ot 2% ®%ee

@ Ge
@
e e

=
Noo”
GALORE PARK

www.galorepark.co.uk _ W.R. Pickering

® e®®@@e6 a
°
ese”
. e
See ;
 : vt?
yatese

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/scienceprepbook20000pick
 So you really want to learn

Science
Book 2
By W. R Pickering B.Sc., Ph.D., M.I.Biol., C.Biol., F.L.S.

Edited by Louise Martine B.Sc. (Lon)

‘i
CT! r)
ee
NA
and
Independent Schools
www. galorepark.co.uk ‘oo
Examinations Board GALORE PARK
Published by ISEB Publications, an imprint of Galore Park Publishing Ltd,
19/21 Sayers Lane, Tenterden, Kent TN30 6BW
www.galorepark.co.uk

Text copyright © W. R. Pickering 2004

Illustrations copyright © Galore Park 2004
Illustrations by Graham Edwards
Cartoons by lan Douglass

The right of W.R. Pickering to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

The 3-D cartoons used in this book are © www.animationfactory.com

This publication includes images from Corel DRAW® 9 which are protected by
the copyright laws of the U.S., Canada and elsewhere. Used under licence.

Typography and layout by Typetechnique, London W1

Printed and bound by L.E.G.O. S.p.A., Italy
Cover design by GKA Design, London WC2H

ISBN: 978 1 902984 37 7

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written
permission of the copyright owner or a licence permitting restricted copying issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OLP.

First published 2004

Reprinted 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2010

Details of other Galore Park publications are available at

www.galorepark.co.uk

ISEB Revision Guides, publications and examination papers may also be

obtained from Galore Park.

Photograph p.211 © Dr D.A. Hodgson; Photograph p.286 © Paul Battley

b = bottom, m = middle, t= top, r= right, / = left

Photographs also supplied by the Science Photo Library: p.14r Claude Nuridsany & Marie Perennou;
p.14/ Dr Gopal Murti; p.57r CNRI; p.57/D. Phillips; p.88r Barbara Strnadova; p.88/ Lawrence Lawry;
p.92 Lynn Stone; p.123, p.384 Science Photo Library; p.197¢#/, p.131 Charles D. Winters; p.194
Novosti; p.197tm Alfred Pasieka; p.197tr Russ Lappa; p.1976/, p.197br, p.159, p.235 Andrew Lambert;
p.197bm Martyn F. Chillmaid; p.202 Francoise Sauze; p.212 Sidney Moulds; p.428 Kent Wood; p.317t
Geoff Tompkinson; p.317b Alex Bartel; p.353, p.356 NASA; p.359 George Post; p.361 Jerry Shad;
p211, p.241 John Mead.

All other photographs are © W.R. Pickering

Acknowledgements
| should like to acknowledge the ideas for illustrations given to me by Zoe Panayi,
Jenny Bowen, Jacquie Blundell and Amy Warburton — where would | be without
ladies to organise my life! The production of the book was made immeasurably more
straightforward by the editing skills of Louise Martine and the drawing talents of
Graham Edwards. | should like to dedicate this volume to Barbara and Bill, my Mum
and Dad — without them none of this would have been possible (See page 31 for
further explanation).

W. R. Pickering
August 2004

The publishers would like to thank David Penter, Richard Balding and Sue Hunter for
their invaluable comments during the production of this book. They would also like to
thank Charlie Grover for his outstanding attention to detail in proof-reading this book.

2008 Common Entrance Syllabus

An appendix has been added to this edition to highlight the changes between the 2003
syllabus and the 2008 Common Entrance syllabus (see Appendix 1 on page 434).

Important Note for Teachers: Update in Energy Terminology

The syllabus for 2008 refers to ‘internal thermal energy’. It is no longer desirable to use
‘heat’ aS a noun or adjective as in the term ‘heat energy’. Strictly, the energy that an
object has due to its temperature should be called its ‘internal energy’. When an object
is heated, ‘thermal*energy’ flows into it thus increasing its ‘internal energy’. So the flow
of what used to be called ‘heat energy’ should be called ‘thermal energy’ and how much
it actually has should be called its ‘internal energy’. However, we consider this
distinction between internal and thermal energy an unnecessary complication at this
level. In So you really want to learn Science Book 2 the term ‘internal/thermal energy’
has been used to indicate that either adjective is acceptable. This has been shortened
to ‘thermal energy’ where the use of the full term would be awkward (in labelling some
diagrams and where the term is used several times in a paragraph).

The energy stored by an object that has been bent, stretched or compressed has been
described as ‘elastic/strain (potential) energy’ as either ‘elastic’ or ‘strain’ is acceptable
and ‘potential’ is optional.

Tom Adams (Team Leader, ISEB Physics Panel)

Preface
| hope that Science Book 1 started you on the many adventures that make up the
study of science. The book will have helped you to learn some basic facts essential
for scientists, should have explained to you the scientific way of thinking about
experiments and, hopefully, will have stimulated your imagination so that you will
want to find out more.

Science Book 2 will take you further. You will find out more about atoms and
molecules (did you know that there are more molecules in a glass of tapwater than
there are humans on the Earth!), and how all living organisms are made up of cells.
You will be able to work out how different forms of energy can be converted into one
another, including how you release the energy from your food so that you can move
more quickly to your next Science lesson! The book will help you to understand how
we can predict properties of materials and suggest ways in which we humans can
use this knowledge in our everyday activities. You will also have more opportunities
to design the types of experiment that have given us so much of our scientific
knowledge, and be able to analyse the results that these experiments provide.

You make hundreds of decisions every day. You decide what to wear if it’s raining,
what to eat, which type of cleaner to use in the kitchen, how to use an electrical
appliance safely, how much exercise you need to keep fit and whether your actions
harm other living organisms, for example. Studying science with Science Book 2 will
help you to make many of these decisions in a more sensible way: you will have more
information and understanding to help with your decisions. | also hope that you will
continue to believe that science is fun!

W. R. Pickering
August 2004

About the author

Ron Pickering has published a number of very successful books covering the GCSE
and A level syllabus and has worked in both maintained and independent education
for more than 20 years.
Contents

Chapter 1
Biology is the study of life and living organisms ...................... of
Eiving organisms, cre imadeot Cells, een. kts a. 5 has tles oo 1 2 Ge ake ema mes ee o

Chapter 2
Nutrition eA: balancedidiet iq aso nae meer sent. tentee ae re meas i,
Nutrition provides a supply of usable food molecules .................. 20

Chapter 3 —
Mine Tunctions.of the skeleton: G02. saccncc cava) tesco ded ars. seinssao RO 27

Chapter 4
Reproduer
tone wet x Sertedin «is. niorate. PO ORS SOs Sep. See re Pee 31
Pibeimenstrualicy cle. soci steno RRO Re Ani Ree, ee 36
preqnancy1,he role of the placenta. .9:, 0 4Js54.40 5 a st ee 40

Chapter 5
Respiration) grew ah soca; ca'cy. ccna) ayspeliapes SR es PAT OO DAY ee eae 45
Respiration and breathing. ......5:.<.. xeliGie? te see eee Te 49
SUOKING ONC CISCASC: sca 6 olan sciey iys-srdusy myantanec SEIS ON. A ee Se 54

Chapter 6
PIC
CIT WY IVANG ett ies fac, ooge okoscreda cheno eo. cect aioy6 SE Pe ee 58
MRicrobes: and CISCASE! oh ..o sais ovNR oecsSedisreve die sRIMI Dt apes SE 61
Individuals and the community can fight disease together .............. 66

Chapter 7
Green plants.as organisms: Photosynthesis .......:.........
. 2a ON. eee 68
eaves and roots help plants to grow 2... .ce. ...)-- sco. . Ss Ee SE 73

Chapter 8
MMO TION ONGICIGSSITICGNIOND nme nace er ee ren ct sys) Gad nsw aeteneeeauu suas ene 78
MSE RVONIETVEO TalUh CMR ee Mie ar ne att csee calen 0 oe igh wlacnib) 4 foe Sees eles 85
 Selective breedingc jae: 05 << yicgs Ren eee ee ee oe 92
‘Adaptations 5.43 sivscudlss, wig ane see eens eee oeoreeee ene 95

Chapter 9
Feeding relationships “00 NP ee ee oe, Bs ee eee re eee 99
Food:chains and pollution: .. 2.0.25 cre. occ ee oe PE ee, ee 105

Chapter 10
Populations:and competition: 6.205 25209. eh 2 en es ee ee 109
Humans may have a positive effect on the environment: Conservation ...... 114

Whatis:Chemistry? 2050 3% «cacao oe ee ee 122

Chapter 11
Experiments in Chemistry: Important apparatus and skills ............. 124
Using.a:Bunseniburner:) cca ie bee ne Ae eee 131
Useful chemical tests: <5 /5.2.51 = ce oe ee ee eee 135

Chapter 12
States. of matter: Solids, liquids and gases: ... ww... 3 see 138
Other'properties of solids, liquids and gases’... <.2n<csec.-
uc. eae ee 144
Particle: theory: <.).ai ases fe Ra cee OBE TA ee ee 149

Chapter 13
Mixtures: Pure*substance or mixture? | ce2.4) 62: Jaci eloy ence ee 156
More about mixtures: Solutions and solubility ..................... 158
Separating mixtures of materials... 5. we ans osha, SR 165

Chapter 14
Acids. basesiand indicatorsi... om 2:4. 23 2s ae. cc meee eee 173

Acid or alkali? Using indicators. (2.205.603:

eee ws ey ae 178
More reactions:of acids *ithant sroeelh. Wee) SRR Set en See 185

Chapter 15
Elements.and compounds: ......64.4.3..<
SHRI see a ee 191
Metals and non-metals |. 2.wiscceuese Oe eee 195
Comparing oxides of metals and non-metals ..................-222.4. 199
Compounds. ./s06. os StS Se i eee 200
Chapter 16
CHEMICAI EGCTIONS ©Bok 2.0 occaue seek why avcee ies Sede Ress ecaeo cl PO 205
Userulchemical,reactions: mtoviees myn eines teers Soke Al, boaenneng 208
Chemical reactions, that are hot useful’ . sa ieuer qentes,. oes be ee tons 211
COMMOUST
IONE lescsinscacte ls Raia fan aia 5-2, i ks Gautam 214
Conservation of mass during chemical changes ..................-.. 223
Chemical reactions can be reversed ~-o.0. 0 co as Sea odes 225

Chapter 17
Mihe reactions: Or Metis! tae. oa eee ot ee ee eh 228

Chapter 18
WV GR LISCENOOGY25 pret reg Cig ge Sn oh OEM eae pce nae Tee ee ee 251
ENERGY PESOURCES pe ee otk ois al oc behctu oktoe at Ee ors eee 256
Fossiiidels mer Sete ie mit Vite Sette 9! POR) ee. 8 2 260
Renewopleeneroy FeSOUrCeS 9°52. ss fs ce ee eo eg ee © ey 266
SOVINGICNEROV ESsn RE Be Se, et hae a Minky a teOt Sie hee ee nee 273

Chapter 19
Generating electricity froma fuel* *2. 7. 2. cs ee ees ce ee 2/7,
Electricity and.eneray s¢22% 3) 295.2.5.2 5.0.2.2.5 SoS ack ee hee ee 280

Chapter 20
Electricity on the move: Electrical.circuits: 35.5. 5 8.36 As Ga eee 285
Semes ana parcel crusts 22h..°. > <0 6 % 975. 6 obs 0s) 5)Sten fs Ss See ee 290
PrODlems WISMICIRCUNTS eo oes cies eee al foes ee Ae ne ee eee Ce 300

Chapter 21
ANOPEELECHIACANCOMMDONENNS wie. s.cihacs 6..0.0 6 <a) tge ns)auntie cote foe acs ee wooo 304
More about switches and control: Truth tables and logic gates .......... 306

Chapter 22
Magnets Gnd MagneICH ICVAS 6orca. co eecars cis coaaa iene er ea 308

Electnicity and imagnerist bec es ee ete eee he a ee ee eee e Si3

Chapter 23
More’ about energy: ....<ccciseneic4 avanitevereoh tetas oo eee aoe ee ee 319
The passage of thermal energy: Insulators and conductors ............ 324
More methods of thermal energy transfer . 4itsas 3a: SR? See 329

Chapter 24
CONSCIVGTIONOL-ENELOY) Conene ocho: + ener eicrs Shas SEE: CR Ae nee ee Siele)
EETISMOV ONCILUVIIN LININGS saree econ a eo pati (Wea taetesOnl ep a 337

Chapter 25
The-Earthiandithe:Solar/System) anne 6 oe ee 344
Keeping the planets in orbit: The force of gravity .................. 347
Artifical satellites help us to understand the Solar System ............ cop!
inevyear.and:
the seasons ox ts ae iota eee Oe engl Cee meee eee 355
iwme;Sun.and other stars. Fc.utenA~ Aen eaetee ate ees eo se ee 361

Chapter 26
Forces andilinear motion: 25.5 a tre. cos nics ta. ence) eS 365
EISTONCESANGMTIME oehui ne ee os a.Paes ta aes aot Su eee 369
Tine force of Qnovity.inis naka deccveneg eet fos tos ea ace ot S72
Boalancediand unbalanced forcesié crchnscessisce
os en ee 378

Chapter 27
EGICHIOM GMA MMOTION 365.4.4 4 ate wu.ctews axe © Kose Agee eee ee a ee 382
ROCCESLGNCIPONAHON wmyeerch ix sek Sz dito 251 ey Shen oa eae Pee 388
FORCE ONG ORES SUNNS iy-. tyler Sit urge Pere ayMths si a ick Ne a ea 393
PressurenimliQuids sHVOTQuiics whe. 2. 4) oi eee ace ohs 2 oo Cd 397

Chapter 28
Light: and jlightsSourCes pace) 9) 3-4 Sse, ose ta ae be: ee ee 400
Mirrorsiand the refiectioniofwlignt ..... 2... 042. sees) ace Cee 405
Refractioniofilignt sake < snl 2)sis ncn 4 Cutan or ae ee 409
Light
and! Colour 6. intros aa tee PARES alc a icas tm ee ee 414

Chapter 29
Vibnation.and sound ile oo. 4.5 Rear ote eee eee 421
Different sounds’. «ideas, Senso een os Seen oe ee ee 429

Appendixs| 2 ou 2. eS ae ee Re ae tenth De re eae 434

ENO oso es eee a RS ren ee 436
Introduction
About this book
So you really want to learn Science Book 2completes the syllabus for science at Key Stage
3 and is the second stage of an ISEB-approved course leading to Common Entrance at 13.

It covers all three sciences:

Life and living processes: Here you will continue your

exploration and investigations into the lives of plants and
animals. You will learn something about the ways in which
different living organisms, including ourselves, all depend on
one another for survival; and about how different organisms
get their differences, and how they are passed on from
generation to generation. You will also from time to time
meet Felix the Helix, an interesting biological character who
will help you to unravel some of the mysteries of life.

Materials and their properties: This is where you will find

out about the properties of different materials. You will see
that many of these properties are explained by the fact that
materials are made of tiny particles. Hydrogena Peroxide
(Gena) understands much about the properties of materials,
and is very good at explaining how different materials can
react with one another.

Physical processes: Freddie Force the Biker Boy is really

keen on this section. He is always trying to find out about the
physical processes that affect his everyday life. He will do
his best to explain about forces, electricity and magnetism,
and the properties of light rays and sound waves.

Of course, scientists from the different areas of science work

together so don’t be surprised if any one of these characters turns
up when you might not expect him to!

Whot is science?
As we go through this book we will continue to build on the scientific knowledge we have
already learned. Remember that asking questions about the world around us is the first
step to becoming a scientist. Carrying out experiments is a good way for scientists to start
finding things out and to begin to answer some of the more challenging questions we have.
You will already have got to grips with the idea of conducting fair tests when carrying out
experiments and in this book we will give you the opportunity to do many more. You will
also see some of the things we have found out from the results of experiments carried out
by other scientists.
Investigations in science
Before we launch into this book it is worth pausing and taking some time to go over some of the rules we need to stick
to in order that we can carry out experiments in a reliable way. This section will show you:
® why scientists carry out experiments;
what we mean by a variable;
what we mean by a fair test;
how we measure variables;
how we can record and display our results;
how we Can spot a pattern in our results; and
how we draw a conclusion from our results.

What is an experiment?
Every day we make hundreds of observations; for example ‘it’s raining again’, ‘that car is moving faster than the other
one’, ‘that tree looks bigger today’ or ‘some of the pet mice are bigger than the others’. When we think like a scientist
we might try to give some sort of explanation for what we observe. We might think that some mice are bigger than
others because of what they eat. An experiment is a way of collecting information to check out our explanations.
Before a scientist begins an experiment, he or she will have a definite purpose or aim. The aim of an experiment is a
way of stating carefully what you are trying to find out.

The aim of an experiment

I'm going to do Say exactly what you will do, not just:
an experiment.
"studying mice" or "changing the diet
for mice."
The aim should say why you are doing
My aim is to investigate the the experiment.
effect of protein on the
growth of mice.

What about variables?

An experiment has the aim of investigating the effect of one factor (protein in the diet, for example) on another factor
(weight, for example). These factors can have different values, and so are called variables. In our experiment we can
change the values of these variables, so we might give one group of mice more protein than we give another group.
Anything that we can measure is a variable.
 _ Investigationsinscience’
The experiment must be a fair test
An experiment will not be a fair test if you change more than one variable at a time. So only change one variable at
a time. Here are the steps you should follow before conducting an experiment.
~

Step 1: Identify the variables. Variables are factors that might affect the results.

Step 2: Choose which variable you will change. This is called the input variable.

Step 3: Choose the variable that you think will be affected by changing the input variable. This is called the
outcome variable.

Step 4: Decide what equipment you will need to measure any changes. Then go ahead and carry out your
experiment.

For example in Felix’s experiment on the weight of mice, he must make sure it is a fair test by only changing one
variable at a time. The weight of the mice might be affected by:
@ how old they are;
e how much water they drink;

e@ other foods they eat; and

® how big their cage is.

If he wants to investigate how protein affects the weight of mice, all these other variables must stay the same.

Finally remember to work safely:

® always wash your hands after touching plants or animals;

@ carry equipment carefully;

e don’t run in the laboratory; and

8 wear suitable clothing.

How we measure variables

During an experiment a scientist will change one variable. This is called the input variable. The scientist will want to
find out if the change in this variable causes a change in another variable. This second variable is called the outcome
variable. To make sure that the experiment is a fair test, the scientist will also want to check that none of the other
possible variables is changing. Scientists like you need special equipment to measure any changes in these
variables. Some of these pieces of equipment, and what you would use them for, have already been described in
Science Book 1. The table on the next page will give you a quick reminder:
 | Science Book 2
Table 1: Measuring equipment for use in Science

Equipment What it measures Units (Symbol)

Balance

Stopwatch seconds (s)

Measuring volume millilitres (ml)

cylinder and litres (dm°)

Ruler/tape millimetres (mm)

measure and metres (m)

Thermometer temperature degrees Celsius (°C)

Making a record of our results

Results (or observations) are a record of the measurements you have taken during an experiment. There are
certain rules about the way you should show these results. They should be recorded in a table, like the one shown
below:

Making a table of results Give the columns headings by putting

the name of the variable and the units.

In the second (right-hand)

column put the values
for the outcome variable,
e.g. weight of mice.
In the first (left-hand)
column, put the values
for the input variable,
e.g. the amount of
protein in the food.

Use a ruler to draw lines

Write the values as around your table. It makes
decimals not as it look neater and more
fractions, e.g. 6.5 scientific!
not 6/2.

GIVE ITA TITLE: The easiest

is ‘The effect of (input variable)
Put the numbers in order, not on (outcome variable)’. For.
just mixed up. For example, 2, 4, example 'The effect of the
6, 8, 10 rather than 2, 10, 6, 8, 4. amountof protein in their food, |
If you do, it makes it much easier
to see patterns in your results.
on the weight of the mice’.
 Investigations

When you look at your results, you may see a certain pattern. It might seem that the more protein a mouse gets in its
diet, for example, the faster it grows.

@ Your results will be more reliable if you carry out each test more than once, and then take an average of the
results. Why? (I hear you ask). Just think about it. If you happen to get the greediest mouse this side of
Timbuctoo, your results might be unusual. If you do the experiment with ten mice and work out the average
weight, the results will be more reliable.

e If one or two of the results don’t fit the pattern, the first thing to do is check your measurement. If your
measurement was accurate, and you have the time, you can repeat the test to check the ‘odd’ result.

Displaying your results

Sometimes you can see a pattern in your results from the table you have made. It isn’t always easy to spot a pattern
directly from a table, and it may be better to look at them in another way. Charts and graphs display your results like
pictures and they can make it very easy to see patterns, but only if they are drawn in the correct way. There are rules
for drawing graphs and charts, just as there are rules for putting results into tables.
@ First of all, look at the variables you measured. If both of the variables have numbers as their values, you should
draw (sometimes we Say ‘plot’) a line graph. If one of the variables isn’t measured in numbers, you should
choose a bar chart.
@ You should always put the input variable on the horizontal axis and the outcome variable on the vertical
axis. If you don’t do this, you can easily mix up the patterns between the two variables.

Make sure before you read on that you know how to draw a bar chart and a line graph. Hopefully you've had a lot of
practice, not only in your science lessons but in your maths lessons too.

Using graphs
A graph can let you see a pattern between two variables. For example, as protein in their diet increases, so does the
weight of mice. The graph can also let you make predictions if it shows an obvious pattern. So, you might be able to
predict how much a mouse would weigh if it were fed on a diet containing a certain amount of protein.

Just before we look at how to do this using a graph, it is worth making an important point about predictions. It is in fact
very useful indeed to make some of your own predictions even before you get started on your experiment. If you do
this, it can help you to plan much better experiments. If we take the example of looking at the effect protein has on the
weight of the mice eating it, we can make a pretty good guess (a prediction) that the more we feed them the heavier
they are likely to become. We can also start to plan what apparatus we will need and so on.

Right, now you know this you can have a look on the next page to see how we can use graphs to help make
predictions. You may remember doing this in Book 1.
 Science Book 2.

Using a graph to make a prediction

Weight
of mice,
in grams

Predict how much a mouse 62- if = ! =

|
—+ we =

would weigh if it had 7 extra se |e 2 we: : | a . | |

Now! Draw a line across ||

grams of protein in its diet. 60- ' until it reaches the 'y’ axis. 7

OTE Ha |} First! Draw astraight line

r ec Hisnallista (using a ruler) up from the |
|7 until it hits the graph line.

0 2 4 6 Bo i) Ie
Protein in food, in grams

PREDICTION: 7 extra grams of protein means

a weight of 57 grams.

Making conclusions
Once you have collected all of your results into a table, and perhaps drawn a graph or chart, you need to sum up what
you have found out. This summing up is called a conclusion, and here are some tips:
@ Your conclusion should be related to the aim of your experiment.
If your aim was to investigate the effect of light intensity on plant growth and you saw a clear pattern, then your
conclusion might be that ‘the higher the light intensity the taller the plant’.
® Try to write your conclusion simply (one sentence is often enough) but make sure it explains how the input
variable affects the outcome variable for your experiment.
@ Don’t just describe your results.
For example, in the experiment on mouse growth the statement ‘a lot of protein in the diet makes a mouse
heavy’ is really giving only one of your results. A much better conclusion would be ‘the greater the amount of
protein in the diet, the heavier the mouse becomes’.
 Life and living processes | 7

Chapter 1
Biology is the study of life and living
organisms
Scientists believe that the Earth was formed from an enormous cloud of gases about 5 000 000 000 (5 billion) years
ago. Conditions were harsh — there was no oxygen gas and the environment was very unstable. It is thought that there
might have been rainstorms which lasted for hundreds of years, erupting volcanoes that could have caused
tremendous temperature changes in some areas and certainly would have released great clouds of suffocating gases.
Conditions were clearly very unsuitable for life as we know it!

Many scientists also believe that the first and simplest living organisms appeared on the Earth about 2 800 000 000
years ago. These simple organisms probably fed themselves from chemicals present in a sort of ‘soup’ (sometimes
called the primordial soup) which made up some of the shallow seas on the Earth at that time. Scientists,
philosophers and leaders of the world’s religions ask the question: “What is the difference between these first living
organisms and the molecules in the primordial soup?”

Everyone has some ideas about what living things do. Birds fly, horses run, fish swim and plants bend towards light.
Most living things get taller, heavier and wider. They all seem to produce seeds or eggs, or give birth to live young. On
the other hand, bricks, steel girders, car tyres and pieces of furniture don’t do any of these things and so we Say that
they are non-living. It is not so easy to be definite about some other ‘structures’. For example, is a dried-out seed or a
virus particle living or non-living? To try to answer this type of question it is useful to make a list of characteristics which
we might expect living organisms to have.

Characteristics of living organisms

All living organisms carry out these seven life processes:

Dp respiration;

td sensitivity (they respond to their environment);

@ movement;

@ nutrition (they nourish themselves);

®& growth (they grow and develop);

® excretion; and

e reproduction.
8 | Science Book2

The seven processes: The characteristics of life

RESPIRATION: This is the process

Important! which releases energy from food.
Plants and animals need energy for
Without ENERGY a living organism
movement, growth and repair.
cannot carry out its life processes.
Respiration usually needs oxygen
When scientists check Moon dust
(see page 45).
for signs of life, they look to see if
there's anything there that can glucose + oxygen —» carbon
carry out the process of dioxide + water + energy
RESPIRATION.

MOVEMENT: Animals use energy

to move around in search of food,
water, warmth and safety. Most
GROWTH: Plants and animals
plants are fixed by their roots.
grow from a single cell until they
They move towards light, water
are adults. Animals usually stop
and nutrients by growth. This Is
growing at this stage but trees and
much slower than animal
other plants can keep growing until
locomotion (see page 28).
they cannot get enough nutrients
from their surroundings (see page
EXCRETION: Nutrition and other
42).
processes produce waste material
that cannot be used. Animals get rid
NUTRITION: Plants and animals
of waste gases from their lungs. The
need food for energy and growth.
kidneys keep the body free from
Green plants make their own food
impurities, they remove excess
from carbon dioxide and water by
water from the blood and create a
photosynthesis. Animals cannot
waste liquid called urine. Animals
make their own food so they eat
also excrete dissolved waste in
organic food made by plants (see
sweat. Unused solid material is
page 21).
removed (egested) as faeces.
Plants accumulate waste products
in their leaves. These are excreted
SENSITIVITY: All living things can
when the leaves fall from the plant.
sense and react to changes in the
the environment. Animals react to REPRODUCTION: All living things |
temperature, light, sound, smell,
can make new organisms like
taste and physical stimuli, e.g. themselves. Simple organisms,
being Jabbed with a pin. Plants such as bacteria, do this by
react by growing towards light, splitting in half (asexual
away from gravity. Some
reproduction). Complex plants
carnivorous plants react quickly
and animals reproduce sexually to
when touched by an insect (see
produce fertilised eggs or seeds
page 183).
(see page 31).
el
 Life and living processes | 9

Living organisms are made of cells

@ Living organisms have certain recognisable characteristics called life processes.

® Living organisms depend on a supply of energy to keep their life processes going.

A living organism is made up of many different chemicals. Even the simplest organisms have the chemicals arranged
into units called cells. Although cells may take on very specialised functions, they have certain common features which
can be recognised in almost all of them. Each cell, whether it comes from a plant or an animal, has:

® a cell surface membrane which surrounds the cell and separates it from its environment:

® cytoplasm which provides the environment for most of the work of the cell; and

@ a nucleus which contains the information to control the activities of the cell.

In addition, plant cells:

® are surrounded by a cellulose cell wail;

® often contain a fluid-filled vacuole; and

@ may have chloroplasts within the cytoplasm.

The common features of plant and animal cells allow these cells to carry out the basic processes necessary to remain
alive. For example, within the cytoplasm there are small structures which can release energy from food, and within the
nucleus the DNA is arranged in a way which allows the cell to control its own activities. The differences between plant
and animal cells are due to the differences in lifestyle between animals and plants, especially in their different methods
of nutrition. The diagram below shows a comparison of typical animal and plant cells.

Plant and animal cells have Special plant cell features often
common features which relate to photosynthesis.
Animal cell relate to carrying out life Plant cell
processes.
The CELLULOSE CELL WALL is
The CELL SURFACE rigid (stiff) enough to support the
MEMBRANE surrounds the cell but lets water and gases
cytoplasm. It controls the pass through.
entry and exit of dissolved
substances and is
responsible for separating
The LARGE VACUOLE helps to
the cell's contents from its
support the cell and can be used
surroundings.
as a store for chemicals.

The CYTOPLASM contains

water and dissolved
The CHLOROPLASTS contain
chemicals. Most of the
the chlorophyll needed to absorb
chemical reactions, such as
light energy for photosynthesis
respiration, go on in the
(see page 68).
cytoplasm.

The NUCLEUS contains the The STARCH STORAGE

genetic material called DNA GRANULES show that
which makes up genes and photosynthesis has been going
chromosomes. The DNA on (see page 70).
carries the coded
instructions controlling the
activities and characteristics
of the cell.
10 Yel
(=)aler= ={ol0), 4

The size of cells

Most animals’ cells are quite small. In fact you could fit 40 to 50 of them into a 1 mm circle. Plant cells are bigger. You
could only fit about 10 of them into a 1 mm circle. Both types of cell (plant and animal) are too small to be seen with
your unaided eye. You need to use a microscope to see them (see page 14).

Large organisms are always multicellular; that is, they are made up of many cells. Different types of cell develop to
carry out different tasks and functions — they have become specialised. Some examples of specialised cells, and the
jobs which they carry out, are shown below:

Specialised cells are adapted to carry out one task very efficiently

CILIATED EPITHELIAL CELLS can trap

dust and microbes and move them out PALISADE CELLS in
of the breathing system (see page 50). the leaf contain many
chloroplasts and can
carry out
photosynthesis very
efficiently.

MUSCLE CELLS can use energy to get

shorter — when they do this they can
move bones (see page 28).

ROOT HAIR CELLS can absorb water

and minerals from the soil
(see page 74). 2

SPERM CELLS can swim to an EGG

CELL so that fertilisation can take place
(see page 31).

NERVE CELLS are long and thin. They carry messages from
one part of the body to another. This helps to co-ordinate all the
different activities around the body.
 Life and living processes 11

Cells which have similar structure and function are joined together into tissues, and several tissues may be combined
to form an organ. An organ is a complex structure with a particular function. When the different jobs needed to keep
a whole organism alive are separated into different cells, tissues and organs, we say that there is division of labour.

Cells, tissues and organ systems

Multicellular plants and animals contain many different types of cell. Each type of cell is designed for a particular
function. Cells are organised to form tissues, organs and organ systems. In a healthy organism all systems work
together.

