shear
displacement versus shear stress plane (Figure 5.5c) the dense sand exhibits greater
strength, or peak strength, at an early stage during shearing. After reaching peak
strength, the shear stress decreases as the shear displacement increases until reach-
ing an ultimate strength that is approximately the same as the ultimate strength
of the loose sand (Figure 5.5a). Figure 5.5d shows the direct shear test results for
dense sand in the shear displacement versus vertical displacement plane. In this
figure, downward displacement of the loading plate indicates soil compression,
and upward displacement of the plate indicates soil expansion (dilation). A pecu-
liar characteristic is noted in the figure. At an early stage of shearing, the sand
compresses slightly and then starts to dilate until a later stage of shearing, when
it levels out as shown in the figure. Dense sand consists of densely packed grains
with small voids in between. During shearing, some of the grains will slide and roll
on top of other densely packed particles in the shear zone and its vicinity, causing
the soil specimen to dilate (upward plate displacement).
 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 167

The results of a direct shear test provide the shear strength (τf ) of the soil
at a specific normal stress (σ′ ). The direct shear test is repeated several times on
identical soil specimens using different normal stresses. Typical direct shear test
results for sand using three different normal stresses are shown in Figure 5.6a. The
shear strength of the soil at different normal stresses can be determined from the
figure as indicated by points 1, 2, and 3. The at-failure tests results (points 1, 2,

50

40
3
σ′ = 50 kPa
30
τ (kPa)

2
σ′= 30 kPa
20

10 1
σ′ = 10 kPa

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shear Displacement (mm)
(a)

50

Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion for Sand

40

3
30
τ (kPa)

′ φ′ ≈ 37°
tanφ
20 σ′
τ= 2

10

1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
σ′ (kPa)
(b)

FIGURE 5.6 Determination of the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion for sand (direct shear
test).
168 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

and 3) are presented in the normal stress versus shear stress plane in Figure 5.6b.
The three data points in Figure 5.6b are best fitted with a straight line. This straight
line is the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. The slope of this line is the internal
friction angle of the soil, φ′ , and its intercept with the shear stress axis is the
cohesion intercept, c′ . The parameters c′ and φ′ are the strength parameters of the
soil. They are unique parameters for a given soil. For a sandy soil c′ is zero, that
is, the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion passes through the origin, so τf = σ′ tan φ′ .
In Figure 5.6b the internal friction angle can be calculated from the slope of the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion: φ′ = tan−1 (τf /σ′ ) ≈ 37◦ .
Figure 5.7a presents typical direct shear test results for clay under three differ-
ent normal stresses. The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion for this clay is shown in
Figure 5.7b. The figure shows that this soil has a cohesion intercept of approxi-
mately 9 kPa and an internal friction angle of approximately 26.5◦ . With the help
of Figure 5.7b, one can define the cohesion intercept (or cohesion) as the shear
strength of the soil at zero normal stress (or zero confining pressure). This means
that clays have some shear strength even when they are not subjected to confining
pressure. It also means that sands do not have any shear strength without confining
pressure. That is why we cannot make shapes out of dry sand, although we can
certainly make shapes out of clay. For this reason sands and gravels are called
cohesionless, whereas clays are called cohesive.
Note that we used effective stresses in the discussion above when describing the
Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion and the shear strength parameters of the soil. This
is because the shear strength of soil is dependent on effective stresses rather than
total stresses (recall the effective-stress principle). Also, this means that when we
conduct a direct shear test on wet or saturated soils, we have to facilitate drainage
while shearing the soil specimen to prevent the development of excess pore water
pressures in the soil. When the soil is saturated, the shear stress must be applied
very slowly to prevent the development of excess pore water pressure. That way
the total stress is equal to the effective stress because the pore water pressure is
kept equal to zero: σ′ = σ − u = σ − 0 = σ.
When measuring the shear strength of a soil using a direct shear test, one needs
to duplicate the field conditions of the soil being tested. Take, for example, the
case of the slope shown in Figure 5.1. To measure the shear strength at point A,
we can estimate the normal stress σ′ at that point. This requires knowledge of the
in situ unit weight of the soil and the location of the groundwater table. In the lab-
oratory we can reconstitute a soil specimen in the direct shear box, aiming for the
same in situ soil density. The soil sample can be submerged in a water basin (not
shown in Figure 5.3) to simulate field conditions. A constant vertical stress equal
to the normal stress σ′ calculated at point A is then applied to the soil specimen.
The shearing stage should not start until equilibrium within the soil specimen is
achieved. This means that if the soil is a clayey soil, we have to wait until the
excess pore water pressure generated as a result of stress application is dissipated.
Shearing can then be applied until failure. The shear stress applied at failure should
reflect the true shear strength of the soil at point A.
 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 169

60

50

40
τ (kPa)

σ′ = 50 kPa
30
3
σ′ = 30 kPa
20 2
σ′ = 10 kPa
10 1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shear Displacement (mm)
(a)

60

50

Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion for Clay

40
3
τ (kPa)

30
φ′ φ′ ≈ 26.5°
σ′ tan
c′ +
20 τ=
2

1
10
c′ ≈ 9 kPa
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
σ′ (kPa)
(b)

FIGURE 5.7 Determination of the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion for clay (direct shear
test).

Example 5.1 A dry sand sample is subjected to a normal stress σ′ = 20 kPa in a

direct shear test (Figure 5.3). Calculate the shear force at failure if the soil sample
is 10 cm × 10 cm in plane and 2.5 in height. The strength parameters of the sand
are c′ = 0 and φ′ = 38◦ .
170 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

Rocky Wedge

Pa
0k
100
σ′ =

kPa
550
τ=

Inclined Plane

FIGURE 5.8 Is the wedge going to slide?

SOLUTION: From the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion we can calculate the shear
strength of the sand at σ′ = 20 kPa:
◦
τf = c′ + σ′ tan φ′ = 0 + 20 × tan 38 = 15.6 kPa

At failure, the applied shear stress is equal to the shear strength of the soil (i.e.,
τ = τf ); therefore, the shear force at failure is:

T = τ × A = 15.6 × 0.1 × 0.1 = 0.156 kN = 156 N.

Example 5.2 An intact rocky wedge is situated on an inclined plane as shown in

Figure 5.8. Due to the self-weight of the wedge, a normal stress of 1000 kPa and
a shear stress of 550 kPa are applied to the inclined plane. Determine the safety of
the wedge against sliding given that the friction angle between the wedge and the
inclined plane is 30◦ .

SOLUTION: The shear strength offered at the wedge–plane interface can be cal-
culated using the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion with σ′ = 1000 kPa:
◦
τf = c′ + σ′ tan φ′ = 0 + 1000 × tan 30 = 577.35 kPa

To avoid sliding, the applied shear stress must be less than the shear strength
offered by the wedge–plane interface (i.e., τ < τf ). Luckily, τ is 550 kPa, which
is smaller than τf = 577.35 kPa. Therefore, the wedge is safe against sliding.

5.3 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

The triaxial compression test is used to determine the shear strength of soil and to
determine the stress–strain behavior of the soil under different confining pressures.