African Civilization

Séquence 2 : MYTHOLOGY & RELIGION IN ANCIEN EGYPT

African Civilization
Dr. Pierre Malick TINE
Séquence 2 : MYTHOLOGY & RELIGION IN ANCIEN EGYPT
I- Ancient Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian mythology was the belief structure and underlying form of ancient Egyptian culture from at least c.
4000 BCE (as evidenced by burial practices and tomb paintings) to 30 BCE with the death of Cleopatra VII, the
last ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt.
Every aspect of life in ancient Egypt was informed by the stories which related the creation of the world and the
sustaining of that world by the gods.

The significance of Egyptian Mythology to other cultures was in its development of the concept of an eternal
life after death, benevolent deities, and reincarnation. Both Pythagoras and Plato of Greece were said to have
been influenced by Egyptian beliefs in reincarnation and Roman religious culture borrowed as extensively from
Egypt as it did from other civilizations.

Human existence was understood by the Egyptians as only a small segment of an eternal journey presided over
and orchestrated by supernatural forces in the forms of the many deities which comprised the Egyptian pantheon.
According to the historian Bunson, one’s earthly life was not, however, simply a prologue to something greater
but was a part of the entire journey. The Egyptian concept of an afterlife was a mirror-world of one's life on
earth (specifically, one’s life in Egypt) and one needed to live that life well if one hoped to enjoy the rest of
one’s eternal journey. To the Egyptians, the journey began with the creation of the world and the universe out
of darkness and swirling chaos by gods.

1- The Gods
From the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) a belief in the gods defined the Egyptian culture.
An early Egyptian creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in the midst of swirling chaos before the
beginning of time and spoke creation into existence. Atum was accompanied by the eternal force
of Heka (magic), personified in the god Heka and by other spiritual forces which would animate the
world. Heka was the primal force which infused the universe and caused all things to operate as they did; it also
allowed for the central value of the Egyptian culture: ma’at, harmony and balance.

In Egyptian cosmogony Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys, and Horus – the five Egyptian gods most often recognized
as the earliest or, at least, the most familiar representations of older god-figures. All of the gods and all of their
responsibilities went back to ma'at and heka. The sun rose and set as it did and the moon traveled its course
across the sky and the seasons came and went in accordance with balance and order which was possible because
of these two agencies. Ma'at was also personified as a deity, the goddess of the ostrich feather, to whom every

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Séquence 2 : MYTHOLOGY & RELIGION IN ANCIEN EGYPT

king promised his full abilities and devotion. The king was associated with the god Horus in life and Osiris in
death based upon a myth which became the most popular in Egyptian history.

Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who governed the world and gave the people the gifts
of civilization. Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and murdered him but he was brought back to life by
Isis who then bore his son Horus. Osiris was incomplete, however, and so descended to rule the underworld
while Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and defeated Set. This myth illustrated how order
triumphed over chaos and would become a persistent motif in Egyptian religion, mortuary rituals, and religious
texts, and art. There was no period in which the gods did not play an integral role in the daily lives of the
Egyptians and this is clearly seen from the earliest times in the country’s history. Therefore, the gods of ancient
Egypt were perceived both as lords of creation and as familiar friends who were interested in helping and guiding
the people. They were seen not as deities who lived far off in the heavens but gods who lived amongst the people
in their everyday interactions.

2- The Significance of Ma’at

Ma'at is said to have been born of the sun god Ra (Atum) at the beginning of creation through the power
of Heka, who was magic personified. Her name means "that which is straight" implying order, justice, and
harmony. She is thought to have been present from the beginning of time when, from the primordial waters of
Nun, the ben-ben (first mound of dry land) rose with Atum (or Ra, the sun god) standing upon it in the presence
of the invisible Heka. In the moment that Ra spoke the world into creation, Ma'at was born. Her spirit of harmony
and balance infused the creation and caused the world to operate rationally according to purpose. The principle
of ma'at was the operational function of life and that of heka (magic) the power source which allowed for it. It
is for this reason that she is considered more of a concept than a goddess with a specific personality and story
like Isis or Hathor. Ma'at's spirit is the spirit of all creation, and if one is in tune with that spirit, one will live
well and have good reason to hope for eternal peace in the afterlife; if one refused to live in accordance with the
principles of Ma'at, then one suffered the consequences which one would have brought upon one's self

Her importance is signified by one of the means by which the Egyptians wrote her name. Although she was
often identified by the feather symbol, she was also designated by a plinth. The plinth was commonly seen
below the thrones of deities but not used to relay their personal names. The fact that Ma'at was signified by a
plinth suggests, according to Egyptologist Geraldine Pinch, that Ma'at was considered the foundation upon
which Egyptian society was built (160). Her significance is also demonstrated in iconography showing her
constantly at the side of Ra in his heavenly barge sailing with him across the sky during the day and helping him
defend the boat against the serpent Apophis by night.