Specialised cells
A specialised cell is designed to do a Organism
particular job. Various organ systems together make
® Nerve cells have long fibres to ud an organism. You are a human
carry messages. organism. You have for example:
® Muscle cells can contract and relax. ® a respiratory system;
@ Red blood cells carry oxygen ® a digestive system;
around the body. They contain ® a circulatory system;
haemoglobin which can combine ® a nervous system; and
with oxygen. ® an endocrine system (see page 13).
® White blood cells trap microbes and
defend the body against diseases.

Tissues
Large numbers of specialised cells i Organ systems
are joined together to make up Various organs together make
tissue. up an organ system. For
Muscles, blood, blood vessels and example, the circulatory
nerves are all tissues. system carries blood to all
Blood tissue contains red cells for parts of the body. It is made
carrying oxygen, white cells for up of the heart, the arteries,
destroying harmful bacteria and the veins, the capillaries and,
platelets to cause clotting in cuts. of course, the blood.

N.B. Arteries Organs

and veins are Various tissues together make up an organ.
usually thought Each organ has its own specific job. The
of as organs, as heart, the stomach and the brain are ail
they consist of organs.
several tissue The heart has to pump blood around the
layers. body. It is made up of muscle tissue,
blood vessels and nerves.

In the most complex organisms certain tasks may be carried out by several different organs working together. These
organs all belong to a particular system.

Even though there is division of labour between different parts of the body, the efficient working of a complete living
organism means that each part must be aware of what the other parts is doing and all their activities must be
co-ordinated.
12 Science Book 2

Where do all the cells come from?

You began life as a single cell. This single cell is called a zygote (fertilised egg cell — see page 38). You are now made
up of millions and millions of cells and the amazing thing is that every one of them came from that original zygote. The
zygote was copied by a process called cell division.

Growth depends on cell division

A fertilised egg cell divides to make These divide to make four identical cells which divide
two daughter cells which are identical. again and again to make a ball of cells.

HOW MANY DIVISIONS? Because every division doubles the number of cells, it only takes about
35 divisions to go from a fertilised egg to a whole organism.

WHAT CAN GO WRONG?

Once there are enough cells to carry out life processes, cell division should stop. CANCER
can result if the cell division continues out of control. This can be due to:
e a mistake in the genes inside the nucleus; or

e something in the environment, such as tar in cigarette smoke.

At the same time as the cells were dividing to provide more ‘building blocks’ for your body, different groups of cells
were taking on the special functions described in the diagram on page 10. So it is a combination of cell division and
cell specialisation that made that original fertilised egg into the complete organism known as ‘you’.
 Life and living processes | 13

Development of a whole organism needs cell division and specialisation

ir, ( oe ie) )
(e ) Se
Sew (elefe)

FERTILIS ED Cell division ioc)

a Ned Cell division
EGG BALL OF and
IDENTICAL specialisation
The nervous system CELLS
has sense organs
| (which detect what is The circulatory system
going on around you), transports substances such as
nerves (which carry food, oxygen and waste
messages to and from products around the body. It
different parts of the also defends against disease
body) and the brain and transfers internal/
(which coordinates the thermal energy
activities of different parts around the
of the body). body.

The breathing
system transfers
oxygen into the The gland system
blood and gets rid (endocrine)
of carbon dioxide produces chemicals
from the blood. that control some of
the body's activities.

The muscles in the

muscle system
contract, moving The urinary
parts of the body. system which
includes the

yf
kidneys, gets rid
of waste products
and keeps the
right balance of
salt and water in
the body. >
The skeletal
system is a hard,
jointed frame that
supports and The digestive
protects the body. system
The muscles are processes food so
connected to parts that it can pass
of the skeleton, into the blood.
enabling the body to
move.

STRANGE BUT TRUE!

The reproductive
Your skin is the biggest
system produces
the sex cells and and heaviest organ in
helps fertilisation. your body!
14 Yel [=p leo =fele), a4

It's a question of scale!

A human body consists of between 50 and 100 million million cells. Each of these cells is too small even to see with
the unaided naked eye, so to study them clearly requires help. The instrument which is used to study cells is called a
microscope.

) A microscope uses visible light to shine through a suitable specimen. A series of lenses then magnifies the
image which is formed (see below).

The specimen, such as a sample of cells, is very thin, so it needs to be supported on a thin glass slide.

® The slide and specimen are transparent and allow the visible light to pass through to the magnifying lenses.
The contrast of the image can be improved by using dyes or stains to pick out certain structures in the cell. The
nucleus of an animal cell, for example, shows up particularly well when stained with a dye called methylene
blue. A typical light microscope can give a useful magnification of about 400 times, which means the image the
viewer sees is actually 400 times larger than the specimen.

A light microscope

The image is viewed here. ? *

A series of lenses here Seiad oy 7%

magnify and sharpen the image. Here is a cell taken from Palisade cells in a holly leaf.
the inside of a cheek, These are the column-like
A specimen (living or viewed using a light cells beneath the top layer.
prepared) is placed microscope. The nucleus Viewed using a light
on a thin glass slide.
hk eect (purple) shows up microscope. (It has been
sourceof visible light. 7
g clearly using a stain. magnified 240 times.) A stain
(It has been magnified has been used on this
1000 times.) sample.

In the late 1930s a new kind of microscope was invented. This used a beam of electrons rather than visible light and
was therefore called an electron microscope. The image shows up on a fluorescent screen. It is much more powerful
than a light microscope and can give a useful magnification of around halfa million times! Enlarged to this extent, a
single cell would cover an area the size of a football pitch.

Since we need a microscope to see a cell, we might ask ourselves how big a cell actually is. If you look at the edge of
a typical school ruler, it is likely that you will see it divided into millimetres (mm) — a person with good eyesight can
quite easily see an object which is one-tenth of a millimetre in length, but still cannot see an animal cell. A typical animal
cell is about one-fiftieth of a millimetre in diameter, and a typical plant cell is about one-tenth of a millimetre in diameter.
Tenths, twentieths and fiftieths are rather clumsy terms to use, so scientists more commonly use a system which deals
with units of one thousand: one metre (m) contains one thousand millimetres (mm), one millimetre contains one
thousand micrometres (um or just 1). Thus a typical animal cell is about 20 u (i.e. 1000/50) in diameter.
 Life and living processes | 15

Key words
Cell — a building block of a living organism.

Tissue — a collection of cells that look the same and carry out the same function.

Organ — several tissues working together.

Multicellular -- made up of many cells.

Microscope — an instrument that can be used to magnify very small objects, such as cells.

System — several organs that are connected to one another, so that one job can be carried out very efficiently.

Specialisation — how cells change their structure, so that they can carry out particular functions.

Exercise 1.1: Cells and tissues

1. This diagram shows a small group of cells from the stem of a plant.

(a) Identify the parts labelled A, B, C and D.

(b) What do we call a group of similar cells with the same function?

(c) Your teacher gives you a very thin slice of a stem. How would you get it ready for viewing under a
microscope?

(d) Suggest two ways in which these cells are different from typical animal cells.

(e) Suggest one way in which these cells are different from typical leaf cells.

2. Organs can carry out their functions because of the special cells they have. Rearrange these lists to match
up the correct cell with its function and process. Write out your answer as a table, with the three headings
Cell, Function, Process.

Cell: white blood cell leaf cell cell in the intestine red blood cell

Function: absorbs light transports oxygen traps microbes produces enzymes

Process: to prevent disease to digest food for photosynthesis for respiration

16 Yoel [=)a[ers ={0)0), 4

3. The diagram below shows a plant cell.

Chioroplast
Cell wall

Nucleus

Cell membrane Cytoplasm

(a) The cell is a leaf cell. Give the name of the part which is present in this leaf but not present in root
cells.

(b) Give two parts of the cell, labelled on the diagram, which are not present in animal cells.

(c) The five parts of the cell labelled on the diagram have different functions. Copy the table below and
write the name of the correct part of the cell next to its function. The first has been done for you.

Function Part of the cell

A place where many chemical reactions take place. Cytoplasm

Photosynthesis takes place here.

It controls the cell’s activities.

It helps to keep the shape of the cell.

It controls substances entering and leaving the cell.

 Life and living processes WA

Chapter 2
Nutrition: A balanced diet
All living organisms require food to carry out the processes essential for life. They need this food to supply:

@ the substances which will be the raw materials for growth and for repair of damaged parts of the body;

® a source of energy to build these raw materials into cells and body parts; and

® elements and compounds which are needed for the raw materials and energy to be used efficiently.

Allliving organisms have these requirements. Some organisms, the green plants for example, can make their own food
substances by combining carbon dioxide gas from the air with water and nutrients from the soil (see page 74). Other
organisms cannot make their own food and must take in foods from their surroundings. Humans, like all other animals,
are totally dependent on other organisms for their supply of food substances.

The total of all of these food substances or nutrients is called the diet. A healthy diet provides a human with the
balanced selection of nutrients which it needs to carry out its life processes.

A balanced diet should contain the following seven ingredients:

® Carbohydrates should supply most of the energy we need. They include starches and sugars, such as
glucose. Starches are usually better than sugars because: the body breaks them down more slowly, so we feel
full for longer; and they don’t cause problems such as tooth decay.

Carbohydrates should make up about 70% of the solid part of our diet. No more than 25% of this should be
sugars. One chocolate bar and a single fizzy drink could easily contain all of the sugar you need for a day.
(Examples: bread, pasta, cereals, rice, biscuits, cakes, sweets.)

@ Proteins are needed for the growth and repair of cells. We need proteins particularly while we’re growing, or
when we are getting over an illness or injury. Pregnant women need to eat enough protein for themselves and
for their growing baby. (Examples: fish, meat, milk, eggs, beans.)

® Fats supply energy. We can store lots of fat beneath our skin, where it can act as padding and help to keep us
warm. Fats contain more energy than carbohydrates and we need to be careful that we don’t eat too many fatty
foods. These might make us put on too much weight and can cause damage to the heart and the circulation.
There’s too much fat in chips and crisps and even lean meat has a lot of hidden fat. Full cream milk, milk
chocolate and ice cream also contain fat. (Examples: milk, cheese, butter, cooking oil, meat.)

@ Minerals are substances that usually combine with another food to form parts of the body. For example, we
need calcium (found in milk) to make strong teeth and bones and iron for producing the red blood cells. They
are usually taken in with other foods, especially meats. (Examples: meat such as liver, milk, vegetables.)

® Vitamins are substances which are needed in very small amounts, but are crucial for the body to be able to use
other nutrients efficiently. There are many of them and they are usually taken in with other foods, especially dairy
products. One of the most important is vitamin C. Citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons provide vitamin C.
Without this vitamin we get bleeding gums and loose teeth and are more likely to catch a cold. (Examples: fruit,
vegetables.)
18 [ol (=)4le=Mlstele) a4

Water forms about 70% of the human body. Two-thirds of this water is in the cells, the other third is in blood.
Humans lose about 1.5 litres of water each day, in urine, faeces, exhaled air and sweat. This lost water must
be replaced by water in the diet. We replace this water in two main ways: as a drink and in food, especially in
salad foods like tomato and lettuce.

@ Dietary fibre is the indigestible component of the food which comes largely from plant cell walls. It provides
bulk for the faeces. As a result the muscles of the intestines are stretched and can push the food along. A
shortage of fibre can cause constipation and may be a factor in the development of bowel cancer. (Examples:
whole grain bread, cereals, fruit, vegetables.)

If the diet does not provide all the nutrients in the correct proportions, the person may suffer from malnutrition. The
diagram below shows a food pyramid. It can help you to achieve a balanced diet by showing us the amounts of
different foods we should choose to eat each day.

® Fat (naturally occurring and added to food).

@ Sugars (added to food).

The fats, oils and

sweets group.
Eat sparingly

The milk, yogurt and The meat, poultry, fish,

cheese group. eggs and nuts group.
2-3 servings
2 - 3 servings

The vegetable group.

3-5 servings
The fruit group.
2-4 servings

The bread, cereal, rice

and pasta group.
6 - 11 servings

Testing foods for starch

Starch is an important food source for humans. There is a simple test that can be used to tell us whether a certain
food contains starch or not. This test uses iodine solution. The iodine solution gives a dark blue-black colour when it
is mixed with a food containing starch.
Solution of
lodine test for starch food

lodine
solution

Crush the solid Then add a few A blue-black colour You can test liquid
foods into small drops of iodine means that the food foods too.
pieces. solution. contains starch.
 Life and living processes | 19

Key words
Diet — all the nutrients supplied to the body.

Starch — a large carbohydrate molecule and the food store in many plant tissues.

lodine — a chemical that reacts with starch to give a blue-black colour.

Malnutrition — the result of not receiving the correct balance of foods.

Exercise 2.1: A balanced diet

1. Abalanced diet consists of water and six other substances. What are these six other substances?

2. Match up the words in the first list with the functions in the second. Choose the best match in each case.

List 1: fish; butter; spaghetti; milk; wholemeal bread; lettuce.

List 2: can provide a lot of our water needs; a good food for body-builders; a main source of energy; dairy
product that can supply energy and some vitamins; helps prevent constipation; excellent source of vitamins
and minerals — an ideal baby food.

3. The table below shows the mass of water, fat, fibre and vitamin C in 100g of potato. The potatoes have been
cooked in three different ways.

Water in Fat in grams Fibre in Vitamin C in

grams grams milligrams

100 g of chips 57

100 g of boiled, peeled potatoes hardly any

100 g of potato baked in its skin hardly any

(a) Use this information to help you fill in the gaps in the following sentences.

(i) Chips are crisper than boiled potato because chips contain less ......... :

(ii) Most of the fibre in a potato is in the ......... of the potato.

(b) Use the information in the table to work out how much vitamin C there is in:

200 g of chips: ......... mg.

200 g of potato baked in its skin: ......... mg.

(c) People do not always eat a balanced diet. Match the facts about a person's diet to the organ(s) it harms.

Fact about the diet Organ harmed

Not enough calcium

Not enough fibre

20 Tol [=p [ol ={efe), a4

Nutrition provides a supply of usable

food molecules
Nutrition involves a sequence of processes
Food molecules are obtained from the environment. Often these molecules are not in the form needed by a living
organism to carry out its life processes. The processes of nutrition must change these food molecules into the sort of
molecules that can be used by the living organism. This transformation process takes place in a specialised region of
the body called the alimentary canal or sometimes simply referred to as the gut. The alimentary canal is really a tube,
which runs from the front end of the animal (its mouth) to the rear end (its anus). While the food is still inside the tube
it is not actually available to the body tissues. The food molecules must be changed, so that they can cross the gut
wall and then be transported to the places where they will be used or stored. The processes which make up nutrition
are described below.

There are several stages in nutrition

NUTRITION begins when food

is taken into the mouth. This is /
called INGESTION. 5 ee
¢
The teeth and tongue break the Food Ae
food into small pieces. This is
bal)
PHYSICAL DIGESTION. “;
. ea Mouth
Enzymes complete the oA
breakdown of food to small Be
molecules dissolved in blood. see
This part of the process is ed
called CHEMICAL DIGESTION.
Gut

Soluble food molecules cross

the gut wall into the bloodstream
this is called ABSORPTION.
Blood then carries food to all
parts of the body.
Anus
Food is used by cells for "
energy, growth and repair. This
is called ASSIMILATION.

Dietary fibre and other

indigestible substances pass
Some other materials are added
down to the anus, a process
to egested substances. Together
called EGESTION.
they leave the body as FAECES
during DEFAECATION.
 Life and living processes | 21

Although the alimentary canal is really just a tube running from the mouth to the anus, it has become very specialised
in humans. These specialisations mean that the food molecules can be changed to a useable form in a very clear
sequence. Each part of the gut is adapted to carry out particular functions. The layout of the alimentary canal, and of
the important organs that work with it, is shown below.

The human gut

Ball of
food

porte |Food is pushed down the |

gullet by muscles.
Sometimes the muscles
Alcohol damages the liver work backwards and we
and foods may not be _are sick. |
sorted properly.

‘The stomach stores food —

—— and stomach juices digest
The liver sorts out the food
protein.
molecules and sends them to
where they are needed.
Digested foods are
__. absorbed here in the small
——— intestine (see page 24).
]
We don’t need our appendix
and it can get infected. An | Water is absorbed in-the
large intestine.
astronaut has his or her
appendix taken out to avoid |
emergencies in space. | Faeces (poo!) is stored in
‘the rectum until it’s
convenient to let it out
(see page 23).

Learn it baby!
We have to learn how to
squeeze the muscle that
keeps the faeces in.
Babies take ages to learn
this.
22 Yel
(=)plo ={ole), a4

Ingestion provides food for the gut to work on

Food molecules must be taken into the gut before they can be fully processed for use by the organism. Once the food
has been caught or collected, and perhaps cooked or processed in some other way, it is placed in the mouth. Here it
is cut up by the teeth and the pieces are mixed with saliva by the tongue. This chewing produces a ball of food which
can then be swallowed and so passed on to further parts of the gut. It is clear that the teeth play an important role in
this chewing process. Remember:

@ The structure of a tooth is closely related to its function.

There are different types of teeth to deal properly with all types of food. Test yourself to see if you can
remember the names of the different teeth, their design and the function they perform.
(See Science Book 1 chapter 2)

Before we move onto the next stage in nutrition, just make sure you have mastered and understood the following:

® the several stages that take place during the process of nutrition;

@ the basic layout of the human gut; and

® the part played by the teeth and tongue in preparing the food for the alimentary canal.

Digestion prepares useful food molecules for absorption

A healthy diet contains three types of food molecule in large amounts — carbohydrates, proteins and fats. These
molecules are often in an unsuitable form when they are eaten. They may be too large to cross the gut wall and often
they won't dissolve in the watery blood plasma. Digestion is the process which converts these ingested foods into a
form which can be absorbed and transported.

As we have just seen, digestion begins with the teeth chopping the food into smaller pieces. This is sometimes called
physical digestion because the foods aren’t changed into anything else; the pieces are just made smaller.

Complete digestion depends on the action of other molecules called enzymes. These enzymes are really amazing
molecules:

® They can really speed up the breakdown of foods. This breakdown can be more than ten thousand times faster
with an enzyme involved than without one.

Enzymes aren’t changed by the breakdown process, so they can be used over and over again.

There are different enzymes for the digestion of each food type and each of them works best in different
regions of the gut. Although they are different, the basic digestive process is the same in each case:

large, insoluble molecule + water ==® small, soluble molecule

enzyme
 Life and living processes 23

How enzymes work in digestion

The food
molecule and the
enzyme combine.
Bonds holding
parts of the food
molecule together
can now be
Food molecules are too big to broken.
= |
be absorbed.

Food molecules can

The enzyme itself is be split into smaller
not changed, so it parts which can be
can be used over absorbed and
transported.
and over again.

Egestion removes undigested food

The ingested food may contain some molecules which cannot be digested by the enzymes of the human gut. Usually
these are molecules in plant foods, such as the cellulose in cell walls and the woody parts in stems and roots (see
page 73). Once the water has been absorbed from the soupy material remaining in the gut, this indigestible food must
be expelled. This process is called egestion. Some excreted materials, such as the remains of some worn-out blood
cells, may be added to these indigestible foods to form the faeces. The faeces are stored for a short time in the rectum.
Eventually the full rectum sets off a reflex action which causes the muscles of this part of the gut to contract and
squeeze the faeces out of the anus. Humans have a ring of muscle called a sphincter at the anus which can prevent
this defaecation occurring at an inconvenient time. The control of this sphincter has to be learned. Babies simply fill
their nappies when the rectum is full.

Remember these important points:

® Digestion converts large insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble molecules ready for absorption.

@ Enzymes speed up the breakdown of food.

® Undigested food must be passed out of the gut.

Absorption transfers food molecules to the blood

Enzymes act on foods and provide molecules that can dissolve in the watery blood plasma. These soluble molecules
can now cross the lining of the gut into the bloodstream. This process is called absorption. Once absorption has taken
place, the food molecules can be carried in the blood to the parts of the body where they are needed. Most absorption
occurs from the small intestine (alcohol, and possibly a small amount of glucose, can be absorbed from the stomach).
The small intestine is very well adapted to carry out this job.
24 Tol [=p] = =Lele), a4

The small intestine

td It is very long, about 6m in an adult human, which means that food passes along quite slowly and there is
adequate time for absorption to occur.

® The main adaptation, however, is that the inside lining of the small intestine is very folded. This means that the
surface area for absorption is increased hugely compared to what it would be if the intestine were just a simple
tube.

@ On the folds, the small intestine has hundreds of thousands of tiny ‘fingers’, called the villi, which stick out into
the liquid digested food.

The whole structure is thus adapted to increase absorption.

Food can squeeze

A eal of between the villi and mix
gut wall has :
NER eae with enzymes here. Glande canimate

away to show juices containing

the folds. enzymes.

A very thin
layer of cells
speeds up
Some people cannot eat foods containing gluten absorption.
(wheat protein). Their body reacts to gluten by
destroying all of their villi! What effect would this
have?
Layers of muscle
WARNING! Food poisoning can be caused by help push food down
microbes (have you heard of Salmonella?). The gut the gut.
can't absorb food and water, so you get diarrhoea
and feel dehydrated and weak.

The contents of the gut are now not much more than a soup of water and indigestible matter. Most of the water is
reabsorbed into the bloodstream from the large intestine. Some minerals and vitamins are also absorbed from the large
intestine.

The liver and assimilation

Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream. Each type of absorbed food has a particular function in the body, so
it is important that food molecules of the right type are available at the right time in the right place. The liver plays the
main part in ‘sorting out’ food molecules — all foods absorbed into the capillaries of the villi are sent to the liver before
they go anywhere else.

The cells in the liver can carry out more than 500 different reactions. As a result of these activities the liver is able to
provide ideal concentrations of food molecules for the working of the body tissues. Each type of tissue will use food
molecules for different purposes. For example, muscle cells will manufacture muscle protein; bone cells will take up
calcium to make bone and all cells will use glucose to release energy by respiration (see page 46). The processes of
using up food molecules in these various ways are together called assimilation.
 Life and living processes | 25

Key words
Alimentary canal — the long tube that runs from mouth to anus.

Ingestion — the taking of food into the alimentary canal through the mouth.

Digestion — the breaking down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules.

Enzyme — a biological molecule that can speed up a reaction such as digestion.

Absorption — the transfer of digested foods across the wall of the gut into the blood.

Assimilation — the use of foods in the body.

Exercise 2.2: Digestion

1. Match up the words in the first column with the definitions in the second column.

Enzyme The process of taking food into the gut.

Ingestion Transferring digested food into the bloodstream.
Digestion Removing indigestible materials from the gut.
Absorption A molecule that speeds up the digestion of foods.
Egestion Breaking food down into small, soluble particles (molecules).

Felix wanted to find out the effects of temperature on the action of an enzyme. He measured how long it took
for an enzyme to digest a certain type of food, at different temperatures. This table contains the results of his
experiment:

Temperature in °C Time taken for reaction to occur in seconds

(a) How would he check the temperatures in the different parts of the experiment?

(b) Plot the results as a graph. Join the points with a curve and not with a straight line.

(c) Which is the best temperature for the enzyme-controlled reaction to occur?

(d) What is human body temperature? Use your graph to predict how long the reaction would take at human
body temperature.

(e) Predict how long the reaction would take to occur at 60 °C

(f) Explain how Felix would have made sure that this experiment was a fair test.
26 Science Book 2 |

Extension question
3. Felix and Gena got together to try to make a model gut. They used a cellulose tube, as shown in the diagram.
The tube contained a mixture of saliva and starch.

Water

Saliva and starch

mixture

Cellulose
tube

How could they prove that starch was present at the start of the experiment?

They believed that the saliva contained an enzyme that could break down starch. What would be the
best temperature to keep the mixture, while this breakdown was going on?

After twenty minutes they tested the contents of the model gut for starch. They got a negative result.
Gena thought that this was because the starch had crossed the wall of the gut into the water. How could
Felix try to prove that this wasn’t the explanation?

Felix and Gena eventually agreed that starch could not cross the wall of their model gut. Why can’t
starch cross in this way?

In the body, what is represented by the water in the beaker?

 Life and living processes | 27

Chapter 3
The functions of the skeleton
Humans are vertebrates which means they have a backbone and a bony skeleton. Bone is a hard tissue and cannot
be compressed (squashed). This hardness is important in the functions of bone.

The skeleton of any vertebrate has certain important functions:

@ To provide support: This is probably the most obvious of the skeleton’s jobs. Air does not support soft tissues
like muscle and so hard, incompressible bone must do this.

@ Protection of delicate tissues: Vital tissues and organs can be protected from physical damage by a covering
of bone. For example, the brain is protected from shock inside the skull and the heart and lungs are protected
inside the ribcage.

@ To provide movement and locomotion: Bone provides the levers operated by muscles. For this to happen
there must be joints in the rigid skeleton.

The skeleton also has two other functions that don’t depend on the hardness of bone:

® storage of calcium and some other minerals are stored in the bone; and

® production of blood cells takes place in the marrow inside some of the bones.

The functions of the human skeleton |

; ve The skeleton has three
v,* functions:
ms ast protection,
The SKULL protects the brain. support and

movement.
The COLLAR-BONE helps to —
control arm movement.
The RIBS make up the RIBCAGE
which protects the heart and lungs.
The SHOULDER BLADE makes a
The BACKBONE or VERTEBRAL joint between the arm and the body
COLUMN protects the spinal cord, and this allows movement. :
and helps to support the body in an MUSCLES can move The human skeleton is made
upright position.
bones as long as up of 206 bones; the largest
The PELVIS is the link between the pee is the femur and the
backbone and the legs, and protects «
organs such as the uterus. smallest are the bones of
the middle ear.
The FEMUR (thigh bone) is very
thick to support the body weight. The female skeleton tends
to have:
Broken bones can be
@ broader hips;
spotted with X-rays. @ narrower shoulders;
The soft muscles don't
@ ‘knock knees’;
show up on X-ray but a Co eae @ less straight arms; and
the hard bones beneath : ai ee |
® a more easily dislocated
them do show up.
lower jaw compared to
the male.
28 Yo [=)p lec ={ele), a4

This should give you some idea of just how important the skeleton is. The skeleton is not simply a dead framework for
the body. In the next section we consider one part of the skeleton in more detail and go on to show how it performs
the function of movement.

Muscles, bones and movement

The hardness of the skeleton is ideal for support and protection, but for movement it is important that the different
bones in the skeleton should not be completely locked in one place. The flexibility required is made possible by a series
of joints. A joint is a part of the skeleton where two bones meet. There are several types of joint in the body. The joint
that allows the greatest amount of movement is called the synovial joint. In this type of joint, the point where the two
bones meet is protected by cartilage and the whole joint is wrapped up in a sac. This sac contains fluid which
cushions the joint and feeds the tissues there.

A synovial joint allows free movement between bones

The SAC manufactures the LIGAMENTS connect bone to

synovial fluid. bone. They are elastic enough to
allow one bone to move relative to
the other.

ARTHRITIS is a joint DISLOCATION occurs

disease which is painful and when the bones do not
restricts movement. It may return to their correct
result from the under- positions. It may result if
production of synovial fluid. the ligaments are
Regular moderate exercise stretched. Double-jointed
reduces the risk of people have extra long
arthritis. ligaments and their joints
are easily dislocated.

The FLUID lubricates the joint; it

CARTILAGE reduces friction
acts as a shock absorber and
between the bones and is a
feeds the living tissue of the joint.
shock absorber. (There is extra
cartilage in the knee for this
reason.)

The type and amount of movement possible at a synovial joint depends on:

® the shape of the bones at the point where they articulate (come together); and

2 how much movement is allowed by the ligaments that bind the two bones together.

One of the most important features of these joints is that they largely look after themselves. The fluid that acts as a
lubricant is usually secreted in exactly the correct amount to keep the joint operating smoothly and efficiently. Despite
this, things can go wrong, as a result of an accident, disease, overweight or simply due to old age.
 Life and living processes | 29

Muscle-bone machines
Movement, whether of the whole body, a single limb or even of an organ, involves work. A machine is a device for
doing work and in a mammal muscles and bones work together as machines.

Muscles can only cause movement by contracting (shortening ) — they cannot actively relax or push. Because of this,
muscles must be arranged in pairs which have opposite actions — these are called antagonistic pairs. The diagram
below shows the action of antagonistic muscles in the movement of a human forearm.

Muscles work in antagonistic pairs

TENDONS connect muscles to bone. They are quite stiff,
so that when muscles contract the tendons don't stretch
TAKE NOTE! For muscles and bones to work as a and move the bone.
machine the two opposite ends of the muscle must
be attached to different bones. At the end of
the muscle where the movement takes place the
tendon must always go across the joint.
THE SHOULDER ISA
BALL AND SOCKET
JOINT. Different muscles
may cause movement in
many planes, including
rotation.

HUMERUS is the
‘BICEPS are the ‘funny’ bone.

TRICEPS are the muscles

Bonesiorine that straighten the arm.
forearm
THE ELBOW IS A HINGE JOINT. Contraction of
the muscle can only cause movement in a
single plane (the forearm can be moved up or
down in the plane of this page).

CRAZY BUT TRUE. The cheetah is the fastest animal on Earth. It runs so fast
because it can take really big strides. It can do this by dislocating its shoulder
joint with every stride. OUCHI

Antagonistic pairs of muscles are necessary for controlled movement at a joint. Muscles can only exert a force
by contraction. The reversal of a muscular movement therefore requires contraction of an opposing
(antagonistic) muscle.
A. Action of the biceps muscle bending B. Action of the
triceps muscle

Biceps muscle
Biceps relaxes. Triceps muscle
muscle contracts.
contracts.
Triceps muscle
relaxes.
Elbow joint straightens.

Elbow joint bends.

The biceps is a flexor and the triceps is the extensor of the elbow joint; together
biceps and triceps make up an antagonistic pair.
Ki] Science l=Yeyo 4 4

Key words
Locomotion — the movement of the whole body from one place to another.

Arthritis — a disease of the joints.

Antagonistic pair — two muscles that have different effects on a joint — one contracts to bend the joint and the
other contracts to straighten the joint.

Muscle — a tissue that can contract (shorten).

Exercise 3.1: Skeleton and movement

1. Match up the words in the first column with the descriptions in the second column.

The skeleton Protect the heart and lungs.

Blood cells Makes its own lubricating fluid.

Bone Protects the brain.

Ligaments Supports the softer tissues of the body.

Calcium Are made inside some bones.

Tendons Connect bone to bone.

The skeleton Is an essential mineral for strong bones.

The skull Has joints for movement.

The ribs Connect muscle to bone.

A synovial joint Is one of the hardest tissues in the body.

Cartilage Reduces friction between the bones.

2. Explain the following:

(a) The leg bones are stronger than the arm bones in humans.

(b) Pregnant women should drink a lot of milk.

(c) X-rays can be used to check for broken bones.

(d) Scooter riders have to wear crash helmets by law.

(e) Cartilage is essential in the knee joints.

3. Look back at the diagrams of the arm on page 29. Complete this paragraph by choosing the correct
alternative word to fill in the gaps in the description of what happens when you bend your arm at the elbow.

The biceps (CONTRACTS / RELAXES), thus becoming (LONGER AND THINNER / SHORTER AND
FATTER). The triceps muscle is the (ANTAGONISTIC / SUPPORTING) muscle to the biceps and so it
(CONTRACTS / RELAXES) and becomes (LONGER AND THINNER / SHORTER AND FATTER). If you
straighten your arm, the (OPPOSITE / SAME) happens.
 Life and living processes 31

Chapter 4
Reproduction
No organism lives for ever. In order for species not to die out, individual organisms must be replaced. Living
organisms use the process of reproduction to produce new members of their species. Humans, like all other
mammals, only use sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the contribution of genetic information from
two parents to produce a new individual.

Sexual reproduction involves a number of stages and, unless each of the stages is completed, sexual
reproduction will be unsuccessful. The stages are:

Step 1. The development of the body, so that it can produce specialised sex cells, called gametes (sperm in the
male, ova in the female).

Step 2. The development of sex organs, so that the gametes can be delivered by the male and received by the female.

Step 3. The joining together of the gametes at fertilisation, to produce a fertilised egg or zygote.

Step 4. The development of a place for the safe growth of the zygote into an embryo, a fetus and, eventually, a baby.

GAMETES are
produced and Male and female gametes
delivered. each carry one half-set of
genetic information in their
nuclei.

Ovum (e) | 36

Sperm

One male and one female

gamete join together.

; A ZYGOTE is formed when

At PUBERTY children become the malnand tomato nucisl
young aculis capableof fuse. This is FERTILISATION.
producing and delivering The zygote has one complete
SOAS set of genetic information —
one half from the father and
one half from the mother.

to produce a large
number of cells.

Development continues The EMBRYO‘ is formed when — the

and babies are born and cells begin to take up the positions
grow into children. they will occupy in the young animal.
4 lod (=)4ler- ={ol0), 4

When a young human grows, he or she passes through a stage of development called puberty. At puberty, the body
develops a reproductive system that can complete the stages of sexual reproduction. The changes at puberty are
controlled by sex hormones. The signs that puberty has taken place are shown below.

Puberty is a time of change

CHANGES IN BEHAVIOUR
Hair ¢ Girls may become more maternal, and attracted to boys.
on face ¢ Boys may become more aggressive, and attracted to girls.

Larynx, the 'Adam's

apple’ grows and the
voice gets deeper.

Narrower
Shoulders widen and Nee cee Under shoulders
muscles in the
chest become larger.
Breasts develop
and nipples get
Hair grows larger.
on the chest

Hips get broader

because:
¢ pelvis gets wider; |
Narrow hips
¢ more fat is deposit

\ The penis becomes

larger and the
scrotum grows as
the testes get bigger.

WHEN AND WHY?

Puberty can occur at any time
between the ages of 10 and 20 EMOTIONAL CHANGES
- every person is different. After puberty the period of adolescence begins. During this period younc
Puberty is controlled by people:
chemicals from the brain and e become more independent of their parents;
from the sex organs. These e become more aware of the opposite sex; and
chemicals are the sex ® take on more responsibility for their behaviour.
hormones. THIS CAN BE EXCITING AND CONFUSING AT THE SAME TIME.
 Life and living processes | 33

The male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is simpler than the female reproductive system. It really has only two functions — firstly,
to make the male gametes and, secondly, to deliver them to the site of fertilisation. The male gametes, called
spermatozoa or sperm for short, are made in the testes. These structures are enclosed inside a sac of skin called the
scrotum, which hangs between the legs outside the body. In this position the testes are protected from physical
damage, but more importantly are kept at a temperature 2 — 3 °C below body temperature. This lower temperature is
ideal for development of the sperm. As well as making the sperm, the testes also produce the male sex hormone
testosterone. This hormone is necessary for the action of the male sex organs and for controlling male sexual
behaviour. Once the sperm have been made, they can be delivered to the site of fertilisation through the penis. To
help their release and increase the chances of fertilisation, the sperm are released in a fluid, the semen.

The structure of the male reproductive system is illustrated below.

SNIP! SNIP! This tube is

cut during a vasectomy.
This is a contraceptive
Bladder operation because sperm
Part of urinary now can't reach the penis.
system.

The sperm duct or vas

deferens carries sperm
Ureter from testis to the urethra.
Part of urinary
system.

Seminal Vesicle
Cowper's Gland
Prostate Gland
The Testis or testicle Together produce the
is made up of many seminal fluid which
coiled tubes (rather like makes up 99% of
balls of wool). Tubes semen.
produce sperm and
The urethra carries
cells between the tubes
semen from the sperm
produce the male
duct to the tip of the
hormone testosterone.
— penis. It also carries
urine, but a small valve
The head carries
prevents this happening
the genes
during ejaculation.
from the
father.
__|/Scrotum or scrotal sac.

The tail The penis becomes erect

helps the during sexual excitement
sperm swim as it contains spaces which
towards fill with blood.
the egg.
The foreskin covers the
sensitive tip of penis. This is
Sperm are much smaller than
removed during circumcision.
eggs, about 100 would fit in to
1 mm. Mature males make
The glans is the sensitive tip
about 100 million every day!
STEROID CHEATS! of the penis. It contains
Athletes taking drugs to nerves which start off the
To perform its function of sperm delivery the human reflex causing ejaculation.
improve strength and
penis only needs to be 9-10cm long when fully erect.
power usually take
Dogs and other carnivores have a bone, the OS
hormones that are very
PENIS, which is needed to hold the penis erect. The similar to testosterone.
penis slides back into the body following intercourse.
34 | Science Book2 —

The female reproductive system

The reproductive system of the female is more complicated than that of the male. As well as producing female
gametes, the female system must also receive male gametes and provide a site for fertilisation and for the
development of the zygote. The gametes, called ova, are produced in the two ovaries. The gametes travel towards
the uterus in the fallopian tubes or oviducts. This is where fertilisation occurs, and it is in the uterus that the
development of the zygote into a new baby takes place. The vagina has a dual function. Firstly it receives the penis
and secondly it acts as a birth canal for the eventual delivery of the baby from its mother’s body. The female
reproductive system is illustrated below.

The uterus or womb is the

chamber in which the fetus
develops. During pregnancy it
increases in volume from 10 cm?
to 5000 cm?
[The oviduct or fallopian tube
carries the ovum towards the
uterus. Fertilisation usually occurs
in the first third of the oviduct.

The urinary system:

Bladder (shown Ureter (only
The funnel of the oviduct |
pushed to one side) one shown)
collects the ovum at ovulation.
LL

The ovary contains follicles which

develop into ova, the female
gametes. It also produces two
female hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone).

The muscular wall of the uterus

_|which will contract to squeeze the
baby out during childbirth.

The nucleus The inner lining of the uterus

contains has many blood vessels for
genes from nourishment of the fetus if
the mother. [fertilisation and implantation occur.

The cytoplasm
contains food for Cervix or neck of the uterus
the development
of the embryo.
OPENING
OF VAGINA The Vagina or birth canal receive
Note: The Urethra opening the penis during intercourse and is
(shown with a dotted line) is the 'way out' for baby at childbirth.
The egg is much bigger than the in front of the Vagina opening.
sperm — this is because it contains
stores of food and doesn't have to
swim anywhere.

ACID AND ALKALI! The vagina is a hostile environment for sperm! Bacteria which
live on the wall of the vagina produce acids. So do some of the female's own cells.
These acids harm sperm and stop them swimming, so seminal fluids include an alkali
to neutralise the secretions of the vagina and allow some sperm to survive.
 Life and living processes 35

Key words
Sexual reproduction — the production of new individuals with a combination of features from two parents.

Gametes — special sex cells, the sperm and the egg.

Zygote — the organism formed when a sperm and an egg combine.

Fertilisation — the joining together of sperm and egg.

Puberty — a stage of human development at which the person becomes able to reproduce.

Sex hormones — chemicals that control the physical and mental changes at puberty.

Exercise 4.1: The reproductive systems

1. Look at this diagram. 2. Look at this diagram.
Identify each of the structures A — G. Identify each of the structures A — F

3. Match the words in list 1 with the descriptions in list 2.

List 1: Testes, Sperm, Semen, Scrotum, Sperm duct, Penis, Prostate gland

List 2: Produces a fluid for sperm to swim in; Carries sperm from testes to the penis;
Delivers sperm in semen to the vagina; Produce the sperm and the male sex
hormone; Hold the testes outside the body; A fluid for the sperm to swim in;
The male gamete.

4. Match the words in list A with the descriptions in List B.

List A: _ Ovaries, Egg, Oviducts, Vagina, Womb, Cervix

List B The place where the baby develops; Carry eggs from ovaries to uterus; The birth
canal; Where the sperm are released when the male ejaculates; The female gamete;
Produce the female gametes.

5. Explain why the egg and sperm are different from each other. Give one important way in which they are the
same as each other.
K 16] Yes
(=)pler= ={0)0), 4

The menstrual cycle

@ Boys and girls go through a stage of development called puberty.

® Puberty prepares the body for sexual reproduction.

® Following puberty, girls can produce ova in their ovaries.

Both the testes and the ovaries produce sex cells or gametes. However, they differ in how often they work and in the
number of gametes they produce. The male continues to produce sperm at the rate of about 100 000 000 per day from
puberty to old age. Females, however, produce their gametes, called ova or eggs, at the rate of only one per month.
In fact each ovary takes about two months (56 days) to produce a mature ovum. The two ovaries are a month out-of-
phase with one another so that the female reproductive system actually releases one egg every 28 days. The cycle of
producing and releasing mature ova is called the menstrual cycle (this comes from the Latin word menstruus,
meaning ‘monthly’).

This important process is very carefully co-ordinated by a number of hormones. These hormones have two functions:

® To prepare the uterus to receive any fertilised eggs: During the menstrual cycle the wall of the uterus goes
through several stages which get the inner lining of the uterus ready to receive a zygote. This involves growing
extra blood vessels in the wall of the uterus. If no fertilised egg, is present this inner lining breaks down and is
passed out through the vagina. This is called menstruation. Menstruation marks the end of one menstrual
cycle and the start of the next one. The girl will notice a loss of blood when this happens — this is known as
‘having a period’.

t To control the development of mature ova: The same hormones that make the uterus wall ready to receive
a zygote also make certain that properly-developed ova are released from the ovaries at the correct time. The
egg is released half-way through the menstrual cycle — this process is called ovulation.

The menstrual cycle

The lining breaks down; [he egg is released; The lining becomes The lining is now ready to
; this is called thicker with extra
this is menstruation. receive the fertilised egg.
ovulation. blood vessels.

This shows the This shows the

thickness of ! yt thickness of the
the inside lining inner lining of the
of the uterus. Beye Bae Day 10 Day 14 Day 17 uterus. Day 28

This is the time we At ovulation the Because sperm can live for about 48 hours, || If no egg is
call having a girl's body and an egg can live for several days, a fertilised, the lining
period. It lasts for temperature rises woman can become pregnant any time breaks down and
3—5 days. by about 0.6 °C. from day 12 to day 17 of her menstrual the cycle starts
cycle. again.
 Life and living processes 37

Fertilisation and conception

Conception takes place when an ovum is fertilised by a sperm and the resulting zygote becomes implanted in the wall
of the uterus. Before this can happen, the ovum and the sperm must meet and this is the purpose of copulation or
sexual intercourse.

Ovulation provides a female gamete

As we have seen, an ovum or egg is released each month from one of the ovaries. Following this process of ovulation,
the ovum moves slowly along the oviduct towards the uterus. This movement is helped by:

@ contractions of muscles in the wall of the oviduct that squeeze the ovum towards the uterus; and

@ fine hairs on the lining of the oviduct that sweep the ovum in the right direction.

It takes about 4 — 7 days for the ovum to reach the uterus. During this time in the oviduct fertilisation may take place.

Copulation delivers male gametes

Before intercourse, sexual stimulation causes blood to flow into the man’s penis. The penis becomes hard and erect
enough to enter the woman’s vagina (helped by lubricating fluids released by the walls of the vagina). The rubbing of
the tip of the penis (the glans) against the wall of the vagina sets off a nervous reflex that releases sperm from storage
in the testes, and squeezes them along the sperm ducts and the urethra. As the sperm pass along these tubes, fluid
is added to them so that the complete semen is ejaculated in spurts from the tip of the penis. There is usually about 3
or 4 cm’ of semen ejaculated which contains about 300 000 000 sperm. The diagram below illustrates how the male
and female gametes arrive at the same place.

Copulation: Sexual intercourse brings gametes together

SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
delivers the male
gametes to the female
reproductive system.

Oviduct
Sperm duct

Ovary

Testis

Vagina on aia Erect penis

38 Science Book 2

The zygote (fertilised The ball of cells becomes an

Fertilisation usually ovum) divides to form a embryo. It implants itself in the
occurs in the first half of ball of cells (see page uterus lining and a placenta
the oviduct (see below). 40). develops (see page 41).

Hair-like processes | |The ovum (female)

called cilia, on the gamete is released from Sperm swim through the
cells lining the ovary at ovulation. uterus towards the ovum
oviduct, sweep
in the oviduct.
the ovum along
the oviduct.

Sperm are deposited

close to the cervix during
sexual intercourse.

Fertilisation involves the fusion of egg and sperm

Fertilisation is the joining together or fusion of an egg and a sperm. This process allows a set of genes from the
mother and a set from the father to be mixed together. Fertilisation takes place in the oviduct and, although several
hundred sperm may reach the egg, only one will penetrate the membrane that surrounds it. Once the sperm has
penetrated the membrane, the fertilised egg — the zygote — now starts to divide, first into two cells, then into four and
so on. The ball of cells then continues to move towards the uterus.

The events of fertilisation are summarised below:

Fertilisation

\-—ee The fertilised egg

Several is Baas a ae It
hundred sperm eh ae foes ee
may reach an e mother and trom
ont the father.

Only one sperm

head can enter
the ovum.
 Life and living processes | 39

Conception is the implantation of the ball of cells

About six days after fertilisation, the ball of cells — now called an embryo — becomes embedded in the thickened wall
of the uterus. Many fertilised eggs probably do not complete this process. In fact, conception, the beginning of the
development of a new individual, has not taken place until this implantation has been successfully completed. Once
the embryo is attached to the wall of the uterus, some of its outer cells combine with some of the mother’s cells anda
placenta begins to develop. The importance of the placenta in the development of the new individual is described on
page 41.

Key words
Fertilisation — the joining together of soerm and egg.

Conception — the beginning of the development of a new individual.

Copulation — sexual intercourse — the time when the sperm from the male are delivered to the female’s
reproductive system.

Embryo — a stage of development when the ball of cells begins to rearrange itself so that some organs can be
seen.

Menstruation — the release of the bloody lining of the uterus if no fertilisation has taken place.

Exercise 4.2: Menstruation and fertilisation

1. Match up the processes named in the first column with the descriptions in the second column.

Ovulation Sexual intercourse.

Ejaculation Egg and sperm joining together.

Menstruation The release of a mature female gamete.

Fertilisation The time when a fertilized egg sticks to the wall of the uterus.

Conception The release of sperm in the semen.

Copulation The breakdown and release of the inner wall of the uterus.
40 | Science Book2 —

Pregnancy: The role of the placenta

® A fertilised egg (zygote) contains genes from both mother and father.

® The fertilised egg becomes attached to the wall of the uterus at conception.

From the time of conception it takes about nine months, or forty weeks, for a fertilised egg to become a fully formed
baby. The production of the new baby involves two linked processes:

td] Growth: The original zygote has to divide to provide the many cells that make up the baby.

oO Development: The organisation of the many cells into different tissues and organs.

The growth stages involve the division of the zygote into many identical copies. One zygote at conception becomes
thirty million million cells at birth. As the cells are produced, each one takes up its correct position in the embryo. As
they become organised into particular tissues (see page 13), they begin to take on special functions. For example,
quite early on during pregnancy it is possible to recognise nerve cells and skin cells. These first steps in the
development of a human baby, from the growth and development of a zygote, are outlined below.
Ball of cells
at implantation
(not to scale)
Cell division

Zygote at
fertilisation
(not to scale)

Cell division,
movement
a s The fetus now has a recognisably and
human form. Once you can see weal eva
- human bits the embryo is called a epecialisaicr
Actual size fetus.
at 12 weeks ye
[ \
be ( Actual size
Tea tel
eae
; of fetus at
|
fe 8 weeks
% A Embryo
a fl (not to scale)
—y

At one month the embryo still has

At 12 weeks the fetus is some non-human features such as
entering its most rapid HOW DOES SHE KNOW THAT gills and a tail.
growth phase. The SHE'S PREGNANT? ‘Gills’ Actual size of
pregnant female shows no Even before the female's abdomen the embryo
external signs of the begins to swell, there are great
developing fetus. changes that can show that she's Eye
pregnant:
Mouth
* there is no monthly period; and
* hormones from the placenta _ bud
spill over into her urine.
These are easily detected using a \ Umbilical
e cord
pregnancy test kit. At about 5 months
old the fetus begins to kick and punch NX > ™Leg bud
Piles the mum-to-be can feel all this.
eet |
 Life and living processes | 41

The time taken for the development of a baby from an implanted zygote is called the gestation period. We say that
the mother is pregnant during this period. During this time the mother provides a stable environment for the developing
fetus. The mother controls the important factors of the fetus’ environment:

@ the supply of soluble foods, such as glucose and minerals, for the growth of new cells:

® the removal of waste materials, such as carbon dioxide which could be poisonous to the fetus;

@ the supply of oxygen which is necessary for the release of energy in aerobic respiration. Cell division actually
requires a great deal of energy;

© keeping a constant body temperature;

e@ protection from the risk of infection by microbes in the outside environment; and

@ protection from physical shock or damage. The developing nervous system is especially fragile.

All these vital functions are carried out by a structure called the placenta. The placenta is formed partly from the lining
of the uterus and partly from the outside cells of the developing embryo. The fetus is attached to the placenta by the
umbilical cord and is surrounded by a sac. This sac is called the amniotic sac and is filled with a fluid called the
amniotic fluid. The placenta begins to develop as soon as the embryo has become implanted in the wall of the uterus
and after about 12 weeks it is a thick, saucer-shaped structure that grows deep into the wall of the uterus. The placenta
continues to grow to keep pace with the developing fetus and is about 15 cm across and weighs about 500 g at the
time of birth. After the baby has been born (see page 42), the placenta, amniotic sac and umbilical cord are expelled
from the uterus as the afterbirth. The structure of the placenta and some of its functions are shown below.

The artery carries The umbilical cord THERE'S BAD NEWS TOO! Some harmful substances
carbon dioxide and connects the can cross from the mother to her developing baby:
other waste from the embryo/fetus to the
* ALCOHOL - may cause brain damage to the baby.
developing baby to placenta.
the placenta. - GAS from SMOKING - may reduce the baby's birth
weight.
- NICOTINE - a baby can be a nicotine addict when it's
born.
The mother's blood - VIRUSES - babies can already have AIDS when born.
brings food and
oxygen to the
placenta.

An embryo needs food and

oxygen and must get rid of
carbon dioxide.
The placenta has thin
walls and lots of folds
make it easy to
exchange food and The amniotic sac
oxygen for waste. contains a fluid that acts
like a cushion against
Wall of uterus —____—_ bumps as the mother gets
Womb) on with her daily life.

The mother's blood — AMAZING STUFF! Doctors can take a sample of

carries waste away A vein carries food the amniotic fluid and do tests on it to find out:
from the placenta. and oxygen from the - if the baby is a boy or agirl; or
placenta back to the - if the baby might need special medical
developing baby. treatment once it's been born.
42 Yel [=a lor=Mm=fole), a4

Exchange of materials across the placenta

The placenta is the contact between the fetus and its mother’s blood system. It has a number of adaptations that make
sure the correct materials cross quickly enough to keep a safe and stable environment for the fetus.

e It has a large surface area which allows more molecules to cross the placenta in any unit of time.

@ The blood of the mother is always separated from the blood of the fetus by membranes that control which
molecules cross from mother to fetus. The blood of the mother and her developing baby do not mix.

® The fetus has arteries inside the umbilical cord that deliver blood to the placenta and a vein that returns from
the placenta, carrying absorbed substances.

Birth
By the end of pregnancy the baby normally lies in the womb with its head close to the cervix. A doctor or midwife can
tell that birth is near when the baby has dropped into this position. The birth can be separated into a number of stages.
Together these stages are called labour. Labour may last from one hour to 12 hours (or even longer).

Labour begins with the first contractions of the muscle of the uterus. These contractions are controlled by hormones.
Some of these chemical messages come from the mother and some come from the baby.

At first the contractions come every 20 minutes or so but as birth approaches they happen more often and with more
power. The contractions break the amniotic membrane and release the amniotic fluid — this is known as the
breaking of the waters — and make the cervix dilate (get wider). The first stage of labour is complete when the cervix
is wide enough for the baby’s head to pass through.

Labour continues as the baby’s head is pushed past the cervix into the vagina which now acts as a birth canal. From
now on the process is quite rapid and needs only gentle contractions by the mother, helped by the midwife or the
obstetrician (a doctor who specialises in births).

The birth process can be quite stressful for the baby. It may become short of oxygen as the umbilical cord is squeezed
by the walls of the birth canal. The baby’s heartbeat is carefully checked during birth and the blood soon re-oxygenates
once the baby begins to take a few breaths. The practice of smacking the baby to make it take a big lungful of air has
now been stopped. Once the doctor is satisfied that the baby is breathing properly, the umbilical cord is clamped to
prevent bleeding and cut. The mother and child are now two separate individuals. Hooray!

Key words
Growth — getting bigger by the production of more cells.

Development — the changes of cells that mean some of them take on different functions.

Placenta — a structure linking the umbilical cord to the wall of the uterus.

Gestation period — the length of time between fertilisation and birth.

Umbilical cord — the structure that links the developing fetus to the placenta.

Amniotic fluid — liquid inside a sac that surrounds the developing fetus.
 Life and living processes | 43

Exercise 4.3: Placenta and birth

1. Complete the following paragraphs about the birth of a human baby. Use words from this list:

uterus amniotic sac umbilical oxygen

Cervix placenta afterbirth vagina

(a) An expectant mother knows when she is about to give birth because her ......... begins to experience
waves of contraction. Eventually the contractions are so powerful that the ......... dilates, the .........
bursts and the waters are released.

(6) Further powerful contractions push the baby through the ......... or birth canal. Once the baby has
been delivered, it is important that it takes deep breaths because it may have been deprived of .........
ASANO seats cord is compressed during delivery. This cord is clamped and cut, and gentle
contractions of the uterus cause the ......... to come away from the wall of the uterus and pass out of
the vagina as the ......... ;

2. Look at these two diagrams. Use words from this list to identify the structures that are labelled A— H on
the two diagrams. Words may be used more than once.

embryo fetus placenta amniotic sac

amniotic fluid umbilical cord cervix wall of uterus

An embryo in fetus in the uterus just before birth.

A
the uterus about
4 weeks old.
44 Yel
(=)ler ={ee), 4

Extensi on question

3. Gestation period

The table below provides information about a range of mammals, including the gestation period (time
betw een fertilisation and birth).

Species Mass of adult Gestation Number of litters Number of young

in kilograms period in days per year per litter

Cat 4

Chi mpanzee eS

Ele phant

Horse 1300

Mouse 0.025

Pig 300

Rabbit 1.5

(a) A scatter diagram is a type of graph used to show if there is any correlation between two groups of
information. Use a scatter diagram to see if there is any correlation between the mass of an adult animal
and its gestation period. Plot mass on the x axis, gestation period on the y axis.

Using information from the table, explain whether there is evidence to support the hypotheses that:

(i) The lighter the mammal, the more young there are in a year.

(ii) The number of young per year varies according to the length of the gestation period.

Estimate the approximate gestation period of the following mammals:

(i) Ahedgehog (mass 0.8 kg) has 1 or 2 litters per year with 3 to 6 young in each one.

(ii) Ahare (mass 5 kg) has 2 to 3 litters per year with 2 to 5 young in each one.

(iii) A tiger (mass 300 kg) has 1 litter per year with 2 to 4 young in it.
 Life and living processes | 45

Chapter 5
Respiration
Remember that living organisms need to carry out certain processes to remain alive. The most important of these life
processes is respiration. This process provides the energy needed to carry out the other life processes.

What is respiration?
Respiration is a special kind of chemical reaction:

® It goes on in every living cell of every living organism. Remember living organisms include microbes and plants.

© Glucose and oxygen react together to release energy, although some of this energy is wasted as thermal energy.

@ It produces two important chemical waste products — carbon dioxide and water.

@ For animals with lungs, it depends on breathing, but is not the same as this process (see page 49).

Respiration, like other chemical reactions, can be represented by a word equation.

glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water + energy

(Reactants) (Products)

The reactants for respiration must be delivered to the cells in the bloodstream. The blood also takes away the waste
products of this process. The supply of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide are made possible by the lungs
which give an enormous surface area for these gases to move into or out of the blood (see page 51).

Checking on respiration
Because respiration produces carbon dioxide, water and energy, we can show that respiration is occurring if the
amount of any of these products increases. The most reliable sign that respiration is taking place is the production of
carbon dioxide.

Testing for respiration

Inhaled Breathing | Breathing Exhaled
alr In out air

Limewater —
this solution
turns cloudy
when it reacts The limewater
The limewater stays with carbon goes cloudy,
clear, showing that dioxide (see showing that
there's not much page 135). there's more
carbon dioxide in carbon dioxide in
inhaled air. exhaled air.
46 | Science Book2 —

Energy is used for life processes

Respiration is a sort of link process. The reaction links together a supply of food and oxygen with all the life processes
which need energy to continue. Here are some of these processes.

Respiration provides energy for life processes

Growth pats

Keeping a e ! \
Food mmm Glucose constant body “«”
‘De temperature =

bean % 4 ae)

AD Movement
Breathing =m» Oxygen

.... and all other

life processes

Respiration is such an important process that it must be carefully controlled. The process is controlled and speeded
up by special enzymes that are present in every living cell.

Energy is supplied in food

Food supplies energy as well as the raw materials for growth (see page 17). The foods that have most energy in them
are carbohydrates (including sugars like glucose) and fats. Each food can be tested for its energy content. Food
packets must always show how much energy is present in the food. The amount of energy in a food is given in Joules
or kilojoules (see page 341).

Key words
Limewater — solution that turns cloudy (sometimes described as milky/chalky) when carbon dioxide is bubbled
through it.

Joule — the unit of energy (1 kilojoule equals 1000 Joules).

 Life and living processes | 47

Exercise 5.1: Respiration

1. The drawing shows what happens to most of the energy that comes from the food that a hen eats in one
day.
Movement and thermal
transfer 700kJ Food 1220 kJ

Waste 140 kJ
Egg 180 kJ

(a) Inthe cells of the hen’s body, energy is released from food by respiration. Complete the word equation
for this process.

glucose + ......... es See lr 5 eerie

(b) (i) Calculate the total energy which remains in the body of the hen.

(ii) What is the energy used for?

-

2. Felix burns a piece of crispbread to find out how much energy is stored in it. Energy from the burning
crispbread raises the temperature of the water in the test tube.

Water

Burning
crispbread

Pin

(a) How should Felix arrange the apparatus so that he is working safely?

(b) Felix wants to find out if potato crisps contain as much energy as crispbread. He does the experiment
again using a piece of potato crisp. Suggest two things he must do to make the experiment a fair test.
48 Yoel
(=) [ers ={0le), 4

(c) The table below shows some of the nutritional information from a packet of crispbread and a packet of
potato crisps.

Energy in Protein Carbohydrate Fibre

kilojoules in grams in grams in grams
100 g of crispbread
a
100 g of potato crisps

Using the same apparatus as shown on page 47, Felix burns 1.0 g of potato crisps. Jalanone of the results
(i) to (iv) below will he get when he burns the potato crisps? Explain your choice.

(i) |The change in the temperature of the water will be greater.

(ii) The change in the temperature of the water will be the same.

(iii) The change in the temperature of the water will be smaller.

(iv) There will be no change in the temperature of the water.

(d) (i) Fibre contains energy. Explain why this energy cannot be used by the human body.

(ii) Use the table in part (b) to give two reasons for choosing crispbread rather than potato crisps as
part of a balanced diet.
 Life and living processes 49

Respiration and breathing

Remember
@ Respiration uses oxygen to ‘burn’ (oxidise) food and so releases the energy which cells need to stay alive (see
page 8).

© Respiration produces carbon dioxide and water vapour as waste products:

glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water + energy

Living organisms must be able to take oxygen from the air and get rid of carbon dioxide to the air. Swapping oxygen
for carbon dioxide in this way is called gas exchange. This gas exchange takes place through a thin membrane at a
gas exchange (or respiratory) surface.

A gas exchange surface allows respiration to go on in cells

Oxygen dissolves in Carbon dioxide is

the moist layer. changed to a gas.

The gas exchange A moist layer on the gas

surface is thin and exchange surface keeps
dissolved gases can the cells alive.
pass through it easily.

There is a large
surface area which Carbon dioxide is
means that many gas produced by
molecules can cross at respiration, dissolves in
the same time. blood plasma and is
The process of RESPIRATION oxidises glucose to then brought to the
release energy. Carbon dioxide is a waste product and lungs.
must be removed.

glucose + oxygen mam_/,€ carbon dioxide + water + energy

Gas exchange is much more efficient if there is a method for delivering fresh supplies of air to this gas exchange
surface. This method is called BREATHING. It is very important to remember the difference between breathing and
respiration.

Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs.
Respiration is the process that releases energy from food.

It can be hard to remember this difference, since breathing is only needed because respiration takes place.
50 Yel [=)a [ele =10)0), 4

Gas exchange in humans

Humans are mammals and like all other mammals they are active and keep a constant body temperature. Keeping a
constant body temperature uses up a great deal of energy. The release of energy from respiration means that
mammals must be able to gain oxygen and lose carbon dioxide. They must have a very efficient gas exchange system.

The gas exchange system in humans is called the lungs. Lungs are made up of:

® A surface for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide, i.e. the membranes lining the air sacs in the lungs.

@ A set of tubes to allow outside air to reach the respiratory surface. This set of tubes has many branches, and
is sometimes called the bronchial tree.