The ancient Egyptians also invoked her name in stories of a long-lost past on earth when all things were beautiful
and there was no injustice. Such stories usually have to do with the time of Osiris and Isis and their just and
benevolent rule of the earth before Osiris was murdered by Set. In some cases, though, it is Ma'at who rules the
earth alone as Pinch notes. It is in her mortuary role that Ma'at is best known to most people in the modern day.
One of the most iconic images of ancient Egypt is the ceremony known as The Weighing of the Heart of the
Soul in which Ma'at and her white feather of truth were most important.

3- Ma'at's White Feather of Truth

The Egyptians believed strongly that every individual was responsible for his or her own life and that life should
be lived with other people and the earth in mind. In the same way that the gods cared for humanity, so should
humans care for each other and the earth which they had been provided with. This philosophy is evident in every

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aspect of Egyptian culture from the way they constructed their cities to the balance and symmetry of their
temples and monuments. If one lived harmoniously in the will of the gods, then one was living in harmony with
the concept of ma'at and the goddess who embodied that concept. One was free to live however one wanted, of
course, and completely ignore the principle of ma'at, but eventually one would face the trial which awaited
everyone: judgment in the Hall of Truth (also known as The Hall of Two Truths) in the afterlife.

To the Egyptians, the soul consisted of nine separate parts: the Khat was the physical body; the Ka one's double-
form; the Ba a human-headed bird aspect which could speed between earth and the heavens; Shuyet was the
shadow self; Akh the immortal, transformed self; Sahu and Sechem aspects of the Akh; Ab was the heart, the
source of good and evil; Ren was one's secret name. All nine of these aspects were part of one's earthly existence.
When one died, the Akh (with the Sahu and Sechem) appeared before the god Osiris in the Hall of Truth and in
the presence of the Forty-Two Judges to have one's heart (Ab) weighed in the balance on a golden scale against
Ma'at's white feather of truth. Death thus in ancient Egyptian belief, doesn’t quite necessarily mean the end but
a passage into the afterlife.

One would need to recite the Negative Confession (those actions one could honestly claim one had never
committed in life) and then one's heart was placed on the scale. If one's heart was lighter than Ma'at's feather,
one waited while Osiris conferred with the Forty-Two Judges and the god of wisdom, Thoth, and, if
considered worthy, was allowed to pass on through the hall and continue one's existence in paradise; if one's
heart was heavier than the feather, it was thrown to the floor where it was devoured by the monster Ammut (the
gobbler), and one then ceased to exist. No one could escape judgment, and the king of the land would have to
stand before the scales of Ma'at and Osiris just as the lowest slave of field hand would also..

Weighing the Heart, Book of the Dead Jon Bodsworth (Public Domain)

If one passed through judgment and avoided any of the pitfalls and traps set by demons and the forces of chaos,
one arrived at The Field of Reeds, a paradise where one was greeted by those loved ones who had gone before
and which was a mirror image of one's life on earth
To the Egyptians, life on earth was only one aspect of an eternal journey. The soul was immortal and was only
inhabiting a body on this physical plane for a short time. At death, one would meet with judgment in the Hall
of Truth and, if justified, would move on to an eternal paradise known as The Field of Reeds which was a
mirror image of one's life on earth. Once one had reached paradise one could live peacefully in the company of
those one had loved while on earth, including one’s pets, in the same neighborhood by the same stream, beneath

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the very same trees one thought had been lost at death. This eternal life, however, was only available to those
who had lived well and in accordance with the will of the gods in the most perfect place conducive to such a
goal: the land of Egypt.

The ancient Egyptian belief in life as an eternal journey created and maintained by divine magic, inspired later
cultures and later religious beliefs. Much of the iconography and the beliefs of Egyptian religion found their
way into the new religion of Christianity and many of their symbols are recognizable today with largely the
same meaning. It is an important testimony to the power of the Egyptian civilization that so many works of the
imagination, from films to books to paintings even to religious belief, have been and continue to be inspired by
its elevating and profound vision of the universe and humanity's place in it.

II- Religion
Egyptian religion was more than the modern understanding of religion as the belief in a higher power and life
after death. Ancient Egyptian religion incorporated practices and beliefs which people today would associate
with mythology, science, medicine, spiritualism, psychiatry, magic, and herbology. It was based on the concept
of universal harmony between people and their gods emphasizing gratitude and relying on what we would call
magic. Religion was completely incorporated into the lives of the Egyptians no matter their social class and
informed every aspect of their daily routine.