® A blood supply (a special artery and vein) to carry dissolved gases to and from the respiratory surface.

® A ventilation system (the rib muscles and the diaphragm) to keep a good flow of air over the respiratory surface.

The illustration below shows the arrangement of the parts of the human gas exchange system.

The structure of the lungs

Air enters through

: the nose and travels
down to the throat.
Dust and microbes in
Air passing the larynx moves the air are trapped by
the vocal cords and helps us The trachea special cells. These
to speak. The larynx gets branches into two cells make sticky mucus
bigger at puberty in boys — J smaller tubes called | |qnd have little hairs
and is known as the 'Adam's bronchi.
that push the mucus out
Apple’.
of the lungs.
Each bronchus
branches into many
Air passes into and “| narrower tubes
out of the lungs called bronchioles.
through the
trachea (windpipe).
This tube is kept
open by rings of
cartilage.

Intercostal
muscles attached
to the ribs

At the end of the

bronchioles are
air sacs. This is
where oxygen
\
moves into the
Diaphragm (a sheet of i fit the huge surface area Ne blood and carbon
tion ay) of the lungs (the same as a dioxide moves
tennis court) into the chest, out.
the lungs are folded many
times to produce millions of
air sacs.
a NY
 Life and living processes 51

Breathing ventilates the lungs

Take a deep breath and remember that:

® Living organisms must obtain oxygen from their environment, and they must release carbon dioxide to their
environment.

e@ An ideal gas exchange surface is thin, moist and with a large surface area.

@ The human gaseous exchange system is made up of the lungs and the muscles that move them.

Breathing is the set of muscular movements which keep the respiratory surface well supplied with oxygen (and, of
course, remove carbon dioxide).
The lungs The
expand and intercostal
air rushes in muscles
to fill the contract and
space. pull up the
ribcage.

As muscles contract, they The diaphragm and ribcage

pull the diaphragm down. return to their normal shape as
muscles relax.

What's the point?

All this breathing in and out makes sure that oxygen can enter the blood and carbon dioxide can be made to leave. If
these changes didn’t take place, there would be two unwanted results:

t Our cells wouldn’t get enough oxygen which means they wouldn’t get enough energy from respiration and we
would die.

® We wouldn’t be able to get rid of the waste carbon dioxide and we would poison ourselves. Carbon dioxide can
turn our blood and other bodily fluids into a weak acid. This is another reason why we would die.

This diagram shows how the lungs are able to exchange these two gases between the air and the blood.

Artery from the heart

much COs,
little O5

Diffusion goes on when

molecules move from a
high concentration to a
low concentration.

Vein to the heart Blood capillary

much Op»
little CO,
52 Yel
(=)aler=il ={0)0), 4 :

Key words
Respiration — the release of energy from food molecules.

Breathing — the movements that bring air in and out of the lungs.

Intercostal muscles — muscles between the ribs that contract to lift up the ribcage during breathing.

Diaphragm — muscle that contracts to help the chest get bigger during breathing in.

Exercise 5.2: Breathing

1 Put the following list in order of size, with the smallest first.

trachea, air sac, bronchiole, bronchus

Be ts of
2 (a) This diagram shows the lungs and the trachea, the airway 7 eartilage
leading to the lungs. One of the lungs is drawn in section. Trachea
5 E : indpi
In the wall of the trachea there are pieces of a stiff material Ee
called cartilage. Why is this stiff material necessary in the
wall of the trachea?
Lung

(b) This diagram below shows one air sac and its blood supply.

(i) Gas A enters the air sac from the blood. Gas B leaves
the air sac and enters the blood. What are the names
of gases A and B? Air sac
(ii) Give one reason why it is easy for gases to pass
across the wall of an air sac. yy
Tiny blood
vessel
Direction of blood flow

(a) Describe the differences between the processes of breathing and respiration.

(b) Why is breathing important?

(c) Why is respiration important?

(d) How would you check that respiration is taking place?

 Life and living processes / 53

4. Felix was trying to find out how much air he breathed out in one breath. He poured water into a bell-jar and
placed it upside down in a trough of water. The bell-jar had a scale marked in cm’.

(a) How much air did Felix breathe out?

(b) Air contains carbon dioxide, nitrogen, noble gases, oxygen and water vapour. Give three differences
between the composition of the air Felix breathed in and the air he breathed out.

(c) Which three items are contained in the air Felix breathed out?

Extension question
5. Two schoolboys were asked to take part in an investigation into the effect of exercise on breathing. The
number of breaths they took in each half minute was measured and recorded, first of all while sitting still,
then when recovering from two minutes of hard exercise. The results are shown in the table.

Number of breaths
Time in minutes Activity in each half minute

fom Alan (a) Draw a graph to show the

Sitting still 7 8 changes in breathing rate over
i Sitting still 7, 8 the time period of this
Sitting stil 7 8 investigation. Plot both lines
2.0 Exercise (step ups) 7 8 on the same axes.
Pas) Exercise (step ups) (b) Which boy appears to be
3.0 Exercise (step ups) | fitter? Explain your answer.

Exercise (step ups)

Recovery (sitting) 25 25

5.0 Recovery (sitting) 23 17

5:5 Recovery (sitting) 18 13
6.0 Recovery (sitting) 15 10
6.5 Recovery (sitting) 12 10
7.0 Recovery (sitting) 12 9
TEES Recovery (sitting) 10 8
8.0 Recovery (sitting) 8 8
8.5 Recovery (sitting) 8 8
9.0 Recovery (sitting) 7 | 8
54 Yel [=Jplor ={ele), a4

Smoking and disease

There have been many health authority advertising campaigns which stress that smoking is harmful. At the same time
the manufacturers of cigarettes try to reduce the impact of these campaigns by emphasising the glamorous side to
smoking. However, the manufacturers try to reduce the impact of negative advertising. They have to include, by law,
a statement which points out ‘smoking can seriously damage your health’.

Companies involved in sales of life insurance policies now routinely ask ‘Do you smoke?’ because they are aware of
the effects of smoking on health. Whether or not to take up smoking is possibly the major health decision that many
of us will ever make. For this reason it is extremely important to be well-informed about the possible effects of smoking.
Nobody should really be in a position to say ‘but | didn’t know the risks’ when she is confronted with the effects of her
smoking habit.

How is smoking harmful?

Smoking involves inhaling smoke from burning tobacco and paper. This smoke can harm the lungs and respiratory
passages for a number of reasons:

e it is hot;

@ it is dry; and

® it contains many harmful chemicals.

Here is one simple experiment that can help to show the nasty chemicals in burning tobacco :

The dangers of tobacco smoke

The PUMP pulls air

The and smoke through
THERMOMETER the apparatus.
shows that the
smoke is hot.
Note: Universal Indicator
changes colour from green to
red/orange to show acidity. The
indicator hydrogen carbonate
changes colour from orange-red
to yellow. The colour change you
BURNING see in this experiment will depend
CIGARETTE on the indicator you use.
The GLASS WOOL
turns dirty brown The INDICATOR
with tar from the turns yellow showing
smoke. that smoke is acidic.

The heat and dryness caused by smoking irritates the lungs, but the main dangers of smoking relate to the chemicals
in the burning tobacco. There are over 1000 known chemicals present in tobacco smoke. The most dangerous are tar,
carbon monoxide and nicotine but there are even small quantities of arsenic and plutonium.

When doctors have to treat lung disease with medicine, the molecules of the medicine are always delivered in a spray
form. Doctors know that the droplets of water can carry the helpful medicines right down through all of the respiratory
tubes and deep into the lungs where they can carry out their useful work. Burning tobacco produces tiny droplets of
 Life and living processes 55

water too, and these carry the harmful chemicals deep into the lungs in just the same way as medicines are delivered.
It would be hard to find a more efficient way of delivering harmful chemicals to the lungs than smoking. Some of these
dangerous chemicals, and the effects which they have on the body, are shown below:

The dangers of tobacco smoke

MUCUS traps
NICOTINE: | dirt and
° causes addiction to microbes.
cigarettes; —
raises blood pressure; BY
damages blood vessels; ( aN ¢ mucus and dirt fall back into the lungs; and
and : ¢ smoker coughs and causes damage
increases the risk of heart to lining of bronchi - bronchitis.
and arterial disease.

SMOKING ALSO REDUCES LUNG CANCER IS CAUSED BY

FERTILITY TAR:
Where is everybody? ¢ cells divide too quickly and form
a tumour; and
Men who are smokers, \ e the tumour can damage nerves
produce fewer sperm. and blood vessels causing pain.
SSS

CARBON MONOXIDE CUTS DOWN OXYGEN LOSING SURFACE AREA: The walls
SUPPLY between the air sacs are destroyed. This
¢ Carbon monoxide replaces oxygen in the red means: sthoroial tf
blood cells which means less oxygen can Heme a
reach the cells for gas exchange; and
¢ breathing becomes
* It is bad for sport
¢ Babies can't get enough oxygen across the very difficult.
placenta. 5
Healthy Damaged ‘4 ee called
e It can also cause heart and arterial emphysema can
air sacs air sacs sever
diisease.

Cigarettes also affect the heart and circulation

Nicotine in tobacco smoke is very quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. It is thought of as the most dangerous
chemical present in tobacco smoke. The nicotine reaches the brain and gives smokers the pleasurable feeling that
they crave. The nicotine also closes down some blood vessels, including the important arteries that supply the heart
muscle with oxygen and glucose. This means that smokers are much more likely to have a heart attack than non-
smokers.

Burning tobacco and paper give off a gas called carbon monoxide. This gas locks onto the oxygen-carrying chemical
in your red blood cells. This means that your blood can’t carry as much oxygen as it should, and you will lack energy,
as well as seriously straining your heart! Pregnant women who smoke make it more difficult for their developing babies
to get oxygen across the placenta. The babies grow more slowly, and are lower in weight when they are born.

So don’t forget!

® Smoking tobacco is harmful to the lungs and the circulation.

® There are many harmful components of tobacco smoke, but it is nicotine that causes addiction.

@ It is very difficult to give up smoking, so it is better not to start in the first place!
56 LYod[-)a[eX=W =10\0), aaa

Key words
Nicotine — the substance in tobacco that causes addiction — it also speeds up the heart rate.

Addiction — the body’s dependence on a drug to such an extent that it can no longer function properly without
it.

Cancer — a disease in which cells begin to divide out of control and harm normal body tissues.

Exercise 5.3 Smoking

ie This diagram shows a ciliated cell from the lining of the airway.

What is the function of this cell in the airway?

This cell is affected by substances in cigarette smoke. What effect does

cigarette smoke have on the cilia?

Give the name of the substance, in cigarette smoke, which causes

addiction to smoking.

The graph below shows the number of deaths from lung cancer and from tuberculosis of the lungs, in England
and Wales, between 1920 and 1960.
200 -
Lung cancer

=
year
per

Number
deaths,
of 100
people
000
per
< Tuberculosis
257 Het | = Boe ©
ret of the lungs

0 A : | | PEEL HECEE : ey | E i .

1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1960

Year

Between which two dates on the graph did the number of deaths from lung cancer rise fastest?

Lung cancer may be caused by cigarette smoking. Which substance in cigarette smoke causes lung cancer?

What effect does smoking have on the chances of developing heart disease?
 | Life and living processes | oYf

Extension question
3. This table shows the causes of death of cigarette smokers in Great Britain.

Cause of death Percentage of deaths

Lung cancer

Bronchitis and emphysema

Circulatory diseases

Other causes (not related to smoking)

(a) What percentage of smokers die from smoking-related diseases?

(6) Present the data in the form of a bar chart or a pie chart. Decide which is the best way to display the
results. Explain your choice.

(c) Emphysema is a disease caused by smoking. The photograph on the left shows normal lung tissue and
the photo on the right shows lung tissue from a person with emphysema.

Air sacs (alveoli) in human lung tissue. A section of lung affected by emphysema.

(i) Describe two differences between the normal lung tissue and lung tissue from a person with
emphysema.

(ii) How will these differences affect the supply of oxygen to the blood in the person with emphysema?

(iii) Name two other diseases caused by smoking, and say what the symptoms would be (i.e. how the
patient would be affected).
58 LY [=)gle1= ={0)0), 4

Chapter 6
Healthy living
Starting points
@ A living organism needs a supply of food and oxygen. These are required to provide the energy required to keep
cells alive and to carry out life processes.

wB The heart acts as a pump to move blood around the body. The blood can collect food from the gut and oxygen
from the lungs and then take both the food and oxygen to the cells.

The human body is very good at carrying out life processes and a human can stay alive despite many problems.
However, for a human to stay fit and keep healthy she/he should:

© eat a balanced diet (see page 17);

© take a regular amount of exercise; and

oO take no unnecessary health risks.

Exercise is good for you

Remember that the heart is made of muscle. Because exercise makes the heart beat faster, it trains the heart muscle.
This means that regular exercise gives you a fitter heart. You are much less likely to suffer a heart attack if you have
taken regular exercise.

Exercise benefits the health in other ways too

® It reduces obesity because it uses up food reserves and reduces the chance of becoming overweight. Obesity
(which is defined as being so overweight that your health is affected) can be very harmful. For example, the
extra weight can cause damage to your joints and make it difficult to breathe freely. Obese people are also more
likely to develop diabetes.

@ It increases stamina because it trains the heart and lungs to deliver more oxygen to the working muscle cells.
This means that a fit person can work for longer periods without causing damage to the body.

@ It increases strength because the muscles are being trained. Different types of exercise can provide extra
strength in different muscles. Lifting weights and swimming is good for the arms, whereas running is more likely
to benefit the legs.

Most people who exercise regularly (3 times a week) will notice a difference in strength and stamina after just 4 weeks.
Exercise also releases chemicals in the brain. These natural drugs make you feel much better after exercise.

Taking health risks can seriously damage the body and the brain
Humans are not all identical to one another. The differences between them could have been inherited from their
parents (see page 80). Some differences could be the result of their environment. Some may lead to an obvious
 Life and living processes | 59

disease, although others may just make us less healthy. We can do nothing about the differences we inherit from our
parents but we can be careful about our lifestyle. Some of these lifestyle risks are described below:

SOLVENTS and AEROSOLS:

CIGARETTES: Smoking cigarettes can These are abused by sniffing and
make breathing very difficult. If smoking breathing in fumes. Glues and
continues for a long time, there is a high paint can damage the brain, and
risk of heart disease and lung cancer aerosols can cause a person to
(see page 55). The nicotine in tobacco choke and suffocate.
smoke is very addictive.

DRUGS: Any chemical that affects

the way the body works is a drug.
Some drugs (such as painkillers like
paracetamol) are useful, but even they
can be dangerous if they are over-used.
Many others are just dangerous. Some,
ALCOHOL: Alcohol is a very dangerous like LSD and ecstasy, can damage
drug if consumed in large quantities. the brain. Some can make the heart
Even in small amounts it slows down beat dangerously fast. Many drugs sold
your reactions, and may cause you to by dealers are not pure, and the
lose a lot of your body heat. In larger impurities can make people vevy ill.
amounts, alcohol damages the liver,
stomach and the heart. It can make
people put on weight and can damage
their sex organs. Alcohol makes
WHAT IS ADDICTION? Many people become addicted to drugs.
cigarette smoke more likely to cause This means that they can't carry on their normal lives without the
cancer of the tongue or voice-box. drug. It may mean that drug addicts will steal from their friends,
and may go without food to buy drugs. Drug addicts who use
needles can also catch blood diseases from needles they share
with other drug addicts, for example AIDS.

Don't forget that even without these health risks you will need to
eat a balanced diet and to take regular exercise.

The most important point about these health risks is that you have control over them. You can make a choice about
your lifestyle — remember that you have probably only lived one-seventh of your lifespan. It is possible that even a few
uses of drugs can make you become addicted, and eating habits that you start when young can cause problems later
in life. What you choose to do now could affect the rest of your life and the lives of your friends and relatives.

Key words
Obesity — where the body is so overweight that disease is more likely to occur.

Drug — any chemical that alters the activities of the body.

Fitness — the ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles efficiently.

60 Science Book 2 |

Exercise 6.1: Healthy living

ie Make a list of the three requirements for a healthy lifestyle.

Ze Why is it so difficult to give up smoking?

3. Give three benefits of regular exercise.

Match up the following features of lifestyle with the problems they cause:

Smoking Weakness of muscles

Excessive use of alcohol Damage to the liver

Addiction to drugs Obesity

Over-eating of fatty foods Choking to death

L
Too little exercise Poor brain development
|
Breathing aerosols Lung cancer

Extension questions
o A pupil agreed to have his heart rate (pulse rate) measured every five minutes for a period of an hour. The
results are shown in this table:

Time in 25
minutes

Pulse rate in 124 W227

beats per minute

(a) Plot a graph of the results. Put time on the horizontal axis (i.e. along the bottom) and pulse rate on the
vertical axis (i.e. up the side). Put a suitable title on your graph.

(b) From the graph give:

(i) The resting heart rate.

(ii) When the pupil began to take exercise.

(iii) When the pupil stopped exercising.

(iv) How long the pupil's pulse took to return to normal.

(c) Explain why the pulse rate increased during exercise.

Use the Internet or your library to find out more about the health problems caused by the overuse of alcohol.
 Life and living processes | 61

Microbes and disease

Many of the life processes in the human body are under a sort of automatic control. These controls keep factors such
as body temperature and the concentration of food molecules in the blood very close to the levels needed to keep an
organism alive. Sometimes these controls can’t keep up with changes in the body. A person in this situation will show
certain signs (such as a raised body temperature) and will experience certain symptoms (such as feeling very tired).
We would now Say that the person is diseased.

Classification of diseases
At the simplest level diseases can be classified into two categories — non-infectious and infectious.

@ Non-infectious diseases are not caught from another individual. These diseases may be the result of a
number of causes but do not normally result from the actions of another organism. Good examples of non-
infectious diseases are heart disease caused by a very fatty diet (see page 17), or lung cancer caused by
smoking (see page 55).

®@ Infectious diseases are those which can be caught, or passed on from one individual to another. These
diseases are caused by some other living organism, usually a microorganism. Examples of infectious diseases
are influenza and tuberculosis.

Microorganisms are living organisms that are too small to be seen without help. Scientists have discovered many
different types of microorganism (or microbe) by using an instrument called a microscope (see page 14). A good
microscope can magnify a microbe, to make it look bigger, as well as making its structure look clearer. These microbes
live in the environment but can invade our bodies. Pause for a moment and just discuss the ways microbes could enter
our bodies.

Microbes cause disease when they interfere with the way the body works. Bacteria and viruses are microbes that can
cause this kind of problem. The diagram below shows how they can cause disease.

Viruses (e.g. influenza and the common cold)

; 1. The virus attaches
Protein coat itself to the cell. ————e -{2)

Genetic
material 2. The virus
genes give
instructions
to the nucleus.

® Viruses are very small microbes that only come

alive when they enter the body. = i cell then
3. The
makes many
© They have a simple structure, with just a few copies of the
a
genes wrapped in a protein coat.
:
a.
oo,
8 aa vyrus.

® They take over the cells of the host (you!) and (2) e— 4. The cell bursts and viruses
use your cells to make hundreds of copies of escape. They can now
invade more cells.
themselves.

@ The damaged cells can make you feel really ill. We sneeze because broken bits of cells
irritate the lining of the nose.
@ Viruses cannot be controlled by antibiotics.
62 Yo [-]4ler- ={el0), 4

Bacteria (e.g. tuberculosis, tetanus and food poisoning)

Cell wall

Membrane ©

Cytoplasm
eae ye

®
bo

©
eo ro
Genes o | / Aa .
@ @
® Bacteria are smaller than cells but bigger than viruses. Ye

@ They have a membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm and genes, but no nucleus. ® O

© They can live inside the body or on the skin.

® They divide very quickly, even as often as every 30 minutes.

@ When they divide they use up foods that the body cells need. The CRAZY BUT TRUE! :
bacteria can release toxins (poisons) that can make you feel very ill. In 24 hours one bacterium
: can divide so many times
® Bacteria can be killed by:
_ that the colony would weigh
— Antibiotics inside the body. more than 10 kg.
— Antiseptics on the skin.
_ Disinfectants on work surfaces and in toilets.

Defence against disease

The body has several natural defences against disease:

@ The skin helps to keep microbes away from the body’s tissues.

®@ Blood clots stop microbes from entering the body through wounds.

@ White blood cells engulf (eat) invading microbes, or produce antibodies to destroy microbes.

The skin is a natural barrier

The skin acts as a barrier to infection by microbes. Even if there are natural gaps in the skin, for example the eyes
and ears, the body produces chemicals that help to defend these gaps. The part played by this first line of defence is
shown below.
The EARS are
The skin is the first line of defence
protected
by WAX.
The skin acts as a barrier
The EYES are
to keep out microbes.
protected by
tears.

There are
natural
gaps in
& the skin.

The NOSE AND

~~ Wounds are quickly THROAT are
sealed by blood clots. protected by
STICKY MUCUS.
 Life and living processes / 63

Blood clotting protects open wounds

A blood clot forms when a wound is made in the skin. The clot is started by small pieces of blood cell called platelets
and completed when red blood cells become trapped by a network of fibres. The blood dries out to form a scab. The
scab falls off once the skin beneath it has been repaired. Sometimes a large scab will leave a scar when it falls off.

White blood cells help in two different ways

One group of white blood cells — called phagocytes — can find microbes and destroy them directly by eating and
digesting them. Sometimes this kills the white blood cells themselves and in fact the pus that sometimes collects near
a wound is formed of dead white blood cells. Another type of white blood cell — called a lymphocyte — can recognise
microbes and can produce special proteins called antibodies to fight them. Your body can make a different antibody
for every bacterium or virus it meets, and can remember any microbes that have been met in the past. A few of these
memory lymphocytes are kept for each microbe that has ever infected the body so that if the same microbe infects you
again, the antibodies are made much more quickly. A second infection by the same microbe will hardly cause any
disease at all. When this happens, scientists say that the body has developed immunity to this microbe. The part
played by white blood cells in defence against disease is shown here.

White blood celis are the second line of defence

A white blood cell 5 White blood

cells can leave
a White blood cells surround the the blood to
1. A white blood Ce S05, microbes and then engulf and protect other
cell (phagocyte) : digest them. tissues, such as
detects a i r/ ; / ] the lining of the
microbe. ox /f/ \ungs.

| <l @oaninosies made by the white

OO
blood cells make the microbes
inactive.

2. The white
blood cell
surrounds the
cL: microbe. (An “@> ; & a

o—~-i. @@ ®

1. The microbe is recognised 2. A white blood cell (lymphocyte)

3. The by its shape. makes antibodies with a shape
microbe is that will fit together with
the microbe.
eaten and
trapped 5. Each inactive microbe
inside the is destroyed by a
white blood different white blood cell.
3. Huge numbers of antibodies
cell.
| are released into the blood.

4. The Dw oe
microbe is wy)
then
destroyed by 4. Antibodies lock on
enzymes. i to the microbes.
64 Science Book 4

You can find white

blood cells and
bacteria inside spots
on your skin.
Helping the body to fight disease
The immune system might not be able to work quickly enough to protect the body if it becomes infected by a really
dangerous microbe. Doctors have developed a method for preparing the immune system for attack by this kind of
microbe. This kind of protection is called immunisation or vaccination.

Weakened microbes can give us artificial immunity

A vaccine is made of a Ene

CRETE ihc .. |
Woalened Velsioniora ¢ The immunised person now has white blood cells that
microbe or a copy of the have been tricked. They have made antibodies that
‘coat' of a microbe. can recognise the real microbe and not just the
weakened version.

¢ Some of these cells are memory cells and will be

able to make antibodies if the real microbe infects the
body.

e« Sometimes a person needs booster injections to

keep up the number of memory cells.
SSS
EEE

-
MUM CAN HELP TOO!
- A pregnant woman passes antibodies
A person who has across the placenta. The new-born baby is
been immunised already naturally immunised to some
has been treated
with a vaccine. The
common illnesses!
person may feel : The first breast milk made
slightly unwell but
by mother is made up of
the vaccine cannot
cause a full version
antibodies. The baby's
of the disease. immune system is
topped up for the

Bo
first few days.
er A

Memory white
blood on Antibodies ae

[HisToRy The process is sometimes called vaccination because the

Latin word for ‘cow’ is ‘vacca’. This process was first tried out by a
doctor called Edward Jenner in 1796. He found out that the disease
cowpox was harmless, but very similar to the deadly smallpox. He
injected a small boy called James Phipps with cowpox microbes (he
called this process vaccination) and found that it gave him protection
against smallpox.
 Life and living processes | 65

Sometimes a disease cannot be prevented. A person may become ill and need help to recover. It is important to know
whether a particular disease is caused by a virus or a bacterium, because this information can help to decide the method
of treatment. For example, antibiotics only work against bacteria and don’t have any effect on diseases caused by viruses.
Sometimes a patient can be helped to deal with an illness with painkillers such as aspirin or paracetamol. These drugs
reduce the body temperature and make the person feel better and this can help them during a period of illness.

Key words
Signs — what a doctor looks for in a patient with a disease.

Symptoms -— what a patient feels like when he has a disease.

Infectious — can be passed on to another person.

Phagocyte — a type of white blood cell that can engulf and digest microbes.

Antibody — a protein made by some white blood cells that can defend the body against microbes.

Immunity — when the body has antibodies ready to fight off an infection by a microbe.

Exercise 6.2: Microbes and disease

As Name one disease that:

(a) is caused by a virus. (d) is caused by bacteria.

(6) is infectious. (e) can result from an unhealthy lifestyle.

(c) could be caused by a poor diet.

My mother did not study science. She used to tell me that my body was protected by ‘red and white soldiers’.
What do you think she meant? Was she correct?

Write down two differences between bacteria and viruses.

What is an antibiotic? What is the difference between an antibiotic, an antiseptic and a disinfectant?

Extension question
5, Read this description of Jenner’s discovery of vaccination.

Edward Jenner worked in a country town. He noticed that girls who milked cows caught a disease called
cowpox — they had spots on their hands but otherwise weren't ill at all. They never caught smallpox, a much
more serious disease. Jenner collected the pus from one of the spots on a milkmaid’s hand and scratched
the pus into the arm of his nephew (an eight year-old boy called James Phipps). The boy caught cowpox and
felt slightly unwell for a few days but soon recovered. Edward Jenner then transferred pus from a person with
smallpox into the arm of James Phipps. James did not catch smallpox and showed no signs of the disease.

Answer these questions:

(a) What would have happened to James Phipps if Jenner’s experiment hadn’t worked?

(b) Use a diagram to explain why James Phipps did not catch smallpox.

(c) Use your library or the Internet to find out why people are no longer vaccinated against smallpox.
66 Yor [=)4 [<i ={0le),@4

Individuals and the community can fight

disease together
It is important to understand that the fight against disease involves several levels of responsibility.

& The personal level — for example, each individual can take responsibility for his or her own social habits.

@ The community level — for example, local health services must be correctly managed and financed.

® The world-wide level — for example, many nations could accept responsibility for setting up and carrying out
vaccination programmes (see page 64).

The individual can reduce his or her chances of contracting some diseases by caring about the following:

® Personal hygiene, such as washing, and cleaning teeth.

t Balanced diet (see page 17).

@ Regular exercise (see page 58).

® Sufficient rest, since the main production of chemicals controlling growth takes place during sleep, and a rested
person is less likely to suffer from an accident.

@ Not smoking (See page 54).

@ Controlling alcohol intake (see page 21).

Because we often live close together in towns and cities, we share many facilities which affect our health. For these
reasons we must accept community responsibilities. These responsibilities include:

@ Providing a supply of safe drinking water.

e@ Removal of sewage and refuse.

® Providing medical care for the unwell.

@ Keeping a check on standards of health and hygiene, especially in the preparation of food.

At the world-wide level the largest and most important group is the World Health Organisation (WHO). This group
aims at raising the level of health of all the citizens of the world so that they can lead socially productive lives.

The WHO has had some successes:

8 Reduction of the infant death rate, by providing a better diet for mothers and their infants.

® Elimination of smallpox, by a well-coordinated vaccination programme.

g Reduction in malaria, which affects more than 2 million people a year, by a variety of methods, including the
draining of swampy areas.

® Improved supplies of safe water, by the construction of water-treatment plants.

 Life and living processes | 67

These combined efforts help to fight disease.

Fighting disease

PERSONAL HYGIENE
WASHING HAIR can help to
BRUSHING TEETH
keep bacteria and nits out of
can help to fight
your hair.
tooth decay.

WASHING UNDER ARMS

stops bacteria feeding on
body fluids and creating B.O.
(body odour).

WASHING and
WASHING HANDS,
DRYING FEET
especially after using the loo,
stops smells and
reduces the risk of spreading
can also stop
food poisoning.
athlete's foot.

REGULAR HEALTH CHECKS

HELP! :
Doctors can spot disease
early and treat it very
effectively. For example,
eye and teeth check ups.

COMMUNITY HEALTH

REMOVE RUBBISH to stop GET RID OF SEWAGE to

smells or infestations with reduce unpleasant smells
flies or rats and stop risk of passing
on harmful bacteria and
viruses

PROVIDE SAFE CLEAN

WATER to reduce the risk
of diseases like cholera
and dysentery.

WORLD HEALTH
¢ co-ordinate vaccination
programmes;
¢ provide drugs to poor countries;
¢ develop wells for clean water;
¢ help to redistribute food to poor
countries.
68 Tol
(=)peo ={ele), a4

Chapter 7
Green plants as organisms: Photosynthesis
Remember
o Plants are living organisms and can carry out the life processes.

t Plants must be able to make foods. The foods provide raw materials for growth as well as energy.

® Plants do not move very much, so they must be able to feed without moving.

Green plants make food using sunlight

Very few plants can trap or catch ready-made food. Instead they must make their own food. They make their food by
combining carbon dioxide gas from the air with water from the soil. They need energy to do this and as you will
remember, this energy comes from sunlight. The energy in sunlight is trapped by a green pigment, called
chlorophyll, in the cells of the leaves of the plant.

The method plants use to feed themselves is called photosynthesis. The name gives you a clue about what happens
during this process. Photo means ‘using light’ and synthesis means ‘putting together’.

The process of photosynthesis provides food for the plant. This food can be used to provide energy which can be
stored as starch or used for the growth of the plant. The food that the plant keeps inside its body is called biomass.
This biomass eventually provides food for many animals (see page 99).

Photosynthesis and food

Used in RESPIRATION to provide ENERGY

ie a
Stored as STARCH to be used later. ap |

Used for GROWTH. For example

it becomes: :
* CELLULOSE CELL WALL; and] gaps |omerms
* compounds in SEEDS and DN Aae
FRUITS. a

... which can

become food
for animals.

What's up Doc?

Photosynthesis also gives out the gas oxygen. All living cells need oxygen to release the maximum amount of energy
from food. This is respiration (see page 45).
 Life and living processes | 69

The processes of respiration and phoiosynthesis must be balanced against one another to keep a constant
composition of the atmosphere.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES ARE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS HAVING AN EFFECT!
ee —— Glucose
> > Burning fossil fuels uses up
oxygen and produces carbon
dioxide.

* Cutting down forests means

less photosynthesis, so
Spin 8 ESPIRATION carbon dioxide levels rise
Carbon dioxide ~ —s Oxygen (see page 75)

Hydrogen carbonate indicator can be used

in this experiment to check the levels of carbon dioxide.

car =p
pH rises pH falls
(less acidic) (more acidic)

If the CARBON DIOXIDE If photosynthesis and If the CARBON DIOXIDE

LEVEL FALLS, it means respiration are LEVEL RISES, it means
there is more BALANCED, the that there is more
photosynthesis than indicator remains respiration than
respiration. The indicator ORANGE-RED. photosynthesis. The
turns PURPLE. indicator turns YELLOW.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

Any food that the plant has left over, after it has used some for energy, can be used for growing. The plant will be able
to grow, so long as it can photosynthesise more than it respires. The four factors that affect photosynthesis are:

@ Light intensity: Light provides the energy needed to join carbon dioxide and water together. The more light
there is, the greater the rate of photosynthesis.

® The level of carbon dioxide: The air must provide carbon dioxide. There is very little carbon dioxide in the
normal atmosphere (see page 197), so this gas must be quickly replaced by respiration.

® Temperature: Thermal energy is needed so that all the chemical reactions in the plant can happen quickly
enough. The best temperature for photosynthesis is around 25 °C. Temperatures above 40 °C damage plant
cells, and photosynthesis comes to a halt.

® Water: Water is needed to combine with carbon dioxide, and to carry foods around the plant’s body. Water is
important for photosynthesis but it is not as important as the other factors.
vA) Yel (Jp [eo ={ele), a4

Checking how factors affect photosynthesis

Scientists are very interested in how different factors affect photosynthesis. If they can understand how plants grow,
then they may be able to make plants grow more quickly. This could provide more food for humans and other animals.
When a scientist has an idea that he or she wants to check, then he or she will need to carry out an experiment.
The experiment must be reliable, or the information it gives will not be useful (see page 3).

There are different ways in which photosynthesis by the plant can be measured. The easiest method is to show
whether or not the plant has been able to make starch.

Light is needed for the production of starch

Bright light
Step 1. Put plant Step 2. Put the
= ez_in bright light. leaf into boiling
Cover one leaf i> water. This kills
=) with black paper. the leaf and stops
Then remove the any starch being
leaf after 24 hours. changed to sugar.

Thermal energy

Step 3. Put the leaf into boiling ethanol

to get rid of the green chlorophyll. This
makes the blue-black colour easier to
Do not boil ethanol see.
using a Bunsen burner:
Turn off the burner
: Ethanol
before using
DESTARCHING: Keep the ethanol. r
plant in darkness for 24 Boiling
hours. The plant will use up water
its starch and can't make
any more.

The part of the leaf hit by

light will be coloured blue-
¥
black by iodine. This shows
that there is starch in those Qa
parts of the leaf.
This shows that
photosynthesis only
happens in light. Hot water

Step 5. Drop iodine solution onto the leaf and any

part containing starch will turn blue-black. This is a Step 4. The ethanol
positive result. Any parts without starch will be makes the leaf hard, so
stained brown by the iodine. This is a negative
put it into hot water to
result.
soften it.

If the scientist wanted to check how variations in temperature, light, water or carbon dioxide affected the growth of a
plant, then it would be necessary to use many plants. The different tests could be carried out on different plants. It
would be important, though, to carry out the tests at the same time on plants that were the same size at the start of
the experiment.
 Life and living processes | 71

Oxygen and photosynthesis

When glucose is produced from carbon dioxide and water, the gas oxygen is produced as a waste product. We can’t
see oxygen in the atmosphere, but we can see oxygen bubbles in water. This is useful for two reasons:

@ we can prove that the gas given off is oxygen; and

@ we can therefore use this to show how fast photosynthesis is happening.

The experiment shown below explains both of these points.

Gas collects in the @) A stopwatch can be used to count the

top of the test yw number of bubbles in a fixed time.
tube. The gas can /, This means you can measure the rate of
relight a glowing photosynthesis.
splint; the gas
must therefore be
oxygen.

IS IT A FAIR TEST (see page 3).

Light source: The If a scientist wants to investigate the
light intensity can
effect of light intensity on the rate of
be varied.
photosynthesis, he would set the
following parameters:
Test tube
* LIGHT INTENSITY would be the
Water contains INPUT variable.
carbon dioxide > THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

MM
Pondweed would be the OUTPUT variable.
- ALL OTHER FACTORS would be the
FIXED variables.
A plasticine Funnel
support lifts For example:
the funnel off Beaker temperature,
the bottom of the amount of pondweed; and
the beaker. the concentration of carbon dioxide.

The experiment would be repeated

several times to make the results more
reliable. An average result would then
be calculated.

Getting it right: Growing plants in greenhouses

It is possible to control the process of photosynthesis by growing plants in greenhouses. The owner of a greenhouse
can control the amount of light, the temperature and the amount of carbon dioxide, as well as making sure that the
plants never run out of water.

Key words
Biomass — material made by the process of photosynthesis and built into the body of a plant.

Greenhouse — an environment where the ideal conditions for photosynthesis can be created.

Chloroplast — the structure in the plant cell where photosynthesis takes place.

Chlorophyll — the green pigment in plant cells that can absorb light energy for photosynthesis.
72 Yel [=a lor=M={0le) a4

Exercise 7.1: Photosynthesis

ile During the preparation for the starch test, a leaf is warmed in ethanol. The ethanol turns green —
why is this?

A bluebell grows from an underground stem called a bulb. The leaves make glucose and this is stored as
starch in the bulb.

(a) Describe the process by which glucose is made in leaves.

(b) How could you test to show that starch has been stored in the bulb?

(c) Bluebells grow in the Spring, before most trees have their leaves. Explain why this is the case.

Using the apparatus shown on page 71 to collect gas for measurement (not as a bubble count), Felix and
Gena obtained the following results:

Light intensity in arbitrary units Volume of oxygen released in

mm per minute

ise)oO

ekOn]
Nh
Go/
e-a)
Om
OMe
tS
OMCs

(a) Plot this information as a line graph.

(6) At what light intensity did the shoot produce 25 mm’ of oxygen per minute?

(c) What was the maximum light intensity that seemed to affect the rate of photosynthesis? How could
this information be useful to a grower of greenhouse tomatoes?

Complete this table to show that you understand the idea of a fair test.

Factor to be varied Factor to be measured Factors to be kept constant

Light Length of plant

Amount of carbon dioxide Length of plant

i Amount of water Length of plant

Temperature Length of plant
 Life and living processes | 73

Leaves and roots help plants to grow

Remember
@ Plants make food during a process called photosynthesis.

® Photosynthesis needs carbon dioxide, water and chlorophyll to absorb light energy.

We have learnt so far that plants need to trap light energy, so that they can combine carbon dioxide gas and water into
molecules of glucose. They have to do this in order to make the food they require to supply energy and raw materials.
It shouldn't be a surprise to find out that much of the plant’s structure is very well adapted to this process. The diagram
shows this: \\ |
\

CARBON
DIOXIDE
+

WATER
GREEN LEAF:
FOOD
¢ photosynthesis goes on here;
¢ chlorophyll absorbs light energy;
STEM: ¢ leaf is thin and flat to trap light
¢ holds leaves up to the sun; and
and carbon dioxide; and
* carries food and water
around the plant. e leaf cells are ideal
for photosynthesis.
This OXYGEN is needed by
T never knew plants all living organisms to
were so cooll burn up food for energy. Chloroplast

: AMT esebes1 ROR SEeS

Earthworms’ : burrows ‘
The roots also anchor the plant,
make it easier for roots
holding it firmly in the soil.
to spread through the soil.

¢ absorbs water and minerals; and

¢ many smaller roots spread out
through the soil.
ROOT HAIRS:
¢ give an enormous surface
area to absorb water and
minerals. Root hair cell
74 lod
(=)aler= ={0)0). 4

Plants and minerals

By now we know that plants can make glucose during the process of photosynthesis. But that is not necessarily
enough. They also need some mineral nutrients to produce some of the other food molecules that they need. The most
important of these minerals is nitrate. The plant requires nitrate to make its proteins. Remember that these proteins
are part of the food for herbivores. The plants take up their mineral nutrients, including nitrates, which are dissolved in
water, from the soil via their roots. If the soil does not have enough of these mineral nutrients, the plant cannot grow
properly. Farmers can test the soil to see if there are enough minerals for their crops to grow. If the minerals are in
short supply, the farmer can add fertilisers. A fertiliser usually contains all the main minerals that a plant needs,
particularly large amounts of nitrate, which can be a problem, as you will see below.

Plants and minerals

Minerals are needed for: Plants without minerals have:

- healthy green leaves; - withered, yellow leaves;
- widespread roots; and - short roots without branches; and
- large, plentiful fruits or - tiny fruits, or no fruits at all.
flowers.

But there's bad news.

Excess nitrates can be
washed out of the soil
into lakes and rivers.
Important minerals This can:
include:
- phosphates for
@ turn rivers green from
root growth; and eet the growth of algae:
-magnesiumtohelp @ pollute drinking water
in the production ;
which can be especially
of chlorophyll.
harmful to babies; and
@ eventually kill of ffish
and larger animals.

Decomposition is vital in natural cycles

So we have learnt that plants take carbon dioxide from the air and convert it into glucose by photosynthesis. They also
absorb nitrates from the soil and convert them into proteins. This means that the plant has locked up some of the
carbon dioxide and nitrate present in the environment. It would not take very long for plants to remove all the carbon
dioxide and nitrate from the environment and then no more plants could grow. Since all animals depend on plants for
their food (see page 99), if plants cannot grow, then animals will die. It is important for the environment that the locked-
up nitrate and carbon dioxide are put back into the environment. This is the job of a group of organisms called
decomposers. These organisms — bacteria and fungi — convert the remains of plants and animals back into these
important raw materials. Animals, plants and decomposers are all involved in the natural cycling of the raw materials
in the environment. The cycling of carbon dioxide and nitrates is described on the page opposite.
 Life and living processes [é:)

The carbon cycle

Carbon dioxide in the air

During respiration
te x animals convert
Fe — sugars into carbon

Respiration by hag Na
lants aie een carbon dioxide
P yy (and turns it into
sugars into voll

carbon dioxide.
sugars.

= ee a
| Plant ie -
|remains :

During decomposition
Cold, acidic and low oxygen conditions bacteria and fungi break down
inhibit decomposition. That's why bodies sugars into carbon dioxide.
of animals and plants from thousands of
years ago are found in peat bogs.

The nitrogen cycle

LIGHTNING gives enough

energy to combine nitrogen
Nitrogen in
and oxygen from the air.
the air
BAD NEWS!
If the soil is waterlogged,
some bacteria change
nitrates back into nitrogen
(a process called
denitrification). What
Animal protein a waste!
Plant N

» uw

Animal and plant remains: Dead

bodies and Gis waste

Nitrates in the soil

76 Yel [=)aler=il={0)
0) @4 ,

Plants and animals

Plants can produce food as long as they have a supply of carbon dioxide, water, light energy and minerals. They break
down some of the food they make to release energy for their life processes. Any extra food they make can be used for
growth, or they can store it in their bodies. This stored food provides animals with a useful food supply, which is why
many animals eat plants. Sometimes the animal eats the whole plant, and sometimes it may just steal the food store.
Plants are the only living organisms that can make their own food in this way. One way or another, all animals depend
on plants for their food. This will be studied more in a later section (page 99 — Food Chains).

Key words
Fertiliser — a group of minerals added to soil to help plant growth.

Nitrate — a common mineral ion in fertilisers — it is needed by plants for the production of proteins.

Decomposer — an organism that can break down molecules from the bodies of other dead organisms.

Carbon cycle — a set of chemical reactions that follow what happens to carbon dioxide and sugars in the
environment — it links photosynthesis and respiration.

Exercise 7.2: Plant nutrition

1. Write down two jobs carried out by the stem of a plant.

2. What is the main job of a leaf? Give two ways in which the leaf is well adapted for this job.

3. Mango trees are grown in hot, dry countries where the soil can be hard and tightly compacted. Farmers water
the mango trees by spraying water onto the soil around them.

(a) (i) Only asmall amount of the water actually reaches the roots of the trees. Suggest one reason why.

(ii) Suggest one other reason why mango trees do not grow well in soil which is hard and tightly
packed.

(b) Give two reasons why mango trees and other plants need water.

(c) There is a new method of watering mango trees. Trenches are dug between the trees and filled with
small pieces of rock. Plastic pipes with small holes in them are placed on top of the pieces of rock and
water is pumped along the pipes. Mango trees watered by this method produce 15% more fruit.

Mango tree (i) |Suggest one reason why

| pieces of rock are placed in
the trenches under the pipes.

(ii) With the new method, farmers

can also add nitrates to the
water in the pipes. Give one
reason why plants need
Trenches in the ground 3 St US compounds which i
Plastic pipe with small holes in it | P egg?
packed soil filled with pieces of rock | sas nitrogen.
 Life and living processes 77

The drawing shows a plant called Tillandsia.

(a) (i) The leaves of this plant absorb light. Why do plants need light?

(ii) Tillandsia plants grow on the high branches of trees in rainforests. ss : * ——s
These plants cannot grow well on the lowest branches. Explain why.,

(b) Tillandsia plants do not have root hairs on their roots. What two
substances do most plants absorb through their root hairs? Ny

(c) Which diagram below shows a root hair?

A B

Extension question
5. Five sets of plants were grown. Each one had a slightly different treatment. The plants were weighed after two
weeks of growth. How they were treated and how they grew is shown in this table.

Treatment Ideal conditions | Ideal conditions | Ideal conditions | Ideal conditions | Ideai conditions
for air, water, for air, water |for air, water and| for water, light | for air, light and
light and and light but minerals, but and minerals minerals, but
minerals only half only half light but only half only half the
minerals the amount amount of
of air water

Weight in grams 28 19

(a) Plot the results on a bar chart.

(b) Which treatment had the greatest effect on the plants’ growth?

(c) Explain why this treatment had such an effect on the plant.
78 Yel
(=)aler= ={0)0), @4

Chapter 8
Variation and classification
Here is a reminder of some of the things we should know by now:

@ All living organisms can carry out the seven life processes (growth, nutrition, reproduction, movement,
excretion, respiration and sensitivity).

@ Different organisms have different features that make them able to survive in different environments.

The variety of living organisms

Differences between living organisms are called variations. Even humans show variations; they come in many
different shapes, sizes and colours. Just imagine how many variations humans show in such features as eye colour,
skin colour and shape of earlobes and so on, and now think about how many variations there must be between humans
and other species.

The accumulation of these variations means that we can more easily recognise different organisms. It helps in the
grouping of organisms into different categories (See page 85). The overall appearance of an organism is a result of the
characteristics that it has inherited from its parents and the characteristics that result from the effects of the
environment.

It is possible to produce an equation to summarise this:

genes + effectsof the environne}}i —- appearance

The full set of The observable
information characteristics
passed on from of an organism.
the parents.

Appearance is affected by genes and environment

Gena looks like this because

of the GENES from her parents.

For example, they both have

blue eyes and so does Gena. She also looks like this because
of the EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT.

Hair dye

Suntan
 Life and living processes | 79

Different kinds of variation

Humans, like other organisms, show many variations between individuals. There are two kinds of variations:

Discontinuous variations which can be very easily put into different groups. For example, you are either male
or female and there aren’t any in-between groups. Discontinuous variations depend only on your genes.

Continuous variations fall into many groups. These groups almost run into one another. For example, there
are many groups for height or for weight. You don’t just have very tall or very short — there are many groups in-
between. Continuous variations depend on the environment as well as on your genes.

These characteristics result These characteristics result from GENES and EFFECTS
from GENES. OF THE ENVIRONMENT.
\- ———— —- : »

Height |

Nose shapes

pully Ry Wy,
» q y “iy, Shape and
TanaensS “Mn is

Eye colour and shape

gf
ee 1

Hair colour and type ...

lg face shape and freckles

TRAINING AND MUSCLES _ - AMAZING BUT TRUE!

We inherit genes for fast or slow muscles. The importance of genes in affecting
Training is an environmental effect that height is shown by the fact that girls are
can change the size and efficiency of rarely, if ever, taller than their fathers.
what we have inherited. Girls haven't inherited the male gene, and
this is the gene that has a great effect on
height.
rs{0) Tod
(=)4[ex=i ={0]0), 4

How do variations come about?

The characteristics of an organism may change temporarily due to some environmental effect. For example, a pale-
skinned person may develop a suntan after sunbathing. These temporary variations may be of great importance to the
individual organism (for example, a suntan protects a human from dangerous radiation) but they are of less importance
to the species because they cannot be inherited. The characteristics that are of most interest to biologists are those
which are permanent and can be inherited — gender (whether you are male or female) is a good example. These
variations come about because of your genetic make-up and that is what you have inherited from your parents.

Genes and characteristics

A CELL contains a nucleus.
Pr A NUCLEUS contains many
», chromosomes. There are 46 (23 pairs)
=> in human body cells.

There is a different
gene for each
CHARACTERISTIC,
e.g. eye colour, skin A GENE is a code which A CHROMOSOME
colour and nose carries a chemical instruction carries many chemical
shape. for one characteristic. instructions called GENES.

Fertilisation joins up genes from two parents

You are the result of a fertilisation process (see page 31). In fertilisation the sex cells from your two parents combine.
These sex cells contain a set of genes from each parent. Because of this process, you have two sets of genes and
therefore it is not surprising that you show a mixture of the characteristics of your two parents.

Fertilisation combines genes from two paren

Male and female gametes each carry one half-set of genetic |

ax information in their nuclei.

Sperm

One male and one female

gamete join together.
P| Mum Dad
A ZYGOTE is formed when the male and female
nuclei fuse. This is FERTILISATION. The zygote has
one complete set of genetic information — one half
= from the father and one half from the mother.
=)

The ZYGOTE |
divides and divides (ele) You get equal numbers of genes from
to produce a large _— You Mum and Dad. We can't really predict
number of cells. | o which ones will show up in your
T
| appearance.
 | Life and living processes 81

Twins show the effects of the environment

Identical twins are formed from a single fertilised egg. When the fertilised egg divides into a small ball of cells (see
page 12), and the ball splits into two, each of the two sets of cells develops into a new person — identical twins. These
identical twins have exactly the same genes, although they may have a slightly different appearance. Any slight
differences in their appearance will be due to the effects of their environment. The most likely cause of any
environmental variation is diet.

The development of twins

A single ovum is
released
ioe fromOO th EUNG CUE
released from ;; .°
ovary. the ovary at the
same time.

The ovum is ;
fertilised
Seas by one. Fecha
is fertilised ws 5
by adifferent (e@
sperm.

The zygote
divides to form an Each zygote
embryo. forms an
embryo.

The embryo
splits into two
identical
embryos.

Diet is an important
environmental effect.

Nothing but
chips, <a
burgers and Each embryo eo, Each embryo fi Dy,
fizzy drinks. completes its ee = =| completes its / \ ay 2
5
development. M S/
| Ji
(A) y development 4
) — 8

Twins are identical ine are non-identical

because they each because they each contain
contain copies of the different sets of genes.
Healthy same set of genes.
diet and
exercise.
but
82 Yod
(=) e1=dl =fele), 4

Genes and environment also affect the characteristics of plants

Plants inherit characteristics, just as animals do. They too receive genes from the parent plants. Plants are affected
much more by their environment than animals are, mainly because the plants can’t move to a more suitable
environment. As you know, plants are affected by the four main growth factors (see page 69).

Light — is needed directly for photosynthesis and so for growth.

© Temperature — affects how quickly the chemical reactions needed for life can go on in the plant.

® Water — is needed for photosynthesis and to make plant cells swell to their full size.

td Minerals in the soil — nitrate, in particular, is needed for the growth of new cells.

Is it genes or the environment?

We can use sets of plants to carry out experiments to see whether some variation is inherited or due to the
environment. One of these experiments is shown in here.

Testing for variation: Genes or environment?

Six identical plants grown from cuttings. This means they have the same GENES.

DIFFERENT
KEEP IT FAIR! LOW NITRATE [ } HIGH NITRATE ENVIRONMENT
Make certain that the only
environmental factor that
is altered is the AMOUNT
OF NITRATE.
Keep:
Measure the height of the plants after 14 days growth.
- light intensity;
* temperature; and
* the amount of water
constant.
Otherwise IT WON'T BE
A FAIR TEST! 2 e E

VARIATION
IN
APPEARANCE

Conclusion: The environment has affected the growth of the plants.

|
 | Life and living processes ! 3)

It is not so easy to carry out experiments like this on animals but sometimes they are important. For example, a food
company might want to test whether a new food helps growth or not. Scientists can now produce batches of identical
animals. The animals can then be fed with different amounts of the new food and their growth measured. Because
these animals have identical genes (the scientific word is that they are a clone), any difference in growth must be due
to the different amounts of food.

Key words
Discontinuous variation — differences that fall into very clear classes, for example, male and female.

Continuous variation — differences that can easily overlap, for example, body mass.

Genes — chemicals in the chromosomes that control the characteristics of living organisms.

Chromosome — a thread inside the nucleus of a cell — it is made of many genes.

Exercise 8.1: Variation

1. Match up the words from the first column with the definitions from the second column.

A process that joins sex cells together.

Chromosome All factors affecting an organism.

Variation The first cell that contains genes from two parents.

Environment A chemical that controls a characteristic of an organism.

Zygote The differences between organisms.

Fertilisation A thin strand, found in the nucleus, that carries a set of genes.

2. Complete the following paragraphs.

(a) Variation occurs in two forms. ......... variation shows clear cut separation between groups, and
Penta variation of groups, which almost run into each other. The first of these is the result of .........
alone, whilst the second is affected by both ......... GING ees. os factors.

(b) The genes inherited by an organism come from its ......... . One set comes from the ......... and one
set from the ......... . The overall appearance of an organism can be explained in a simple equation:
Reece OWS: cccnonc SOUS pannccnce'e

3. Which of the following is an example of discontinuous variation?

Body mass, chest circumference, blood group, hairstyle, height.

Explain (a) why you chose one of these alternatives and (b) why you rejected the others.
84 | Science Book 2

Extension question
4. Two students in the first year of secondary school were carrying out a mathematical investigation. They
decided to measure the heights of all the other pupils in their class. Here are their results:

Height category in cm Number in category

121 — 125

126 — 130 4

131 -— 135 9
HIE
136 — 140 6
—————

141 -— 145 4

146 — 150 1

(a) Plot these results as a bar chart.

(b) Explain how these differences in height could have come about.

(c) Suggest one characteristic that the students could have studied and which would have given only two
different groups.
 Life and living processes 85

The variety of life

Don't forget
tJ

® Living organisms show variation which means there are differences between them.

®@ Scientists can use these differences to produce keys. Remind yourself how organisms can be classified using
branching keys, spider keys and numbered keys. (See Science Book 1 chapter 8.)

Putting living things into groups

We know that a key is a very useful way to identify living things. A key works by asking a set of questions about the
features an organism has. The answers we give to the questions begin to split up a large group of living things into
individual organisms.

Scientists can use the answers to these questions to put all known living organisms into groups, by grouping together
all the organisms with similar features. This grouping together is called classifying.

All living organisms can be put into very large groups called kingdoms. There are five kingdoms and every living
organism can be placed into one or other of them.

The five kingdoms of living organisms

ALL LIVING ORGANISMS

(can carry out the life processes)

Made up of Made up of
single cells many cells

Cells don't have Cells do have Cells have no Cells do have

a nucleus. a nucleus. cell walls. cell walls.

© Can carry out

photosynthesis
Cannot carry out
photosynthesis
BACTERIA PROTISTS ANIMALS (sousuallyigreen) (so not green
Geen)
(see page 62) (single celled
organisms)

PLANTS
86 Yor
(=)a[er= ={0)0), @4

The animal kingdom

All the animals in the world can be put into one of two groups, either as a vertebrate or an invertebrate. We can put
animals into the correct group by answering just one question.

Vertebrates and invertebrates

ITS NOT JUST A BACKBONE!

Vertebrates don't just have a backbone; they have a complete bony
skeleton (see page 27). It's amazing to think that the femur (thigh
bone) of a frog weighs less than a millionth of the femur of an elephant.

There are many times more invertebrates than vertebrates, but most of us recognise vertebrates more easily. There
are five groups of vertebrates (animals with backbones). We can easily recognise the five groups by looking at their
skin, although there are other important differences between the groups.
 Life and living processes | 87

The five groups of vertebrates

Do they have scales on their skin?

a oc = va No

Is the skin smooth

Is the skin dry?
and damp?
Yes No Yes No

Does it have feathers?

jwe> er =

Other
Important REPTILE AMPHIBIAN MAMMAL
differences

Constant
body
temperature

Does it Yes — with Yes — Yes — Yes — with

lay eggs? soft shells in water in water hard shells

Does it feed
it’s young
on milk?

Humans are vertebrates,-and belong to the class called the mammals.

KEEPING WARM
Fur (on mammals) and feathers (on birds) are vital. These coverings act as insulation, so that mammals and
birds can keep a constant body temperature in the environment.
88 | Science Book2 —

Arthropods are invertebrates

The invertebrates are animals without backbones. It’s not always easy to tell that they haven’t got backbones because
some of them have very hard covers to their bodies. This hard body is good for protection against predators, but can
make movement difficult. To make movement easier, one group of invertebrates — called the arthropods — consists of
animals that nave many joints in their limbs (the word arthropod actually means ‘jointed foot’). Two different kinds of
arthropod are the insects and the spiders. Some people think of them both as ‘creepy-crawlies’, but there are some
important differences between these two groups.

Insects and spiders are arthropods

INSECT SPIDER

Three main body parts: Two main body parts:

head __—ithorax abdomen

1 pair of
antennae

6 legs
i
usually 2 pairs
of wings
8 legs no wings
SCARY STUFF!
No matter how hard we've tried, humans
have never wiped out an insect pest species!
(We have killed of fsome non-harmful
species by accident though.)

Mexican red-leg tarantula

DID YOU KNOW?

Every spider is a meat-eater - there are no
European hornet vegetarians.
 Life and living processes | 89

The plant kingdom

All plants have one thing in common: they have a pigment that can absorb light energy, so that they can make their
own food by photosynthesis. We can divide up all the plants into two main groups, by asking just one question.

The plant kingdom

Do they have flowers?

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

ae

I>
|

Seeds exposed Seeds hidden No real leaves or Leaves called

in cones in flowers roots fronds
CONIFERS § TRUE FLOWERING MOSSES FERNS
PLANTS

Non-flowering plants never

make seeds - instead they
reproduce with tiny structures
called SPORES.

FUNGI NEED FOOD!

Fungi have no chlorophyll, so must feed by digesting other
foods. They use enzymes (just like humans do) to
decompose animals and plants, or their remains.
FUNGI ARE NOT PLANTS.

Scientists used to believe that fungi were plants. They thought this because they knew fungi definitely weren't animals.
In fact, even though mushrooms and toadstools look more like plants than animals, fungi cannot carry out
photosynthesis and so cannot be called a plant.
90 Yel [=p ]e=M {el0), a4

What is a species?
There are many other questions that can be asked to split these large groups into smaller and smaller groups. The
smallest of all groups is called the species. Members of the same species are so much alike that males and females
can mate and produce offspring just like themselves. Humans are one species, oak trees are another and barn owls
are another and so on. Scientists have found that there are over five million species on Earth.

Key words
Classification — a way of placing living organisms into groups with similar characteristics.

Kingdom — a very large classification group, for example, the animal kingdom.

Vertebrate — an animal with a backbone.

Invertebrate — an animal without a backbone.

Species — a very small classification group — the organisms in it are so similar to each other that they can breed
with one another.

Exercise 8.2: The variety of life

1. Copy this table. Use information from this section to fill in the gaps. Put a + if a feature is present and a — if it is absent.

ca ee ee =
ae PA
ies eee ae
Hairy skin
ee
2. Match up the description from the first column with the group from the second column.

Flowering plant

Has hair, provides milk for its young and has a constant body temperature. Protist

Has a backbone, gills, fins and scales.

Has flowers for reproduction and green leaves.

 Life and living processes | 91

Extension question
3. The system for giving all living things a name in Latin was suggested by a scientist called Linnaeus.

(a) | Use the Internet or your library to complete this table.

Latin name

Fraxinus excelsior

English oak

Pan troglodytes

Loxodonta africana

(b) What are the advantages of a common system of names?

(c) Try to find the name for the Lion in French, German and Swahili.
92 | Science Book 2 |

Selective breeding
Variation occurs naturally in all living organisms. This means that they have different characteristics. It is possible to
mix characteristics deliberately to produce useful varieties of animals and plants. Ever since the early humans began
to domesticate animals and plants, they have been trying to improve them. This improvement is brought about by
choosing or selecting the individual organisms with the most useful — useful to humans, that is — characteristics,
allowing only these individuals to breed. This process is called selective breeding. Here are some examples of
selective breeding:

® Jersey cattle have been bred to produce milk with a very high cream content.

® All domestic dogs are the same species but some have been bred for
appearance (e.g. Pekinese), some as hunting companions (e.g. Springer
spaniels) and some as guard dogs (e.g. Rottweilers).

@ Wheat has been bred so that all the stems are the same height. This makes
harvesting easier and makes collection of the grain easier because the ears
separate easily from the stalk.

Selective breeding of animals

In this litter of pigs two

are larger than the others.
Large pigs carry more meat
which is valuable to a
pig farmer.

These two pigs with the

desirable chracteristic
are allowed to breed and
A very large produce a litter.
iNGividU2
may be mated
with one of its If the size characteristic
parents. is inherited, the next
generation may contain
individuals which are
even bigger.
This can give
rise to an even
larger animal
with more meat.
 Life and living processes | 93

Selective breeding of plants

CAULIFLOWER The plant breeder can transfer pollen from the

stamen of one flower to the stigma of another
CABBAGE (using a fine paintbrush). The pollinated flower can
Selected for be protected from unwanted pollination by
a large enclosing it in a fine gauze bag. Self-pollination can
Selected for flower be avoided by removing stamens or carpels from
single large bud head other flowers on the same plant.