A- The Clergy, Temples & Scripture

Although the Greek historian Herodotus claims that only men could be priests in ancient Egypt, the Egyptian
record argues otherwise. Women could be priests of the cult of their goddess from the Old Kingdom onward
and were accorded the same respect as their male counterparts. Usually a member of the clergy had to be of the
same sex as the deity they served. The cult of Hathor, most notably, was routinely attended to by female clergy
(it should be noted that ‘cult’ did not have the same meaning in ancient Egypt that it does today. Cults were
simply sects of one religion). Priests and Priestesses could marry, have children, own land and homes and lived
as anyone else except for certain ritual practices and observances regarding purification before officiating.

Priests, like scribes, went through a prolonged training period before beginning service and, once ordained, took
care of the temple or temple complex, performed rituals and observances (such as marriages, blessings on a
home or project, funerals), performed the duties of doctors, healers, astrologers, scientists, and psychologists,
and also interpreted dreams. They blessed amulets to ward off demons or increase fertility, and also performed
exorcisms and purification rites to rid a home of ghosts.

Their chief duty was to the god they served and the people of the community, and an important part of that duty
was their care of the temple and the statue of the god within. Priests were also doctors in the service of Heka,
no matter what other deity they served directly. An example of this is how all the priests and priestesses of the
goddess Serket (Selket) were doctors but their ability to heal and invoke Serket was enabled through the power
of Heka.

The temples of ancient Egypt were thought to be the literal homes of the deities they honored. Every morning
the head priest or priestess, after purifying themselves with a bath and dressing in clean white linen and clean
sandals, would enter the temple and attend to the statue of the god as they would to a person they were charged
to care for.

The doors of the sanctuary were opened to let in the morning light, and the statue, which always resided in the
innermost sanctuary, was cleaned, dressed, and anointed with oil; afterwards, the sanctuary doors were closed

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Séquence 2 : MYTHOLOGY & RELIGION IN ANCIEN EGYPT

and locked. No one but the head priest was allowed such close contact with the god. Those who came to the
temple to worship only were allowed in the outer areas where they were met by lesser clergy who addressed
their needs and accepted their offerings.

Egyptian Temple by Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez (1883) (Public Domain)

There were no official ‘scriptures’ used by the clergy but the concepts conveyed at the temple are thought to
have been similar to those found in works such as the Pyramid Texts, the later Coffin Texts, and the spells found
in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Although it is often referred to as ‘The Ancient Egyptian Bible’ it was no
such thing. It is a collection of spells for the soul in the afterlife. The Pyramid Texts are the oldest religious
texts in ancient Egypt dating from c. 2400-2300 BCE. The Coffin Texts were developed later from the Pyramid
Texts c. 2134-2040 BCE while the Book of the Dead (actually known as the Book of Coming Forth by Day)
was set down sometime c. 1550-1070 BCE.

All three of these works deal with how the soul is to navigate the afterlife. Their titles (given by European
scholars) and the number of grand tombs and statuary throughout Egypt, not to mention the
elaborate burial rituals and mummies, have led many people to conclude that Egyptian culture was obsessed
with death when, actually, the Egyptians were wholly concerned with life. The Book of Coming Forth by Day,
as well as the earlier texts, present spiritual truths one would have heard while in life and remind the soul of
how one should now act in the next phase of one’s existence without a physical body or a material world. The
soul of any Egyptian was expected to recall these truths from life, even if they never set foot inside a temple
compound, because of the many religious festivals the Egyptians enjoyed throughout the year.

B- Religious Festivals & Life

Religious festivals in Egypt integrated the sacred aspect of the gods seamlessly with the daily lives of the people.
There were grand festivals, for instance, The Beautiful Festival of the Wadi in honor of the god Amun and
smaller festivals for other gods or to celebrate events in the life of the community. Bunson writes, “On certain
days, in some eras several times a month, the god was carried on arks or ships into the streets or set sail on
the Nile. There the oracles took place and the priests answered petitions” (p.209). The statue of the god would
be removed from the inner sanctuary to visit the members of the community and take part in the celebration; a
custom which may have developed independently in Egypt or come from Mesopotamia where this practice had
a long history. To sum up, all classes of Egyptian society would attend religious festivals Elder members of the
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community, the poor, the wealthy, the ruling class, and the slaves as religion was intertwined with everybody's
lives. The people believed that the gods had created the world and that they were owed gratitude on a daily basis.

Ressources complémentaires du chapitre 2 :

Bibliography 2

Bunson, M. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Gramercy Books, 1991.

David, R. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Flinders, Sir W. M. (William Matthew Flinders) Petrie. The Religion of Ancient Egypt. Public Domain Books,
2009.
Gods and Goddesses Accessed 1 Dec 2016.
Mark, J. J. (2009, September 02). Ancient Egypt. World History Encyclopedia.
https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/
Nardo, D. Living in Ancient Egypt. Thompson/Gale, 2004.
Oakes, L. and Gahlin, L. Ancient Egypt. Hermes House, London, 2008.
Shaw, I. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Strudwick, H. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Metro Books, 2006.
Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2003.

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