Selected
sa ie Selected for large leaves

=
NO SEX PLEASE!
ss Even selective breeding involves the mixing
KOHLRABI et j ore :
Bh atditeh tg ts of genes at fertilisation. Once a plant
breeder has selected a useful
characteristic, then asexual reproduction
(cloning) must be used to make many copies
Selected for many Selected for of desirable individuals.
flower heads many small
and thick stems side buds

BRUSSELS
BROCCOLI SPROUTS
94 Yel
(=) (e1=1l =o)
0) 44

Of course, what humans consider a valuable characteristic might not actually be valuable in a natural situation. A pet
animal such as a Chihuahua dog would probably not survive in the wild because its hunting instincts have been bred
out to make it more useful as a house pet.

These characteristics are controlled by genes (see page 80). However, it is very important that humans preserve
unpopular genes, i.e. genes which control characteristics that do not currently offer any advantage to us. !t may be
that a cow with a very limited milk yield in fact carries a gene that makes it resistant to a disease which is not yet a
problem in domestic herds. This resistance gene might be extremely valuable if ever such a disease did threaten our
herds of cows. For this reason many varieties of animals and plants are kept in small numbers, in rare breed centres
up and down the country.

Plant genes may be conserved in their seeds, which make them easy to store. Some animal genes may be kept as
frozen eggs, sperm or embryos. It is likely that selective breeding will be replaced by genetic engineering in the
future. This technique is very much more predictable than selective breeding and is even quicker in producing
results which might be of benefit to humans.
Adaptation
Adaptation means being well suited to the environment. You need to remember:

® A habitat must provide a living organism with food, shelter and a breeding site.

@ A habitat can change for many reasons.

@ In our world, such a huge variety of life exists because different organisms have different features.

Living organisms have features that enable them to survive in their environments. These features are called
adaptations. These features result from the variations between different organisms. There are many different
adaptations that allow living organisms to carry on with the life processes in a range of different habitats. These
adaptations fall into different groups, according to how they help the organism to survive.

Feeding: Animals have many features that help them to feed. For example, hunting animals (predators — see
page 103) often have sharp teeth and claws to kill their prey, powerful muscles to chase them and very
sensitive eyes to find them in the first place (e.g. a cheetah).

Plants often have very large leaves to trap light and deep roots to reach water. Some plants even have
sticky leaves to trap insects (e.g. Venus fly trap).

Protection: Not all animals are hunters — some of them are chased by the hunters. These prey animals (see page103)
need to protect themselves. Some of them have a hard covering to their bodies (e.g. a tortoise).

Some of them are coloured to blend into their background — they are camouflaged (e.g. a peppered moth).

Camouflage can also be used by predators. The polar bear, for example, has a white coat that helps it to
hide from the prey animals it is trying to catch.

Its great size and large volume means that there -

are more cells to generate internal/thermal energy
by respiration.
The polar bear also has
the adaptations of a Small ears and tail means
carnivore which enable that there is less surface
it to feed on meat. area for loss of internal/
thermal energy by radiation. |

mA thick layer of fat provides:

@ good insulation against
Pads on the feet provide: loss of internal/thermal
® insulation against loss of energy; and
internal/thermal energy @ can be used as a food
by conduction; and store during hibernation.
@ grip on slippery surfaces. Polar bears will hibernate
| to avoid the most severe
weather conditions.

SLEEPING THROUGH THE WINTER

Polar bears spend the long, dark winters hibernating. The female must save enough fat to be able to feed
her new-born cubs, as well as keeping herself warm.
96 Yel [Vi el-i={ele), am

Plants that live in dry environments often have a waxy covering to cut down the loss of water from their bodies and
spines to stop animals eating them. These adaptations are shown below.

Cacti are well adapted to hot, dry environments

Stomata are sunk in
| grooves to avoid drying
winds.

‘The leaves are reduced

to spines this reduces Deep roots penetrate to
the surface area for water very low water tables.
/loss. They also deter
| grazing animals.

‘The green stem carries

Shallow roots absorb |
| out photosynthesis.
water from the lightest of |
|
rainfalls. |

Movement: Whether an animal is a predator or is prey, it will need to be able to move. There are many adaptations
to make this possible. Birds have feathers that are light and give a big surface to help them fly. Fish are
streamlined to cut through the water and have fins to push against the water. Camels have big, flat feet,
so that they can walk on sand without sinking.

The camel is adapted to dry, desert conditions

The store of fat can be burned to release Brown fur provides Nosirils can be
energy. During respiration the fat releases camouflage against closed to prevent the
water. possible predators. entry of sand.
N.B. The hump does not contain water!

The tongue is enclosed

Thin fur and little fat beneath
in a thick membrane to
the skin allow loss of thermal
limit water loss by
energy since there is little
evaporation.
insulation.

Less fur on the lower body means

Camels have large stomachs that when a camel lies down at night it
and can drink up to 100 litres can absorb internal/thermal energy
of water in 10 minutes when from the warm ground.
water becomes available.
Large feet with membranes between
the toes allow camels to walk on sandy
surfaces without sinking.
Chemicals in the camel's body are not easily
damaged by changes in temperature. The
Camels were introduced to Australia
camel's body temperature can go up by 7 — 8 °C
for use as beasts of burden. Some
without harm to the animal. Camels don't waste
escaped and there are now more
much water in sweat!
camels in Australia than in Arabia!
 : Life and living processes | 97

The diagrams in Science Book 1 of the freshwater pond and the oak woodland showed some of the many ways in
which living organisms are adapted to their habitats. In this book we will look at the hedgerow and what its habitat
provides its occupants.

Hedgerows and habitats

ANNUAL CHANGES DEPEND ON THE SEASONS HEDGEROWS ARE WILDLIFE

(see page 355). CORRIDORS where animals can
Living organisms have to be adapted to deal with move from one piece of woodland to
changes in: another, without being seen by their
° temperature; predators.
availability of water;
winds;
light intensity;
length of daylight; and
availability of food. HEDGEROWS ARE IDEAL
HABITATS because they provide:
e food, such as berries, seeds and
insects;
e shelter, from wind and rain and
ANIMALS ADAPT TO ANNUAL CHANGES. For from predators; and
example in winter: ¢ breeding sites, such as nests for
Hedgehogs hibernate to avoid food shortages. birds and burrows for small
Butterflies and other insects lay eggs, then die. The mammals like mice.
next generation spends the winter as pupae (like
butterfly chrysalids).
Some mammals store food for times when no food HEDGEROWS AFFECT THE
can be found. ENVIRONMENT
Many birds migrate, which means they move to a
warmer place where they can still find food. WIND: One side of a hedge is usually
sheltered from the wind. This side is
usually more humid (damper air) and
warmer. The temperature can easily
be measured with a thermometer.

LIGHT: The hedgerow bushes will

cast a shadow, so the bottom of the
hedge may be much darker than an
open field. Light intensity can be
measured with a light meter.

| SOIL MOISTURE: The roots of the

hedgerow plants absorb a lot of water,
so soil near the hedge may be quite
| dry. Soil moisture can be measured

PLANTS ADAPT TO ANNUAL a

CHANGES. For example in winter: =
¢ Deciduous trees shed their be oN
leaves because there's less light
for photosynthesis and it's harder
to pull cold water out of the soil.
Flowers form seeds and then die
off because there are very few
insects left to pollinate them. NITRATES: Minerals such as nitrates can be taken up
Leaves of many flowers die back, y the roots of the hedgerow plants. On the other
and food is stored in bulbs hand, fallen leaves and fruits decompose to replace
underground until conditions many minerals (See page 75).
improve next spring. ‘i _ pL we e
98 Yel
(=) lor= =fole) «4

Key words
Adaptation — a feature of an organism that makes it very well suited to its environment.

Camouflage — a pattern or colour that allows an animal to blend in with its background.

Nocturnal — being active at night.

Migration — moving to a new habitat, usually to obtain enough food.

Hibernation — sleeping through the winter, to save energy and to avoid having to find food when there isn’t
much available.

Exercise 8.3: Adaptation

1 Why do small birds that eat insects migrate south for the winter? Name two such birds.

2 How does a caterpillar avoid being eaten by a small bird?

Si. How are daffodills adapted to survive winter conditions?

4 Name two hedgerow animals that hibernate. Why do they hibernate?

Extension questions
5; Use a book or an Internet website to find out about how birds know which way to fly when they migrate. Write
a short paragraph describing the process.

Use a book or the Internet to find out about two other animal migrations. Write a short paragraph on each,
explaining why they migrate.
 Life and living processes / 99

Chapter 9
Feeding relationships
© All living organisms need a supply of food to carry out their life processes.

@ Plants use light energy and chemicals from their surroundings to make their own food.

® Animals cannot make their own food but they get their energy and raw materials from the food they eat.

Decomposers obtain energy and raw materials from the remains of other living organisms.

Animals (and that includes humans) depend on plants for survival. There may be many different animals and plants in
one habitat (see page 97, for example) but they are all linked together by food. An example of the way living organisms
are linked by food is shown below.

Feeding links are called food chains

As we know, these feeding links between different organisms make up a food chain. (See Science Book 1 chapter
11.) A food chain shows how energy and raw materials are passed from one organism to another by feeding. There
are certain rules about food chains:

@ They always start with a green plant because only green plants can make their own food. Plants make their
own food by photosynthesis, so they are called producers.

@ Animals eat or consume food, so they are called consumers.

® The arrows in a food chain mean ‘food for’. These arrows always point in the direction in which the energy and
raw materials are moving as the organisms feed.

A food chain shows feeding links

The Sun
provides the
light energy
for photosynthesis.
A producer is a A herbivore A carnivore feeds on
green plant that feeds on plants. the flesh of other
produces food by animals.
photosynthesis.
Consumers eat food FELIX SAYS: Food
made in the first place
chains always begin
by green plants.
with plants. Don't
Decomposers are fungi and bacteria
forget that dead
that break down and recycle the remains leaves, fallen branches
of all other living organisms. and rotten fruits all
came from plants.
100 Yel
(=)4[e1= ={0)0), 4

There are different types of consumers

Because animals cannot make their own food, they must obtain their food by eating other organisms. Animals are very
well adapted to the type of food they eat. Some animals are called herbivores because they eat plants (herba means
‘plant’ or ‘grass’ in Latin). Other animals are called carnivores because they eat meat (caro, carnis means ‘meat’ in
Latin). Some animals get the best of both worlds; they eat plants and meat. These animals are called omnivores (omni
means ‘all’). Before you move on, make sure you can name a herbivore, a carnivore and an omnivore.

Some microbes (bacteria and fungi) feed on the remains of dead plants and animals, or the waste that animals produce
during excretion. These microbes are decomposers (see page 75). Every habitat needs decomposers so that
supplies of minerals and other food materials can be recycled.

All change
If one organism in a food chain is affected in some way, then other organisms in the same food chain will also be
affected. One example is shown in the diagram below:

Lettuces fall Snails increase in Thrushes fall in Hawks fall in

in number number because number because number because
because more no thrushes somebody shoots them. there are fewer
snails eat them. eat them. thrushes to eat.

A change in the
number of thrushes
Can Cause ...

Organisms are less likely to be affected if they can feed on more than one kind of food, in other words if they can take
part in more than one food chain.

Food webs
Most animals and plants actually play a part in more than one food chain. Feeding relationships in a habitat are in fact
very complex because food chains overlap. These interlinked food chains are called food webs.
 Life and living processes 101

A food web is a set of linked food chains

TOP CARNIVORES: Foxes and buzzards are at the top of this food web because
nothing else eats them. There can only be very few top carnivores because each one
of them needs to consume many organisms ‘lower down’ in the web.

FEEDING LEVELS:
Arrange all the producers in one
level, the herbivores in a second
level, and so on. This makes it
easier to pick out the food
chains.

HERBIVORES

PRODUCERS

Wild flower Fallen leaves

Food webs:

® Give a more realistic picture of the feeding relationships in a habitat. For example, the diagram shows that a
fox can feed on more than one kind of herbivore and that grass is eaten by more than one kind of consumer.

® Show how many animals can survive changes in their environment. For example, cold weather might reduce
the number of earthworms and snails available to a thrush but it can feed itself on grass seeds and fruits.
102 Science Book 2

Removing just one organism from a food web can have many effects because the organism may be involved in many
food chains. Taking top consumers away from a habitat can be particularly dangerous, as the number of herbivores
can quickly increase. This increase in herbivores might mean more producers (plants) are eaten, which in turn means
there are fewer producers to trap light energy. This can all lead to a rapid breakdown of the whole food web.

Adding a new organism to a food web can be just as dangerous as taking one away. Rats were introduced to the
islands around New Zealand when they escaped from ships stopping to take on food and water. The rats killed off
many ground-nesting birds. The situation was made worse by introducing stoats to try and kill off the rats. The stoats
also killed and ate the ground-nesting birds. The conservation of wild organisms is a very complicated business and
should be left to expert biologists (see page 115).

Energy flow ina habitat: Pyramids of numbers

When an animal eats a plant, it uses the food to supply raw materials and energy (see page 46). Some of the food
molecules in the plants never become food molecules in the animal for the following reasons:

@ Some of the plant material is wasted. For example, roots and stem may be left behind. (Do you eat all of a sprout plant?)

® Some of the plant material passes right through the animal’s digestive system and is passed out in the faeces.

@ Some of the energy is lost to the environment as thermal energy.

Energy is lost at every stage in the food chain. In fact, only about 10% of the available energy passes from one feeding
level to the next.

Food chains and energy

Most of the Sun's energy isn't used in photosynthesis.

It's reflected away or misses plants altogether.

WOW! Scientists think

the Sun has enough
energy for another 5
billion years of
photosynthesis!

10 10
90% 90%
Much food energy is wasted, and doesn't pass along the food chain. It »|
might not be eaten (like shells of snails) or can't be digested (like bone S).
 Life and living processes | 103

If you count the number of organisms at each feeding level in a food chain, you can produce a pyramid of numbers.
The pyramid shape is a result of the energy loss at each stage. The consumers must always eat large numbers of the
organisms below them in the pyramid.

Pyramid of numbers

Odd numbers
A pyramid of numbers may not be a pyramid! Just counting
the organisms can give strange results, like these:

1 OAK TREE
A pyramid of numbers is constructed by (a big producer)
counting the number of organisms at each
stage of a food chain.

Predators and prey

Animals that eat other animals are called predators, and the animals that they catch are called prey. The numbers of
predators and their prey depend on each other. For example, if there are a lot of foxes (predators) in one habitat, then the
rabbit (prey) numbers will quickly fall. If the number of rabbits falls, then there may not be enough food for all the foxes.
Some of the foxes will die unless they move to a place where there is more food, or learn to eat other things. In Britain,
many foxes have moved into cities where they have learned to feed on food thrown away by humans. The same thing can
happen with insects. Greenfly can breed very quickly if the weather is warm and moist. There can be millions of them in
one garden, much to the horror of the gardeners. However, a plague of greenfly is a heavenly situation for the animals that
love to eat them, such as ladybirds. The ladybird numbers increase and, because there are so many of them, the number
of greenfly falls again. There is a cycle between the numbers of predators and their prey.

Predators and prey

PREY numbers go up and down
depending on:
¢ how quickly they breed; and
¢ how many are eaten by
predators.

NUMBERS

PREDATOR numbers go up when

the number of prey rises, then
down again when the number of
TIME prey falls.

FELIX SAYS: Don't forget - there must always be more prey than predators!
104 Yel [=p le=M =fele) a4

Key words
Food chain — the flow of food energy between living organisms.

Producer — an organism that can trap light energy to supply food energy to a food chain.

Consumer — an organism that obtains its food energy by eating another organism.

Predator — an animal that chases and catches other living organisms.

Pyramid of numbers — a way of drawing out the number of organisms at different stages in a food chain.

Food web — a set of different food chains that overlap and link up with one another.

Exercise 9.1: Food chains

1. Look at the diagram of the hedgerow (page 97). Identify and write down a food chain from this habitat.

2. Give an example of a herbivore, a carnivore and an omnivore that would live in a hedgerow habitat. Name
one decomposer and explain why it is so important in this habitat.

3. A sparrow hawk consumes 25 blue tits. 25 000 leaves are eaten by 2500 worms. Each blue tit eats 100
worms. Use this information to draw a pyramid of numbers (your pyramid does not need to be drawn exactly
to scale).

Extension question
4. Some students made a survey of a freshwater pond. After many visits they put together their results in this list:

Hydra feeds on water fleas.

Diving beetles feed on water fleas and on mayfly larvae.

Pond snails feed on algae and on pondweed.

Pond skaters feed on water fleas and tadpoles.

Perch feed on tadpoles, diving beetles, water fleas and pond skaters.

Herons feed on perch.

Mayfly larvae feed on algae.

Water fleas feed on algae.

Tadpoles feed on algae and on water fleas.

(a) Use this information to construct a food web for this pond.

(b) What is the top consumer for this food web?

(c) What happens to the animals and plants that die before they are eaten?

(d) Choose one food chain from your food web. Draw the pyramid of numbers that you would expect for this
food chain.
 Life and living processes | 105

Food chains and pollution

Remember
® All living organisms need food to supply raw materials and energy.

® Food is transferred from one organism to another along food chains.

Improving our food supply

Humans, like all other animals, require food. We are different from other animals because we can do a lot to alter our
food supply. The population of humans on the Earth has increased because we have been able to improve our food
supply in two ways:

® By making food more nutritious (additives, such as preservatives, help us to keep food for longer), and by
adding extra nutrients, such as vitamin D and calcium, which are added to many dairy products.

© By producing greater quantities of food. Fertilisers such as nitrate and phosphate help crop plants to grow
more quickly and pesticides, such as DDT, kill organisms that might reduce the amount of food for humans.

Unfortunately, the use of fertilisers and pesticides has caused some problems for the environment. The delicate
balance between animals and plants in food webs (see page 101) can be seriously affected by both fertilisers and
pesticides.

Overuse of nitrates
Here’s one particular problem. Farmers use fertilisers to increase their crop yield (see page 74). Now most fertilisers
contain large amounts of nitrate. This mineral can easily be washed into rivers, streams and lakes. The problem with
this is that simple plants living in the water (algae) also thrive on these nitrates and reproduce very quickly. The build
up of algae blocks out light and so other plants die. Once these plants have died, they are decomposed by bacteria.
The bacteria use up a lot of oxygen as they respire (See page 45) and soon most of the oxygen in the water is used
up. Animals, such as fish, water fleas and other animals that need oxygen for respiration, die. They decompose too
and the problem just gets worse and worse until almost nothing except bacteria is left alive in the water. As you can
imagine, the food webs in the water can be seriously upset.

Fertilisers cause water pollution

Fertiliser left Some chemicals are washed

oh the soil ‘\° the river. This is called leaching.

Algae oN Sree and shade oatiplenis living on the river bed.

Rss Rape ae | seNai
RID ENE AE
. iE altNy:

Bacienat use
up oxygen.
Plants are decomposed
by bacteria. Insects,snails
= SNS =
and fish die.

Praeek al rol allow water to pass

sc trough ESTita
eo. S50 rau ACRaY al Ow Aea, 20 LO Veasors 6 Ong SMELLY WATER!
106 | Science Book2 |

Pesticides and food chains

A pest is an organism that competes with us for our food supplies. Some scientists believe that as much as one third
of all the food produced in the world is eaten by pests and so is not available to humans. Crops can be protected from
pests if they are sprayed with chemicals called pesticides. Unfortunately, it means that if crops are sprayed with these
pesticides, they too can enter food chains because they gradually build up in the bodies of animals. This problem is
explained below.

Pesticides can be poisonous

Pesticides become very harmful at

The osprey eats this concentration.
lots of pike. The
DDT in the osprey f=
becomes very
concentrated, and
can poison the
bird.

Each Pp eats
lots of roach.

Each 1p eats
lots of pond weed,
so the DDT gets
more
concentrated.

Insecticide (DDT) is sprayed on the

VW
Y\ f
\
\i/ Y \i/ {
f
t
[Each pond weed
land. Some of this insecticide then \/ y V y Vv y plant only has a
runs into rivers and ponds. Y we Vv vy, little DDT in it.

! Pesticides are not harmful at

this concentration.

One pesticide that has been used to kill many types of insect is DDT. In the 1960s, the numbers of peregrine falcon,
a bird of prey, were falling very quickly. Scientists discovered that DDT in the food chain was causing the birds to lay
eggs with very thin shells. These eggs cracked as soon as a parent bird tried to incubate them. The use of DDT was
banned in Britain and the population of peregrine falcons has now grown again.

Other toxins
Any substance that can act as a poison to a living organism is called a toxin. There are other toxins in the environment,
apart from pesticides. Heavy metals, such as lead, can build up in humans. The Japanese fishermen in Minimata Bay
suffered terrible illnesses when mercury was allowed to enter the waters where they caught their fish.
 Life and living processes | 107

Mercury caused Minimata disease

The mercury was

absorbed by
tiny plants Cats and humans ate
and animals. many fish. The mercury
ed a
he — ei levels became so
ey, |
Bae concentrated
This poison became more and more that it
concentrated as it moved affected their
along the food chain. brains. ~
The factory waste
contained mercury.

/
vy

Key words
Fertiliser — a group of minerals added to soil to help plant growth.

Pesticide — a chemical used to control pests.

Pest — an organism that competes with humans for food.

DDT — a very dangerous pesticide that can build up in food chains.

Pollution — a harmful effect of human activities on the environment.

Exercise 9.2: Food chains and pollution

1. Read through the following paragraph, and then use words from the list below to complete it.

pollution algae oxygen fertilisers bacteria leaching light

nitrates cloudy decomposed

Farmers use ......... to increase the yield of their crops. The fertilisers are spread onto the fields and supply
several minerals, including ......... which are needed for plant growth. Sometimes farmers spread too much
fertiliser on the fields and when rain falls, ......... occurs. The fertilisers are washed into nearby streams and
rivers. The fertilisers are used by tiny plants called ......... . This causes them to reproduce very quickly. This
makes the water go very ......... PING CULS “OUT THC immer.ae to other plants rooted at the bottom of streams
and rivers. These rooted plants die and are ......... DYaneauaaseee . The bacteria use up all the ......... . This
causes many fish and aquatic insects to die. The water becomes very smelly and very few organisms can
live there. This is an example of ......... :
108 Yel [=)alol-M ={ele) a4

Extension question
De A scientist noticed that some plants were never bothered by insects. He was interested in whether the
plants contained their own natural insecticide. He ground up the plants so that he could collect the natural
insecticide which he thought could be dissolved in water.

(a) Which technique would he use to separate the dissolved insecticide from the crushed-up remains of
the plant? Draw a simple diagram to explain how he would do this (try page 167 for a clue).

He thought that the juice would be able to kill insects and decided to try to find out whether spraying more
pesticide juice would kill more insects.

(b) What would his hypothesis be and what prediction might he make?

To carry out this investigation, the scientist and his team of workers made up a number of different
concentrations of the natural insecticide and then sprayed the insecticide solutions onto a series of plants.
Each plant was of the same species and each plant had 100 aphids feeding on it. The team kept all the
plants in the same room and later counted how many aphids were left alive after 24 hours.

(c) What was the input (independent) variable in this experiment?

(d) What was the outcome (dependent) variable?

(e) Do you think that this was a fair test? Explain the answer that you give.

This table shows the results obtained in this experiment.

—————

Concentration of
insecticide
(in g per 1000 litres)

Number of aphids
alive after 24 hours

(f) Plot a graph of these results. Include a title on your graph.

(g) Use your graph to calculate the concentration of pesticide needed to kill 50% of the aphids.

(h) Do the results support the prediction that the scientist made? Use the graph to explain your answer.
 Life and living processes | 109

Chapter 10
Populations and competition
A population is the number of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat at the same time. The size of
a population does not remain the same from day to day or from year to year. Whether a population gets larger, smaller
or stays the same depends on the balance between several different processes. These processes affect whether
organisms join the population (making it get bigger) or leave it (making it get smaller). These processes are described
below.

Population changes

The population will grow

(increase in size) if there are:
¢ more births than deaths; and
* more organisms join
than leave.

More organisms
moving IN
More births

The population will fall

(decrease in size) if there are:
¢ more deaths than births; and
¢ more organisms leave than
More organisms
join.
More deaths moving OUT

Here’s an equation to help you remember the factors that affect population growth:

population change = (number of births + number moving in) - (number of deaths + number moving out)
110 Science Book 2

Counting living organisms

Biologists who are interested in populations can count the number of organisms in an area at a particular time. It would
be very difficult and would take too long to count every individual organism of that species, so biologist take a sample
of the population. The way they do this is explained below. Quite simply taking samples has several advantages:

@ it is much quicker than trying to count every individual; and

@ it does much less damage to the environment.

One simple way to do take a sample is to use a quadrat. A quadrat is a square, usually made of wood or metal, that
can be placed on the ground where the organisms are living. What the biologist needs to work out is:

a how many organisms of a particular species are present inside the quadrat; and

e how many of the quadrats would fit into the area that the biologist is studying.

The population is then calculated by using this equation:

total population = no. of organisms in one quadrat x no. of quadrats that fit in the area

Reliable results
Living organisms do not spread out equally through their environment. There may be more of one species in one part
of the habitat than in another, so a single quadrat might give unreliable results. The biologist should count the number
of organisms in several quadrats (probably ten is best) and then find out the average (mean) number in one quadrat.
Using this mean value will give a much more reliable count of the population.

Measuring a population using a quadrat

A quadrat

Place this in
the habitat. Count the number of k }
organisms inside the You might have problems counting these
quadrat organisms!

TAKE AN AVERAGE!
- First count the organisms in ten quadrats.
- Then divide the total number by 10 Work out how
- You do this because a mean (average) value many quadrats fit Now calculate how many organisms are
gives a more reliable result. into the habitat. in the whole of the habitat.
 Life and living processes | 111

What about animals?

Quadrats are very easy to use with plants, like dandelions, or with animals that stay still while they are being counted
(like limpets on a rocky shore). Unfortunately, animals that can move will usually run, swim or fly away while they are
being counted. Luckily, there are other methods that can be used for counting animals. Here are some of the methods
that can be used:

Counting animals that move

Small animals This PITFALL

from the soil and Stone or TRAP can be
Leaves piece Of Used to catch
and soil leaves can be wood :
collected with small animals
this funnel. The or insects
Plastic
Mesh animals move cup moving across
away from the sunk into the ground.
heat and dryness ground Fruit or leaves
Stee of the lamp. can attract
herbivores or a
funnel
small piece of
meat could
attract
Collecting carnivores.
dish

USE A NET: A net can

catch flying or swimming
organisms.
112 | Yes [-Jp]e1-M ={0}e) a4

Understanding the results

A population curve can be drawn by plotting the results of counting populations at different times. A population curve
usually has the same shape, whichever organism is being counted. A population curve is shown below.

Populaticn curve

i i USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE!

ObsLani As If you understand what affects the shape
. *
~~} affected by: of this population curve, you can:

5 , palatal. * Prevent a population from growing.

. predators e.g. The growth of a population of
S bacteria can be prevented by making sure
= that they are starved of a resource they
- need. Bacteria need water to multiply, so
S ° The way in which the food can be preserved by dehydration.

Z leapt glows depen’ - Make a population grow more quickly.

«ithebith rate and death e.g. Removing weeds will mean that
ratetenel the crop plants don't have to
thoneror organisms compete for nitrates. The crop
Ti entering and leaving. population can then grow to a higher
nee. level.

The shape of this curve can be understood by thinking about what a living organism needs from its environment. A
habitat is an area of the environment that can provide food, shelter and breeding sites for an organism. If there is
plenty of food, a number of places to shelter and no shortage of breeding sites, then the organisms can breed and new
members of the same species can move into the area. The population will increase but, as this happens, the organisms
become more crowded. This overcrowding will eventually mean that the population will no longer increase. There are
two main reasons for this:

® Disease: As the population becomes more crowded, it becomes easier for the microbes that cause disease to
spread. The disease may kill some organisms and make others too unwell to breed. As a result, the population
will fall. As the number of organisms falls, they spread out more, so it becomes harder for the disease to spread.
The population can increase again. Usually a balance is reached, and the population size will probably become
more or less constant.

® Competition: As the population increases, each organism has less space and less food (and less light in the
case of plants) and so competition increases. Competition happens when two organisms are both trying to get
the same resource from their environment. Competition for food is one of the reasons why animals try to set up
a territory. The territory can supply them with the food, shelter and breeding sites they need. The territory will
usually be small if there is plenty of food but may need to be much larger if there is very little.

The size of a population will also be affected by predators. There is usually a good balance between the numbers of
predators and their prey (see page 103).

Key words
Population — all the members of the same species living in one area.

Competition — when two or more organisms are trying to obtain the same thing from their environment.

Quadrat — a wooden or metal square that can be used in the counting of populations.

Habitat — a part of the environment that can provide food, shelter and a breeding site.
 Life and living processes 113

Exercise 10.1: Populations

t. Twenty moose swam across a river to a large grassy island. At first, the moose population rose very rapidly,
but then it levelled out. Give two reasons why the numbers stopped rising.

Felix wanted to discover the number of small invertebrate animals

living in leaf litter (decomposing leaves in a woodland). After obtaining
his samples of leaf litter, he used this apparatus to extract the Leaf
sample
animals.

a)
(a) Suggest
gg two reasons why the animals move into
i i
the container. Wire mosh

Filter
funnel

Among the animals collected were a number of springtails which feed on

soil fungi. These animals have a tail which is normally folded under the Nett
body but can be suddenly released to propel the animal several
centimetres forward.

(b) (i) What is the importance of fungi in the leaf litter?

(ii) To which group of animals does the springtail belong?

(iii) What is the advantage to the springtail of its ability to jump?

The graph below shows how the size of the population of a certain species of animal changes with time.

(a) Describe what the graph tells us.

(b) Suggest a reason for the shape of the graph.

(c) Suggest two factors which may cause the population

size of an animal species to fall suddenly in its natural
habitat.

organisms
of
Number

Time
114 Yor [=1a[ex-M =fele), 44

Humans may have a positive effect on

the environment: Conservation
Humans may cause damage to the environment, but they can also do good things to the environment. Many people
are now involved in conservation. Conservation involves looking for ways to protect the environment. Before we look
at some of the ways in which we can preserve the environment, let’s look at how it can be destroyed. The picture below
shows how humans have been responsible for cutting down huge numbers of trees (deforestation) over much of the
Earth’s surface:

Deforestation is a disaster

E |Soil fertility is reduced:

«|e Trees contain most of the forest's minerals and when trees
e are cut down and taken away, the minerals can't be recycled.
s ¢ Wind and water can cause soil erosion, because the tree
roots aren't there to bind the soil together.

Flooding and landslides:

¢ Once trees are cut down, they
Scientists believe that cannot absorb water. Heavy
one plant and one animal rainfall is not absorbed and can
species become extinct result in flooding and landslides
every 30 minutes due to from steep hillsides.
deforestation.
Changes to the atmosphere:
Fewer trees mean:
* More carbon dioxide because Even nature reserves can be cut
the gas Is not absorbed for down for road building.
photosynthesis.
e Less oxygen because it is
not produced by photosynthesis.
e Drier air, because there are
fewer leaves to give out water.

Extinction of species:
For example:
¢ The mountain gorilla depends
on the rain forest for its habitat.
¢ Osprey depend on pine forests.
¢ Many plants provide
medicines, e.g. contraceptive
chemicals, anti-cancer drugs and
painkillers.
 Life and living processes 115

In comparison to this, humans have also set up schemes for the large-scale planting of trees (reforestation). Large
numbers of trees may be planted in areas which had previously been cleared or which are thought likely to benefit from
tree cover. For example, millions of trees were planted when the M25 motorway around London was built.

There are a number of reasons for carrying out these programmes:

@ The trees may be a valuable cash crop, providing timber for building purposes (as with many of the coniferous
plantations in this country) or for fuel (as with the quick-growing Eucalyptus trees which are planted in Central
Africa).

The trees may help to reverse soil erosion, and are particularly valuable in areas which have become deserts.

®@ The forests may be valuable wildlife habitats. For example, Red Squirrels can thrive in Scots Pine plantations
(see page 118).

@ The forests may be valuable recreational areas, providing opportunities for leisure activities, such as camping,
mountain-biking and orienteering.

In a well-managed forest all these requirements can be met. Indeed, the Forestry Commission in the UK must take all
these into account when managing its plantations. Forests in Britain are a good example of sustainable development.
Sustainable development means that we should not take too much from our environment now, because it will affect
its value for future generations. Forests with a single species of tree may be very good for growing wood for building
or for paper manufacture, but they are:

@ very likely to be damaged by pests (any pest does not have far to go to find another tree of the same type);

@ very limited in value to wildlife because there is not a great variety of food; and

e@ often very boring to look at.

It is possible to use biological knowledge carefully in the management of forests. A forest can provide wood for now
and wood and wildlife for the future.

The picture on the next page suggests that human effects on the environment may not always be negative ones. We
sometimes believe that humans only damage the environment, but the growing numbers of conservationists are
looking for ways to manage the environment. Conservationists try to balance the human demands on the environment
with the need to maintain wildlife habitats. This is an important part of sustainable development.
116 Yo
(=) [ers =fee) a4

Sustainable development

Deciduous trees are planted along the edges of forests that are
grown to provide wood for paper or for building.
¢ They improve the appearance of the woodland, so visitors are
happier.
¢ They provide seeds used as food by wildlife.
¢ Many insects live in this kind of tree, so there's a greater variety
of food for different species of wildlife.
All this helps to save wildlife for the future.

There are blocks of trees of different

ages, So:
* some can be cut for wood;
¢ some are just the right age to produce
seeds; and
¢ some are still short enough to provide
good hiding places. 4%

Brash (thin branches) is not burned,

because:
¢ it is an excellent habitat for
insects which can be food for
birds and small mammals; and
¢ itis a very good provider of hiding
places and nesting sites.

Open space provides extra light and Dead wood is left to rot naturally, even
warmth. This encourages: though it takes up space:
° more wild flowers; and ¢ it provides a habitat for mosses and
¢ more butterflies. ferns, and for insect larvae which are
a good food source for birds; and
¢ minerals like nitrates are naturally
returned to the soil.

Why is conservation necessary?

The competition between humans and other living organisms means that many species have disappeared completely
or fallen in number.

Conservationists therefore really have two jobs:

a they must try to slow down or stop the fall in biodiversity (the number of different species); and

® they must try to make the public aware of the need to maintain species and their habitats.
 Life and living processes | 117

What is conservation?
Conservation always involves some form of management. Conservation almost always involves a balance. For
example, a farmer might be encouraged to replant hedgerows but must still be able to make a profit from growing
crops. Conservation may involve a number of strategies:

® Preservation: In its strictest sense this involves keeping some part of the environment without any change.
This might be possible in an enormous area such as Antarctica but is of less significance in a densely-
populated area like Britain.

® Reclamation: This involves the restoration of damaged habitats. It might include the replacement of grubbed-
out hedgerows or the recovery of former industrial sites.

G6 Creation: This involves the production of new habitats. It might include the digging of a garden pond or the
planting of a forest.

If conservation is to be successful, careful planning is necessary. A conservation plan involves several stages:

® Sampling: The number of organisms present at the start of the conservation work needs to be counted (see
page 110).

@ Devising a management plan: This involves considerable biological knowledge. For example, trying to
increase the population size of a species will involve knowing what its breeding requirements are.

®@ Carrying out the plan: This will probably involve cost to the conservation organisation involved in the work.
Many people become involved in voiuntary work which reduces the financial cost of conservation work.

ee) Resampling: The number of the conserved species needs to be counted again, otherwise the conservationists
won't know whether their plan has worked or not. This might be five or ten years after the first sampling, if the
organism is a slow-breeding species.

Two examples of conservation work are described in the next section. Firstly, the Red Squirrel: in Britain the Red
Squirrel is a very endangered species; some scientists suggest it may be extinct by the year 2010. Suggestions for its
conservation largely involve careful management of habitat. Secondly, zoos which are extremely popular in many
countries: Zoo managers now stress the importance of zoos in conservation rather than as places of entertainment.

The Red Squirrel in Britain

The Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) used to be very widespread in Britain but in most areas it has now been replaced
by the larger Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) which was introduced into Britain from North America. There are a
number of possible reasons for the decline of the red squirrel.

® Competition with the Grey: The Red feeds on conifer seeds from pine cones and eats very little of other foods,
such as acorns, fruits and berries. The Grey can survive on a very monotonous diet of a wider range of foods.
For example, it can cope with a diet which is almost completely acorns. In a broad-leaved (deciduous) woodland
the Greys can always find something to eat, especially as they are more willing to feed at ground level and can
take advantage of food sources which the more tree-loving Reds would ignore (including cast-off sandwiches!).

® Disease: It is believed that the Grey Squirrel carries a virus which usually only causes disease and death in
Red Squirrels. Thus in mixed populations the Reds are at a disadvantage.
118 | Yel
(=)alo -i={ole), @4

® Habitat loss: Although the Red survives better in coniferous forest, it must have access to trees of different
ages to provide food throughout the year. In many recent forest plantings, the trees are all the same age and
largely Sitka Spruce, which produces small seeds which are shed early in the year, leaving little food for the
Reds in the winter.

Conservation plans to support Red Squirrel numbers must take all of these points into account. One very important
point to note is that the introduction of a species from another country is often the cause of problems for native wildlife!

Saving the Red Squirrel

The key to sucessful conservation in this case seems to be Elimination of competitors

the management of a habitat which provides food.
¢ poison or shoot them; or
* use a chemical to sterilise them (this is a
Habitat management good solution because it doesn't actually kill
Choose tree species that provide food for Red any animals).
Squirrels, e.g. birch. Remove oak and beech because
these provide food for Grey Squirrels. Good conifers Habitat management
include Scots pine because these provide seeds very Red squirrel reserves should be
late in the year for Red Squirrels. surrounded by at least 3 km of conifer
forest or open land to stop entry by
Grey Squirrels.

Supplementary feeding
Selective hoppers have
been developed which only
allow access to Red
@
Squirrels. These are placed
@ Seed
in clusters of 2 or 3, 20 to
producing}
30 metres apart, and filled
with a mixture of yellow
maize, wheat, peanuts and
sunflower seeds. They
Clump of
have the disadvantage that
nesting
they must be visited
regularly and frequently
filled.
More than] 16-30]] 0-15
30 years | years ||years
old
6 se
=

Reintroduction of Red Forestry practice

Squirrels The forest should be managed to provide both
Small numbers might be food and shelter. This typically involves a
released to test the structure where 30% of trees are 0 to 15 years
success of habitat old, 30% are 16 to 30 years old and 40% are
management techniques. more than 30 years old.
Survival and behaviour of When tree felling, some single seed-producing
the introduced Reds would trees should be left in small groups, in order to
be carefully monitored by provide nesting sites. Seed-producing areas
radio and regular should be connected by corridors of trees to
observation. prevent isolation and make movement between
them easier for Red Squirrels.
sd
 Life and living processes 119

Zoos and conservation

Zoos, or zoological gardens, are areas of confinement for keeping animals in captivity. For many people the fact that
the animals are in captivity means that zoos can never be justified — these people say that the animals are being
exploited for the amusement of humans. Other people have a different point of view, and suggest that without zoos
many species would be extinct. For example, there are more Siberian Tigers in zoos than there are in the wild. The
supporters of zoos argue that animals can be bred in zoos until their habitat is secured for their eventual release. The
anti-Zoo people argue back that breeding animals in captivity is breeding animals for captivity, and point out that
reintroduction to the wild is very rarely successful.

Zoo visits are extremely popular. In the United States more people visit zoos than visit Disneyland. It is extremely
important to note that zoo directors justify keeping large, attractive animals because they say that these species
generate income which can then be used to conserve less glamorous species. Tigers, pandas and elephants are
examples of these flagship species. Many zoo visitors will contribute money to conserve elephants, but this money
also conserves those species which live in the same habitat as the elephant. Some of the possible benefits of zoos to
conservation are explained below.

GOOD POINTS BAD POINTS

Animals get food Animals may not
and shelter and are : have mates for
looked after by a vet. breeding.

Animals may breed Animals may be in

which is important the wrong groups,
in preserving e.g. wolves like to live
endangered in packs.
species.
Cages may be small,
People enjoy visiting so animals get bored.
zoos. Entry fees can
be spent on animals'
welfare and people Zoo keepers may not
may give money for be able to provide
conservation work. food that the animals
[are used to.
Zoos may get people
interested in animals
and conservation.

Throughout these sections on pollution and conservation you should be able to see how humans have the potential to
alter their environment (see page 114). It is vital that future generations of scientists use this power carefully, that they
live up to the name Homo sapiens — the ‘wise man’ — if the Earth is to remain habitable for other species as well as
our own.

Key words
Conservation — managing the environment for the benefit of wildlife.

Deforestation — cutting down large areas of trees.

Sustainable development — only taking enough from the environment to make sure that there will be some
left for future generations.

Biodiversity — the range of different living organisms.

174!) | Yor
(=) Tor ={ele) a4

Exercise 10.2: Conservation

1. Find a book about conservation. Try to find an example of an animal and a plant in Britain that have been
protected by conservation work.

2. Find an Internet site dealing with zoos. What can you find about the conservation work of zoos?

Extension questions
3. Read the following passage carefully and then answer questions (a) to (d).

Between 1947 and 1963 hedges were being removed at an average rate of over 3000 miles per
year. This increased to 5000 miles per year by 1968.

A recent report claims that, between 1980 and 1985, 5000 miles of hedgerow were removed and
2500 miles were planted in England and Wales.

Older hedges generally provide a richer habitat with a wider variety of plants and animals.

Both during and after World War Two, farmers were encouraged to grow more food, to do so more
efficiently and at less cost.

On one Devon farm with small fields, removing 1 mile of hedges provided another 3 acres of arable
land and reduced by one third the average time taken to harvest a field of cereal crops.

In 1987, British tax-payers spent about £1 578 000 000 to buy and store surplus UK farm produce.
In the European Economic Community, stored surplus food includes 1 500 000 tonnes of beef.

Farmers are now being encouraged by the European Community to grow less food.
The above material has been adapted from the Nature Conservancy Council publication ‘Points of View No 1: Hedgerows’.

(a) What was the highest average rate of removal of hedges before 1969?

(b) If that rate of hedge removal had continued, what effect would it have had on the variety of wild animals
and plants in the countryside and the amount of arable land for farming?

(c) How did the removal of hedges per year differ in the period between 1980 and 1985 from that in 1968?

(d) Why is it less important now to gain extra arable land than it was immediately after World War Two?

Read the following and answer question (e).

A Hedges provide an important habitat for wildlife which can help with pollination and
biological control.

Hedges can provide a home for weeds, insect pests, rabbits and crop diseases.

Hedges take up space which could be planted with crops.

Hedges are an attractive feature in the rural landscape.

Expensive labour is needed to maintain hedges.

ee Hedges provide a wind break for crops, shelter and shade for farm animals and a barrier to
4S)
lm
Ta
disease spread.

G Hedges shade part of the crop, which reduces yield.

 Life and living processes 121

H Hedges help to prevent topsoil from blowing away.

/ Hedges provide cover for game, such as pheasants and partridges.

J Hedges obstruct the efficient use of modern farm machinery.

The above material has been adapted from the Nature Conservancy Council publication ‘Points of View No 1: Hedgerows’.

(e) Choose five statements from the list above to support a case against removing hedges.

4. Read the following and then answer the questions (a) to (e).

The publication of newspapers uses up an enormous quantity of paper every day. Paper is manufactured
from wood. Large numbers of trees are cut down every year to provide the raw material for the paper industry.

(a) How does the publication of newspapers affect the world’s timber resources?

Timber is a very important natural resource. In terms of conservation, it would be helpful if used-paper could
be collected and repulped. The organisation, collection and sorting of waste paper is an expensive process.
As a result very little paper is recycled.

Trees cut down for use must be replaced. The planting of trees to replace those felled is called reforestation.
Schemes of reforestation must be established and well managed if supply is to keep up with demand. The
quicker-growing tree species are the conifers (softwoods), such as pine and spruce. These are grown over
large areas of land, producing forests with relatively few species but giving high productivity quickly and are,
therefore, an attractive investment.

There is also a need for the deciduous hardwoods, such as oak and beech. These are much slower growing,
taking longer to establish and are therefore, in the short-term, a less attractive crop. As a habitat, a mixed
deciduous woodland will support a greater variety of species than a conifer plantation.

(b) What do the terms recycling and reforestation mean?

(c) (i) Name one coniferous tree.

(ii) Name one hardwood tree.

(d) How do coniferous woodlands differ from deciduous ones as commercial crops and as habitats for
wildlife? Support your answer with reasons.

In overcoming one problem reforestation schemes may produce secondary conservation problems. More and
more frequently large areas of moorland, important habitats themselves, are being used as sites for conifer
plantations.

(e) What could happen to Britain’s moorland habitats and communities if reforestation schemes were
allowed to go on unchecked?

You have now completed the ‘Life and living processes’ section of your science course. You should have a good
idea of the workings of the human body, and about what can go wrong with it. This should enable you to make
some important decisions about your own body. You will remember that the body requires a source of raw
materials — foods — to grow and develop. Your study of plants will have shown you that plants can make their own
food by photosynthesis, and that animals depend on plants for all their foods. Finally, you will have seen that all
living organisms form part of larger communities and that damage to any one member of the community can have
serious effects on the other living organisms that make it up. Don’t forget that humans have the power to alter their
environment - as a scientist you will have the understanding to make sure that we use our environment in a
sustainable way.
What is chemistry?
What is chemistry and why do we want to study it? For many people the first contact with chemistry involves watching
films showing strange scientists messing about with bubbling liquids, smelly gases, loud explosions and bright flashes.
These things can be explained by chemistry, but the subject involves a lot more.

In the simplest terms, chemistry is the study of materials. Chemists study the physical properties of different
substances and they also try to understand the reactions between different substances. Everything in our world is
made of materials — all these materials are chemicals. Chemicals are found in chemistry laboratories, but you are far
more likely to come across them in your food, in detergents, medicines, cosmetics, in your car, your clothes or in the
decoration in your bedroom. The air you breathe is made up of chemicals and so is your body.

Chemistry has helped us to explain how one substance can be changed into another. These changes, called chemical
reactions, occur all around us. They include:

@ the burning of fuels;

the cooking of foods;

@ the rusting of cars and bicycles;

8 the breakdown of household waste; and

@ the growth of plants and animals.

The study of chemical reactions, especially finding out the most efficient way of making new substances, is the basis of the
chemical industry. Understanding chemistry helps us to make the best use of our environment while limiting the damage
we cause. An important example studied later in this book is the efficient extraction of metals from the Earth.
There are several important branches of the chemical industry:
t The petrochemical industry uses oil as a raw material to produce fuels, plastics and building materials.

® The pharmaceutical industry uses many different raw materials to produce drugs and medicines for the
treatment of disease and the relief of pain and hormones to increase the growth of animals and plants.

® The agrochemical industry produces pesticides, fertilisers and other products required for farming.

Why do we study chemistry?

Some of us will study chemistry just because we find it interesting. Finding out about the properties of different
chemicals, and working out how they react together, can occupy a lifetime of research.

Fred Sanger is one of the few people to have been awarded two Nobel prizes. In
Cambridge he developed a new chromatographic method. He published the complete
sequence of insulin in 1955 and was awarded the Nobel prize in 1958 for his work on
sequencing proteins.

Over the next 15 years Fred and his team developed several ever-improving methods to
sequence nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). It was for this work that he was awarded his
second Nobel prize in 1980. This method, developed nearly 25 years ago, is still in use
today.

Frederick Sanger in his laboratory

However, chemistry is not just interesting, it is also useful. Many important advances in science, medicine and
technology have been made possible by the production of new chemicals. Silicon chips in computers, drugs for helping
asthma sufferers and super-strong alloys in racing cars would not exist without the efforts of chemists. Nowadays many
chemists are involved with caring for the environment. We are beginning to understand how to recycle many of the
materials we have developed for our use. Everyone can benefit from the study of chemistry.

OK. Let's go and

learn more about
materials and
their properties.

This kit car has been made from recycled products.

124 | Science ook 2

Chapter 11
Experiments in chemistry: Important
apparatus and skills
Chemistry is a practical subject. The laws of chemistry have been worked out by scientists who have carried out
experiments to test their ideas (see page 2). The results collected by these scientists will only be acceptable if:

@ they have designed their experiments carefully (see page 3);

@ they have been able to use the correct apparatus; and

@ they have been able to measure variables accurately.

Apparatus
Apparatus is the name we give to the equipment used in a chemistry laboratory. A diagram of apparatus is often very
useful when a chemist has to describe an experiment. Each piece of apparatus can be drawn in an outline form. An
outline diagram is quick to produce and should be clear to any other user.

Throughout this book you will see both 3-D pictures of apparatus and scientific drawings. It is very important that you
learn how to draw apparatus correctly, otherwise you may be drawing experiments that wouldn’t work at all or that may
even blow up. The table below shows the 3-D pictures and the way you must draw these pieces of apparatus.

Each piece of apparatus has a particular function.

3-D Picture Description Scientific drawing

® Conical flask: used for mixing solutions, without heating.

@ Watch glass: used for collecting and evaporating liquids without

heating. (see page 166).

® Gas jar: to collect gases for testing (see page 135).

@ Filter funnel: used to separate solids from liquids, using a filter paper
(see page 167).

@ Measuring cylinder: used for measuring the volume of liquids

(see page 127).

ee
ty
al
WG
3-D Picture Description

@ Spatula: used for handling solid chemicals; for example, when adding
a solid to a liquid (see page 161).

Pipette: used to measure and transfer small volumes of liquids (see

page 135).

Stand, boss and clamp: used to support the apparatus in place.

This reduces the risk of dangerous spills (page 140). This is not
generally drawn. If the clamp is merely to support a piece of
apparatus, it is usually represented by two crosses as shown.

Bunsen burner: used to heat the contents of other apparatus (e.g. a

liquid in a test tube) or for directly heating solids (see page 133).
THERMAL
ENERGY
® Tripod: used to support apparatus above a Bunsen burner (see page
140).
The Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze are the most common way of
heating materials in school science laboratories.

@® Gauze: used to spread out the thermal energy from a Bunsen burner
and to support the apparatus on a tripod (see page 140).

Test tube and boiling tube: used for heating solids and liquids. They
are also used to hold chemicals while other substances are added
and mixed. They need to be put safely in a test tube rack (page 135).

Evaporating dish: used to collect and evaporate liquids with or

without heating (see page 166).

Beaker: used for mixing solutions and for heating liquids (see page
140).

Round bottom flask: used for heating liquids: for example, during
distillation (see page 140).

Flat bottom flask: used for mixing liquids. It should not be heated
strongly or it may crack (see page 140).
Measurement of variables
In many experiments chemists need to measure variable quantities, such as volume, temperature, mass and time. It
is very important to be able to read scales accurately and to choose the correct units for the quantities that have been
measured. Some of the common measuring equipment used in chemistry laboratories is shown below:

Measuring temperature using a thermometer

Normal temperatures are measured on

(2c) the CELSIUS SCALE sometimes called
Thermometer |] °C — +09 the Centigrade scale. The unit for
60 a temperature is the degree Celsius (°C).

i— 80

50 ae The SCALE is worked out by

p checking how long the liquid column is
— 60 firstly in melting ice and secondly in
a is 2 boiling water.
Ho
30 et a=
|—Ib0 COLUMN OF COLOURED LIQUID: this
4 gets longer as the liquid gets hotter, and
20 shorter as the liquid gets cooler.

BULB: this contains a

coloured liquid.

An electronic thermometer
and probe. Equipment like
this will be necessary if a
scientist needs to measure
temperatures
above 100°C or below 0°C.
Temperature probe

Measuring mass using an electronic pan balance

An empty The beaker containing
beaker liquid

Balance How heavy is the liquid?

(weighing machine)
 their properties |

Measuring volume using a beaker or a measuring cylinder

BEAKER MEASURING When using a measuring cylinder, stand the Make sure that you read the
It is not accurate CYLINDER measuring cylinder on a level table or bench, level carefully. You may
to use a beaker so that the liquid is level. notice that the surface of the
because the scale fluid is curved; this is
is not fine enough. called the meniscus.

Get your eye level

with the liquid level.
It may look as though
there is a thick ‘skin’
on the water. This is
because you are
looking at the minute
amount of liquid that
has been drawn up
Is it cm3 or ml? Some equipment the glass.

is scaled in cm3, and some is The volume of liqiuid is

scaled in ml. It really doesn't represented by the bottom
matter - 1cm3 has exactly the of the meniscus.

same volume as Iml.

Interestingly, plastic beakers
and measuring cylinders
often do not give rise toa
meniscus!

Reading the measurement from a

measuring cylinder by getting your
eye level with the liquid level.

This table gives a summary of the measuring equipment used in chemistry laboratories
QUANTITY UNITS EQUIPMENT

Volume (fluid) Cubic centimetres (cm°) Measuring cylinder or beaker

Litres (dm°)

1 litre = 1000 ml

—— Degrees Celsius (°C) Thermometer

Time Seconds (s) Stopclock (can be analogue or digital)

Minutes (min)

fee Grams (g) Balance (usually top pan balances and electronic)

Kilograms (kg)

1 kg = 1000g
 Science Book

Chemicals
Doing experiments in chemistry often involves making changes to materials. We often call the materials we use in
experiments chemicals. It is extremely important that these chemicals are used safely. Some chemicals are too
dangerous to be used in school laboratories and all of them must be used with great care. To help us identify which
chemicals are particularly dangerous, we have a series of hazard symbols which appear on containers holding
chemicals. These symbols warn us of special dangers and they also help teachers and technicians decide on the best
thing to do if a chemical is spilled or swallowed by mistake. These symbols, and some examples of the chemicals that
are marked with them, are shown below:

Hazard symbols

Oxidising Bleach, Harmful Dilute acids

These substances sodium These substances are and alkalis
provide oxygen which chlorate, similar to toxic substances
allows other materials potassium but less dangerous.
to burn more fiercely. nitrate

Highly flammable Ethanol, Corrosive Concentrated

These substances petrol, These substances attack | acids and
easily catch fire. acetone and destroy living tissues, | alkalis
including eyes and skin.

Toxic Mercury, Irritant Ammonia,

These substances can copper These substances are dilute acids
cause death. They may sulphate not corrosive but can and alkalis
have their effects when cause reddening or
swallowed or breathed blistering of the skin.
in or absorbed through
the skin.

LAB RULES OK!

Some chemicals can
@ Always wear eye protection when handling or
have more than one
heating chemicals.
label.
Wear a long-
For example, petrol:
sleeved overall
@ is flammable;
to protect
@® harmful; and
clothes
@ an irritant!
and skin if
handling
corrosive
materials.

Tie back long hair.

 Key words
Apparatus — the equipment used for scientific experiments.

Variable — something (a factor) that changes during the course of an experiment.

Exercise 11.1: Experiments in chemistry

1. Look at these diagrams. A scientist has measured the volume and the mass of some water and some alcohol.
What can you tell from your measurements?

Alcohol

2. India is going ona trip and she wanted to take some water. She has a water container that weighs 95 grams.
She doesn’t want to take more than 260 grams altogether. What is the maximum mass of water she can take?

3. Briefly describe what each of the following pieces of apparatus is used for:

(a) conical flask (c) measuring cylinder (e) spatula

(b) tripod (d) filter funnel (f) pipette

 Make the following conversions of units:

(a) 1.22 kg tog

(b) 4min19stos

(c) 1320s to minutes and seconds

(d) 2340 cm to litres

(e) 3400 g to kg

(f) 2984 cm% to ml

Extension question
D. Identify the potential hazards of working in this wizard’s laboratory. How many of them can you identify? What
advice would you give to prevent them?
Using a Bunsen burner
Remember
Chemical reactions always involve an energy change.

Some chemical reactions are exothermic (give out thermal energy) and some are endothermic (take in
thermal energy).

Chemical reactions often require some form of heating. Even reactions which are exothermic (give out thermal energy)
may need some thermal energy to get them started. A good example of this kind of reaction is using a match. The
match gives out energy when it burns, but won’t even start to burn until some thermal energy is provided by friction
when the match is struck against a rough surface.

Experiments in the chemistry laboratory often need some type of heating. This heating must be reliable (you can get
it whenever you need it) and it must be controllable (you can vary the amount of thermal energy). The Bunsen burner
is the most common source of thermal energy used in the laboratory. It is safe and easy to use, but the user needs to
stick to some rules!

Have a flame ready to light the Bunsen burner before turning on the gas supply.

Check that the air hole is closed before turning on the gas supply and lighting the Bunsen burner.

When you are not using the Bunsen burner, either turn it off or close the air hole
to give a yellow flame. The yellow flame is luminous so that it can be seen
easily. This means that there is less risk of someone accidentally being burned.

For gentle heating, half open the air hole to give a quiet blue flame.

For strong heating, have the air hole wide open. This will give a roaring
blue flame.

The burner was invented by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen’s lab assistant, Peter Desolega, based closely on an earlier
design by Michael Faraday. They were studying the spectrum of light and needed a non-luminous flame to burn the
substances they were studying. The only way they could get this kind of flame was to mix gas and air before it burned.
It bears Bunsen’s name because he used it very effectively and championed its use to the scientific community.
Using a Bunsen burner

FLAME: this is controlled by the

air hole.
HOTTEST PART OF FLAME is at the
y top of the cone: the temperature may
reach 800°C.

CONE is where the gas and air

ys are mixing.

HEATING FLAME: SAFETY (LIGHTING):

air hole open air hole closed BARREL is a tube which carries the
mixture of gas and air toa
convenient place where it can be
AIR HOLE allows air to mix with burned.
the gas. More air gives better
burning because more oxygen is
available and so provides a COLLAR acts like a
hotter flame. valve to control the
amount of air that
mixes with the gas.
GAS JET The collar can be
moved round to open
AIR HOLE OPEN:
or close the air hole. blue flame from
GAS INLET is connected by a gas-air mixture
rubber tube to the gas supply. In
the laboratory the gas used as
fuel is usually natural gas.
Burners can also use bottled gas
if this is more convenient.

AIR HOLE CLOSED:

yellow smoky flame
from burning gas

HEAVY, BROAD BASE makes sure the burner

doesn't tip over.

Don't forget the tap that

controls the gas supply is
ve i ntrollin
Remember:
TERNS cs
When you are drawing a ,
etal: cy fen scientific diagram, the symbol for a
+e Bunsone Gunner Bunsen burner is: THEBM A

The size of the flame can also be adjusted by altering the gas flow to the Bunsen burner. This is done at the gas tap.
If there is a risk of Someone burning, or the Bunsen burner has tipped over, always STOP THE GAS SUPPLY BY
CLOSING OFF THE TAP.
There are some other important safety issues to remember whilst conducting experiments which involve heating or
burning. These are shown below:
Make sure
Use tongs (wooden ones | long hair is
are the best insulators) to tied back and
; revent burning your ti
Never point the open end of a inge oe) | a ee
test tube towards another
person.

|Move the tube gently os

to stop the liquid from
boiling up violently
and spurting out of the
tube.

Use a heat-proof mat under the Bunsen burner

to prevent damage to the bench.

Exercise 11.2: The Bunsen burner

1. Gena and Louis were carrying out an experiment to find out whether a Bunsen burner delivers more thermal
energy with the air hole open or with it closed. They were measuring the thermal energy from the Bunsen
burner by finding out the time taken for some water to boil.

(a) What is the input variable in this experiment?

(b) What is the outcome variable in this experiment?

(c) Gena and Louis knew that there should also be controlled variables, i.e. things that had to be kept
constant for this to be a fair test. If any of these were changed, the outcome of the experiment could be
affected. Which variables from the list below should be controlled?

(i) The size and shape of the beaker.

(ii) The starting temperature of the water.

(iii) Which day of the week they did the experiment.

(iv) The position of the Bunsen burner below the beaker.

(v) The position of the gas tap (how much flow of gas).

(vi) The volume of water in the beaker.

134 | “Science Book 2

2 Gena carried out a series of experiments to investigate how much thermal energy could be produced by a
Bunsen burner. She used a stopwatch to measure how long it took for some water in a beaker to boil. She
altered some of the conditions from one experiment to the next. The results of her experiments are shown in
the table below:

Experiment Volume of Temperature at start Air hole in Time for water

water in cm | of heating in °C Bunsen burner | to boil in seconds

| 100 Fully on

Fully on

Half on Closed

Fully on

(a) Why is it not a fair test to compare the results for experiments II and III?

(b) (i) What is Gena testing when she compares results for experiments III and IV?

(ii) What conclusion can she come to?

(c) (i) What is Gena testing when she compares results for experiments | and II?

(ii) What conclusion can she come to?

(d) Which results should Gena compare to find the effect of the volume of water on the time taken for the
water to boil?
 Materials and their properties

Useful chemical tests

Don't forget
© During a chemical reaction new products are formed.

@ The new product could be a solid, a liquid or a gas.

Testing for gases

Many gases are colourless, so we can’t see them. We may be aware that a gas has been produced because we see
some fizzing or a release of bubbles. If we get a colourless gas formed in a chemical reaction, we will need to use a
test to find out what it is. Three gases that are commonly involved in chemical reactions are oxygen, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen. There are simple tests for each of these gases:

Testing for carbon dioxide

For example:
calcium carbonate =~ calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

Colourless , IES
gas <> —> Limewater THERMAL
i ; turns ENERGY

Wenn sal
chalk
(chalky) SE

Testing for oxygen

i For example:
F mercury oxide = mercury + oxygen

Glowing splint ~~)

Droplets
a> of mercury
Mercury
Oxygen oxide
SAFETY! This is not an experiment for the
Oxygen will make a glowing splint burst into flame. classroom as it releases poisonous mercury vapour.
You can safely test for oxygen during the thermal
decompostion of potassium manganate (VII).
Testing
for hydrogen sae exeural3
hydrochloric acid + zinc ===» zinc chloride + hydrogen

Hydrogen
gas burns
with a

Hydrochloric ;
mela Zinc .
chloride
solution
Zinc g

Some gases are coloured (chlorine gas is green, for example) or they have a definite smell (hydrogen sulphide smells
like rotten eggs, for example). The smelly gases can be quite dangerous, and if there is any danger at all that a gas
could be poisonous or an irritant, it should never be produced except in a fume cupboard (by a teacher). Some very
dangerous gases, for example, carbon monoxide — are colourless and don’t smell at all.

Testing for water

A useful and safe experiment to test for the presence of water uses anhydrous copper sulphate. This white powder
turns blue in the presence of water.

Anhydrous copper sulphate is WHITE. Copper sulphate is BLUE.

Anhydrous means without water.

It turns blue
if water is
present.

Some crystals can remove water from the air. This can be useful. For example, silica gel
can keep water out of the air around delicate electronic equipment.
Many colourless liquids are neutral, which means they are neither acid nor alkali. Water is neutral along with many
other clear liquids. To find out whether a clear liquid, produced during a chemical reaction, is in fact water, we can test
it with blue cobalt chloride paper:

Blue cobalt chloride paper ... ... turns pink if water is present.

X is definitely not water.

Y contains water. You

would need to carry out
further tests such as:

® Does it boil at 100 °C?

® Is it neutral?
to see if the water is pure.

x Y Water x Wf Water
SAFETY! Cobalt chloride
paper should always be
handled with forceps or
when wearing gloves.

Exercise 11.3: Testing

A: Name two different acidic gases. What effect does an acid gas have on litmus solution? (Hint: See page 218).

oe A chemical reaction gives out a vapour that can be cooled to give a colourless liquid. Name two tests that
could help you to decide if this liquid is water. What would the results be if the liquid were water?

Complete this paragraph, using words from the list below:

crabon dioxide re-light pop milky hydrogen oxygen

Limewater can be used to test for .......... . The limewater will turn .......... if carbon dioxide is present. The
gas called .......... .... Will make a glowing splint .......... . Alighted splint will make the gas called ..........
produce a sound like a........... :

Which indicator is used by biologists to test for the presence of carbon dioxide? (Hint: look in Chapter 7 in
the ‘Life and living processes’ section of this book.)
138 | Science Book 2

Chapter 12
States of matter: Solids, liquids and gases

Remember

All the materials on the Earth can be placed into three groups: solids, liquids and gases.

These three different groups of materials have different properties which can affect the jobs they are used for. The most
important properties are:

Whether or not the material can flow. Gases and liquids flow, but solids do not.

Whether or not the material can change shape.

Solids keep the same shape, liquids change shape to match the shape of the container they are in, and gases
spread out to fill any space they can reach. We can change the shape of a solid, but only by getting rid of some
of it or by bending it.

Whether or not the material can be squeezed to change its volume (can it be compressed).

It is easy to change the volume of a gas by squashing it. But liquids and solids normally don’t change very much
in volume (Some can expand very, very slightly when heated).

Matter is the scientific word used to describe all of the different substances and materials found on the Earth (and in
all other parts of the Universe, too!). We call solid, liquid and gas the three states of matter.

Changing states
Here is some important information:

Most substances can exist in all three states.

The state of a substance depends on the temperature.

Changes of state are brought about by changes in temperature.

Raising the temperature causes solids to change to liquids (melting) and, eventually, liquids to change to gases
(boiling and evaporation). In the same way, cooling a gas will eventually change it into a liquid
(condensation) and if the cooling is continued, the liquid will eventually change into a solid (freezing).

These changes of state are described in the next diagram:

 e.g. solid iron is made me e.g. as the temperature rises, a puddle will
liquid when it is heated slowly lose water and dry out. If
in a furnace. a lot of heating takes place,
evaporation will take place very
quickly. This is called boiling.

co Sea

GAS
LIQUID
[FREEZING | [CONDENSATION |

e.g. an ice lolly is made by putting e.g. you can create

liquid fruit juice into a freezer at i condensation when you
breathe warm water
vapour onto a cold mirror.

- TEMPERATURE FALLING

In a pure substance these changes of state always occur at the same particular temperatures: the boiling point (bp),
the melting point (mp) and the freezing point (fp).

Melting point (mp) is the Boiling point (bp) is the

temperature at whicha temperature at which a
solid turns into a liquid. liquid turns into a gas.

Evaporation/
boiling
>
GAS
LIQUID
ae Freezing

Freezing point (fp) is the

temperature at which a liquid turns Stopping the Big Freeze!
into a solid. Pure water freezes at .
The freezing point for a pure 0 °C but adding salt
substance is exactly the same as its lowers the freezing point.
melting point. That's why salt is spread
on roads and paths in
winter!
 Melting point: Every pure substance has its Boiling point: Every pure substance
own particular melting point. Checking the has its own particular boiling point. A
melting point is one way to test how pure a mixture of substances would boil over
substance is. A mixture of substances melts a range of temperatures.
over a range of temperatures.

Clamp
Thermometer
Thermometer

Oil
Solid

Liquid

Thermometer
THERMAL Tripod
bulb THERMAL
ENERGY ENERGY

Tea ona mountain top!

As you go up a mountain,
the air pressure falls. At sea
level water boils at 100 °C but
it may boil at 70-80 °C up a
mountain!

Because these temperatures are always the same for one particular substance, they can be counted as properties of
the substance. Like other properties, they can help us to explain what a substance or material can be used for.

Why does the water in an

aluminium pan boil before
Oxygen the pan melts? Aluminium
has a useful property for
Mercury pan making.

Water

Alcohol Why is alcohol

. a useful
Aluminium 2 antifreeze in
car radiators?
The water cycle
Scientists think that the amount of water on the Earth has stayed the same for millions of years. However, the water
is constantly recycling as it changes from one state to another. Water evaporates from the sea into the air and then
condenses back from the air into the sea. In between evaporation and condensation, water may be moved over
thousands of kilometres by winds. These natural changes in the state of water are called the water cycle, and are
shown in this diagram:

As the water vapour rises

it gets colder and it then
CONDENSES into
The water droplets form clouds.
millions of tiny droplets
of water.

Heat from the sun makes

water EVAPORATE from
seas, lakes and rivers
to form water vapour.
Water droplets
become bigger
and heavier, and fall
—_—~— : > as RAIN.

ra me

Rainwater gathers
; in rivers and streams.
DID YOU KNOW?
All water has been recycled.
The water you drink could have
been drunk by someone else,
thousands of years ago!

The heating of water to evaporate it from the sea is caused by the Sun. Remembering how the Sun also supplied the
energy for plants to make their food, and that water is one of the raw materials for this process (check photosynthesis
on page 71), you can see why the Sun and water are absolutely essential for all life on Earth.

Air flow and temperature affect evaporation of water

Winds and solar energy affect the water cycle. Increased temperature makes water evaporate more quickly from the
sea and from rivers and lakes, and winds move the water vapour in the air from place to place. Scientists are very
concerned about the effects of global warming caused by the production of greenhouse gases (see page 217) and try
to predict how rising temperatures will affect our climate and our lives. So that they can predict what will happen in
nature, scientists carry out experiments in the laboratory and use the results to explain what might happen in the
outside environment. Carrying out an experiment and using the results to make predictions like this is called making
a model.
Experiments on evaporation
The amount of a substance is its mass. As you know, we can measure mass using an electronic top pan balance (a
weighing machine). We can measure changes in the mass of a certain volume of water and then calculate how much
water has been lost by evaporation.

8 The experiment can be repeated at different temperatures to make a model of the effect of temperature on
loss of water by evaporation.

Measuring the evaporation of water

Five days later the beaker and

A beaker containing 100 cm® the water are weighed again.
of water is weighed on an
Evaporation will have caused
electronic weighing machine.
some of the mass of water to
be lost.

e The experiment can also be repeated with different speeds of air flow to make a model of the effect of
windspeed on the loss of water by evaporation.

Measuring the effect of airflow on evaporation

A stopclock is used to measure the time
that the wind is blowing over the water.
You can then calculate the rate of water
loss.

Rate of water loss = change in mass

time

Water in
evaporating dish

Balance to measure
mass of water

The hairdryer can

be used to change
the speed of the wind.

After carrying out many experiments of this type, experts in the study of weather have predicted that global warming
will make the seas evaporate more quickly. There will be many more violent rainstorms and strong winds (more
hurricanes) as all this extra water is carried over the land.
Exercise 12.1: Water and the water cycle
1. Copy and complete this paragraph:

Pure water boils at .......... and freezes at .......... . Asimple chemical test uses cobalt chloride paper to test
for the presence of water. The cobalt chloride paper changes from .......... TOC if water is present.
Seawater is a ........... of many different substances. The presence of these impurities .......... the freezing
point and ........... the boiling point of water.

Look at this experiment, set up to study the effect of temperature on evaporation:

Pee can measure

e time taken for the
EXPERIMENT: DOES WARM AIR SPEED
cloth to dry out. UP EVAPORATION?

CHANGE ONE FACTOR:

the thermal energy from the dryer.

MEASURE ONE OTHER FACTOR:

_ the time taken for cloth to dry out. |

MAKE IT A FAIR TEST! Keep

the other factors the same:
@ the speed the fan is blowing;
A CLOTH can be @the distance between the dryer
An ELECTRIC DRYER soaked in water. and the cloth:
has three settings,
cool, warm and hot.
@ the size of the cloth; and
@the amount of water added to
the dry cloth.

How could you change the experiment to test:

(a) whether the speed of blowing the air affected the rate of evaporation;

(b) whether different types of cloth dry off at different rates.

Write your answers in a table like this:

Experiment Factor to change Factor to measure | Factors to keep constant

(input variable) (outcome variable) (controlled variables)

(i)

Extension project
Use the Internet or textbooks in a library to find out about hurricanes. What can scientists measure about
hurricanes? Give some examples of the results they have obtained.
Other properties of solids, liquids and
gases
Don't forget
c Any pure substance can be identified by its melting point and boiling point.

t Solids and liquids cannot be compressed (squashed), but gases can easily be compressed.

There are several other important properties of substances that can help us to decide whether they are solids, liquids
or gases:

Conduction of internal/thermal energy: Solids that are metals are good at transferring internal/thermal energy (they
are good conductors). Liquids (with the exception of mercury which is a liquid metal and a good conductor) and gases
are not good conductors.
——

I I l Thermal r r Therm
energ)
Drawing pin
stuck on with
wax
These pins fall first ae 2i
because as the thermal
energy is conducted j
along the bar, it
reaches and melts the -——_—_ OW
wax holding these pins.

Expansion: All states of matter expand when they are heated, but this is usually easier to see with solids.

These experiments show that: When you put a

thermometer under your
@ all matter — solid, liquid or gas, expands when heated; tongue, the internal/
thermal energy makes
B gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand the alcohol expand. This
then gives a reading on
more than solids. the thermometer.

Heat the ball

@® Warm hands
make air in the
flask expand.

Increased volume
A cool metal ball can fall THERMAL of the air in flask
through the ring. ENERGY When heated, the ball causes bubbles
becomes red hot and to push out into
expands. It can no longer fit the beaker of
through the hoop. water.
Expansion could cause problems

In hot weather the bridge sections expand.

Gaps between the sections expand without

damage.

The rollers let the sections move as they

expand.

You will often see that the gaps in concrete

roads are filled with tar. When the concrete
expands, it just squashes the tar.

Diffusion: Particles can spread out through liquids and gases, but not through solids. This spreading out is called
diffusion. The particles spread out from where there are a lot of them to where there aren’t very many. Diffusion goes
on much more quickly if the temperature is raised. Think how smelly a changing room is in summer compared with in
the winter!

The smell of fish and chips can spread out through the
air. This process is called diffusion.

Diffusion takes place:

@ when gases or liquids mix;

@ until the concentration of the two gases or

liquids becomes the same everywhere.

Density: The density of a substance tells us how much of the substance is packed into a certain volume. Solids are
usually denser than liquids and liquids are denser than gases. Look at the diagram below. Of course a kilogram of
feathers has exactly the same mass as a kilogram of iron! However, the kilogram of feathers will take up more space
than the kilogram of iron. We say that the feathers have a lower density than the iron.

We can work out the density of any substance using the following equation:

Density = — mass
volume

Where: density is in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm’)

mass is in grams (g)
volume is in cubic centimetres (cm°)
Example 1: Finding the volume of a regular shape

A gold bar measures 12 cm x 5 cm x 4.cm and has a mass of 4632 g.

What is the density of gold? First find the volume of the gold bar:

Volume = length x width x height

= 12x Ox @

= 240 cm

Now use the equation to calculate the density of the gold.

Density = mass
volume

Density = 46329
240 cms

= — 19.3 g/cm

Example 2: Measuring volume by displacement

As we saw above, the volume of a regular object, like a cube, can be found by doing a little calculation. However,
find the volume of an irregular shaped object, you can use the displacement of water in a measuring cylinder.

The diagram shows how to measure the volume of a small stone.

The measurements are:

Volume of water with small stone added = 75 cm?

Volume of water at the start 60 cm?

Therefore, volume of small stone = 15 ene

This stone weighed 30 grams. What was its density?

Density = mass
volume

Density = 30g
oucinie

=O Cline

Which is heavier:
How could you A kilogram of
check this earring is feathers ...
really gold? ... or a kilogram of
horseshoes?
Stretch and flow: Some substances can stretch or flow to fill a space. Solids do not stretch very easily, liquids can
stretch and flow quite easily and most gases can flow very easily into new spaces.

Solids do not flow ... Liquids flow easily ...

... and keep the same shape in any container. ... and take up the shape of
the bottom of a new
container.

Gases flow very easily ...

... and take up the whole
shape of any new
container.

Exercise 12.2: Other solids, liquids and gases

1. Classify each of these materials into solid, liquid or gas:

Wood, carbon dioxide, snow, plastic, salt, vinegar, stone, lime juice, water vapour, tomato ketchup.

2. (a) Complete this table about the properties of solids, liquids and gases:
-—

Does it ...? Solid Liquid Gas

Melt (b) Give the density of (choose

iF high, medium or low):
Freeze
(i) asolid
Pel (ii) a liquid
Compress (iii) agas

Conduct thermal
energy

Expand

Diffuse
aie
Stretch |

Flow |
Extension questions
3. This table lists the properties of some common metals.

Metal Melting point in °C Density in g/cm? Cost per tonne in £

Ss

|Aluminium Pail 1900

Magnesium

lron

Lead

Copper

[i |
——

Nickel 2837 8150

Silver 961 320 000

Tin 232 Tees} 19 100

{ a

Zinc 420 1200

(a) Rearrange these metals from lowest to highest density, then make a bar chart of the densities.

(b) Use the table above to write an explanation of the following:

(i) Why deep sea divers use boots made of lead.
(ii) Why tent poles are made from aluminium, not iron.
(iii) Why dustbins are made from iron coated with zinc, not coated with tin.
(iv) Why overhead electrical cables are made from aluminium, not copper.
(v) Why ovens are not made from tin.
(iv) Why the wheels of racing cars are made from a mixture of magnesium and aluminium and not from
a mixture of iron and lead.

The density of a substance can be measured in g/cms.

(a) If 10 litres of a liquid has a mass of 975 g, what is its density?

(b) Ametal has a density of 9.0 g/cm’. What is the mass of a cube of this metal which has sides that are 3
cm long?

(c) If asalt solution has a density of 1.2 g/cm’, what volume of the solution would have a mass of 840 g?
 Solids, liquids and gases

Particle theory
Explaining these properties
All materials are made up of tiny particles. The particles in matter can be arranged in different ways. The simplest
particles are called atoms. An atom is the smallest particle that can make up a substance. Some substances are made
up of molecules. A molecule is made up of two or more atoms that are joined together.

Scientists have a theory that the way in which these particles are arranged helps to explain the different properties of
solids, liquids and gases. Where did this particle theory come from? You will need to think back to how you would
design an experiment or investigation.

The theory about particles

Any theory about the nature of matter must be able to explain our observations (in other words, what we actually see
happening to solids, liquids and gases). A theory is an idea that explains observations and these observations are the
results obtained by carrying out experiments. This diagram shows how a theory can be developed:

Creating a scientific theory

| Experiments and investigations

provide

v This data may come

| Data (observations and results) | from using an instrument
to make a measurement
or to record some
information.

the results are analysed

Vv
|
Conclusions (explanation of results) |

more experiments, results and conclusions

A theory may be
altered several times
as new experiments
e provide more results
and observations.
The way in which a particle theory can help to explain our observations on the properties of solids, liquids and gases
is explained below:
Vibrations move along and
conduct thermal energy.

Thermal
Observations on | energy
the properties Thermal
of solids, liquids energy Expansion (geiting
and gases ... bigger on heating). The
particles must move
Conduction (internal/
thermal energy transfer). further apart from each
The particles in the solid other when they are
must be close together to heated as they have more
allow the energy to energy. This could explain
passed from one particle why the material
to another along the bar. expands.

a Chealen..

Compressibility
(squashiness). Solids and
Density (how heavy
liquids don’t compress
something is for its
very much, so there can’t
size). Very dense
be much space between
materials (like metals)
the particles. Gases must
must have a lot of
have some space between
particles of the material
particles, as they can be
packed into a small space.
pushed together.

°Me ©
eae
%
eo. —-@ @
© oie
f 2 = ®
=.) aks r)
o, @ \
a= =>
TEBfrove concooe Gis

Stretching and flowing Diffusion could be

could be explained if there
explained if particles could
were particles held
move and spread out
together by forces.
among themselves.

. THE PARTICLE THEORY

All solids, liquids and gases are made up of very small particles.
Particles are always moving and have spaces between them.
Particles are held together by forces.
 liquids and gases

The particle theory and states of matter

We can explain the three states of matter - solid, liquid and gas - by the way the particles in the substances are
arranged. Remember that the particles in the substance can be either atoms or molecules.

Atoms in a gas In gases the particles are relatively a long Molecules in a gas
way away from each other but they all
bounce around, hitting each other, and this
eo
keeps them apart. This is why gases flow
so easily and spread out to fill any available
space. A gas is mostly empty space, so you
can easily squeeze the particles together
into a smaller space, which is why it is so
easy to change the volume of a gas.

Atoms in a liquid In liquids the particles are very close Molecules in a liquid
together but they don’t hold onto each other oO P ‘

@ he a & very strongly. Although the particles in a 9 YP0520

8 @ & S, be liquid stay close together, they are always £29 6 ®& 2 See
@ © 8 os @® moving around one another; in fact they SQ? ~ Ber:
7) e e © © @e@ change places all the time. This is why liquids of eo @e
e © 80 a Le) @ flow so easily and why they can take up the 2 © 33 2298, 0
50° 00,0 shape of the container they are in. There is oo°0 Ce Oe
@ ©@ ©. e” no space between the particles, so you can’t M9% ¢°0.0
squeeze a liquid into a smaller space. fed 2

Atoms in a solid In solids the particles are packed very

closely together and hold onto each other COCOAC OE. mo
OOOOOOOOCO so tightly that they can hardly move at all. Seesescoce
OOOOOOOOCO This is why solids don’t flow and why they OOOSCOOOCO°®
OOOOGOCOO6O keep their shape. Because the particles are ©00000000CO
OOOOCOOOOO so close together, solids can’t be squashed SSseceseoe

QooQC0o0Ce
©0600 © into a smaller volume.
Socerocere
FHOCeron

Popping popcorn
This is all about liquids and vapours — actually water and steam (see page 139).

Each kernel (seed) of popcorn contains a tiny drop of water. The water is stored
inside a circle of soft starch, and the soft starch is surrounded by a hard coat.

Heat in a pan or microwave oven.

Liquid water changes to vapour. This expands and puts pressure on the inside of
Kernel
the seed coat. This pressure gets too much, the popcorn ‘pops’ and the steam
turned
escapes.
step inside out
The bits left in the bottom of the popcorn are called ‘old maids’. They are too dry
to have a ‘pop’ in them!
Particle theory and changes of state
When a substance changes state — from liquid to gas, for example — it does so because it absorbs energy. These
changes of state can be explained by the particle theory shown below:

The particle theory explains changes of state

This graph
MELTING BOILING is reversible
@ When heated, the particles in a solid @ When heated, the particles in a liquid (it would look
vibrate more and more. move around more quickly. the same if
@ Eventually they will have enough energy @ Eventually they will have enough energy a gas were
to break away from the other particles in to escape from the liquid. The liquid has cooled down
the solid. The solid has become a liquid. now become a gas. but the
process would
be the other
Change of way round),
state takes i.e. start here.
place

Vea

MELTING BOILING
FREEZING CONDENSING

Boiling point Liquid

Temperature

KEY ho In these periods of time, energy is In these periods of time, energy is used to
used to push the particles apart raise the temperature of the substance
(so the ‘line’ graph stays flat). (so the ‘line’ graph goes upwards).
ee

Sublimation is when a substance changes directly from a solid state to a gaseous state.
Heating and cooling of water
Water is a liquid at the sort of temperatures we find in a laboratory (that is, around 20 °C). When water is cooled, its
temperature falls and the water eventually freezes. The liquid water changes state into solid water, or ice (see p.139
for more on changes of state). We can draw a graph of the temperature changes as water is cooled. This cooling
curve for water is shown below:

A cooling curve
Water is cooled from room
temperature.

20 roca Rear aa ca ese as Pure water freezes at 0 °C.

BN aa hes | eas Bas |
cate
a | | j
Rete|
| { } |
Co eae Von a a dee
2 \ ie cee ee | The temperature stays
— FRR | hNeate ee ae ens ee constant during freezing.
=oO
o
iN |
~aie ee
— | ee |
|Pure: water
| | |
oi
|
—peso
0 Sy ate i ET = Son
es ‘ t { | | i | } | |
A fra bans, ca eerie SMe Shecct
peagn rg | | | \|
| { ; } { } } H

© | _|sattwater |
I ers heen eee era \ Once ice has formed, the
as SVR: | temperature can fall further.

a
{
H | | | |
|| Receeiia ath
Ras
) }
i
{
|
| | Impurities, such as salt or
QW Be 4! 7 6
8 OY Wo h sugar, lower
the freezing
Time, in minutes point.

When water is heated, its temperature rises as the water molecules absorb thermal energy. Eventually the water boils
and turns into water vapour (the gas state for water). The heating curve for water is shown below.

A heating curve Added impurities raise the

120 Deca aiGall Walee a boiling point of water.
{ | | 7

100 -
The temperature stays
Oo constant after boiling.
o 80-faeg
&
g
2
© Pure water boils at 100 °C.
of
£
i

Heating causes a steady

rise in temperature until the
boiling point is reached.
Time, in minutes

In summary, therefore, water is a compound with a freezing point defined at 0 °C anda boiling point at 100 °C. There
are two simple chemical tests for water. These have already been described on page 136.
 Science Book 2

Physical changes and conservation of mass

Physical changes cause the particles of a substance to be rearranged. No chemical bonds are formed, and no particles
are lost or gained. If no particles are lost or gained, there should be no change in the mass of a substance when it
goes through a physical change. If you measure an exact mass of water, freeze it (and weigh it again), then thaw it
out, you will find that the freezing and thawing have had no effect on the mass of the water. This is called conservation
of mass.

Conservation of mass during a change of state

(eae: 200 g of water 200 g of water | There is no

change in mass
a during a change
of state. You can
-m | Freezing Melting | —» make 200g of ice
Bens cubes from 200g
ae Ss fe of water.

200 g of ice cubes

| SO, REMEMBER
When a change of state takes place: Water
@ The mass before the change is EQUAL ...
.. to the mass after the change.
@ This is because the number of particles
stays the same.

If you add 10 g of sugar to a dish of water and stir the two substances together, the sugar will dissolve and become
invisible. You can collect the sugar again by allowing the water to evaporate away. At the end of this experiment you
will find that there are still 10 g of sugar.

Conservation of mass during mixing and separation

10 g of sugar

_ Water evaporated

Dissolved in water

Mixture of sugar and water

The law of conservation of mass applies to all physical changes.

 Key words
States of matter — the forms in which a substance can exist, as solid, liquid or gas.

Change of state — the conversion of a substance from one form to another.

Property — any characteristic of a substance, such as colour, compressibility or shape.

Exercise 12.3: Solids, liquids and gases

1. Copy and complete this table about the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

Solids Liquids
,

Do they flow easily?

Can they be compressed?

Can they change their shape?

Are the particles close together or far apart?

Do the particles hold onto each other tightly or not?

2. Select a type of material for the following uses. Choose from solid, liquid or gas:

(a) To act as a roof support .......... :

(6) To be squeezed into a container .......... ;

(c) To be pushed through a pipe .......... :

(d) To fill up a balloon .......... :

(e) To make into a tool .......... ‘

(f) To pour from one container into another .......... :

3. The tyre on a racing car is hard because of the pressure of air inside the tyre.

(a) What causes the air pressure inside the tyre?

(b) Why does the air pressure increase when the mechanics pump up the tyre?

(c) What happens to the air pressure inside the tyre as the tyre gets hotter during the race? Explain your
answer to this part of the question.

(d) How can tyres that contain air absorb some of the bumps on the racing circuit?

Internet project
Find out what a barometer is. How does it work? How is it useful to a weather forecaster?
56 Yer
[=]4[ei=1g =fele), @r4

Chapter 13
Mixtures: Pure substance or mixture?
Starting points
@ Chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of substances.

@ All substances, solid, liquid or gas, are made of particles.

A chemist is interested in how different substances are made up, and how they can be changed.It is very important in
chemistry to know whether a substance is pure, or whether it is made of several different substances mixed together.
A pure substance may behave in a different way from a mixture. A doctor, for example, would want to be absolutely
sure that a drug was pure before he or she offered it to a patient. Remember:

® In a pure substance all the particles are the same and so they all behave in the same way.

®@ In a mixture there is more than one type of particle. The particles are not joined together, and the mixture can
react in different ways, depending on how many of each type of particle is present.

Pure ethanol contains Lager beer contains a mixture of

only ethanol particles different particles: alcohol,
and all of them are very minerals, sugars, carbon dioxide
poisonous. and about 95% water.

Testing for purity

There are different methods that can be used to test whether a substance is pure or a mixture:

Appearance: sometimes the particles are big enough to be seen, perhaps with a microscope. For example, looking
at a sample of soil shows that it is made up of several different types of particle, so it is a mixture.

Melting and boiling point measurements: a pure substance always melts at one fixed temperature and boils at
another fixed temperature (see page 139). A mixture can have very different melting and boiling points, depending on
how much of each substance is present.

Looking for particular physical properties: some metals are magnetic, for example, and can be separated from
mixtures using a magnet.

Soil sample
This is a soil sample. The particles are large enough to see that it is a mixture.
Different types of soil have different properties, depending on how many of
each type of particle are present.

Sete.
ee
 ials and their properties

Pure water f]
Ee 100 °C
This is pure water. We can tell because it boils at 100 °C. A mixture, for
example salt solution, has different boiling and melting points, depending on
the amount of each substance in it.

Water

THERMAL
ENERGY

Mixture of iron filings and copper

This is a mixture of iron filings and copper. We can tell that this is a mixture Magnet
because the iron is attracted to the magnet but the copper is left behind.
Some mixtures can easily be separated like this. For more information on
the separation of mixtures, see page 166.

Mixture of
copper and iron

CS

Exercise 13.1: Pure substance or mixture?

1. How could you check that a mixture of sand, salt and sugar actually contained several different types of
particle?

2. Adelicatessen sells bottles of ‘pure mountain spring water’. How could you check whether this claim is true?

3. Apopular brand of orange juice claims to be ‘pure orange juice, containing only natural fruit sugar, vitamin C,
citric acid and water’. Why doesn’t this sentence make sense?

4. How could you tell whether a metallic powder contained only iron filings or whether it also had some
magnesium mixed in with it?
158 Yet [Ji Torwd=fete) 4

More about mixtures: Solutions

and solubility
Don't forget
@ A pure substance is made up of only one type of particle.

© A mixture is made up of different types of particle.

3) Making a mixture is an example of a physical change.

As you know, the appearance of some substances changes when the substances are mixed with water. You can see
this if you drop a soluble aspirin into a glass of water; the aspirin seems to disappear. In fact what has happened is
that the aspirin has dissolved in the water to form a mixture. This mixture is a solution and the aspirin has nol
disappeared at all. The particles of the aspirin have spread so that you can't see them, but they are still there.

Solids can dissolve to make solutions

<2. ie eS ee eS ees
Coffee granules dissolve in Sugar dissolves in coffee |
hot water to produce a ee am to make a sweet sugary |
solution of coffee. solution.

REMEMBER CONSERVATION OF MASS?

An aspirin dissolves One 5g aspirin dissolved in 200 g of water
in water to make a
solution. Aspirin
will give 205 g of aspirin solution.

<a Dissolving Bhai ace

E 4
Water (solvent) Aspirin +
full to brim (solute) ‘

The solvent particles have The solute particles .. and spread out
space between them and dissolve ... between the solvent
can move about. particles.

GASES AND LIQUIDS ALSO DISSOLVE!

Gases, for example oxygen, can dissolve in water. This is good for fish!
Some liquids can also dissolve in water, for example alcohol.

Exactly the same thing happens when you add a spoonful of sugar to your tea, or make a cup of coffee by adding
boiling water to coffee granules.
 Materials and their properties

What makes up a solution?

If a substance will dissolve to form a solution, we say that the substance is soluble. The substance that dissolves is
called the solute and the substance it dissolves in is called the solvent.

Solution = Solute + Solvent @—_______——- Sugar is a SOLUTE. A solute is

a material that can be dissolved.

The sugar hasn't disappeared!

The water particles spread the
sugar particles out so much that
we can't see them! Water is a SOLVENT. A solvent
is a material that can dissolve
another material.

REMEMBER: If the mixture is clear (even if

it's coloured, like coffee) it's a SOLUTION. |

If a substance won’t dissolve in a solvent, we say that the substance is insoluble. A good example is chalk in water;
chalk is insoluble in water. This means that when they are mixed, the mixture stays cloudy because the chalk particles
stay stuck together in pieces that are big enough for us to see. This kind of mixture is called a suspension. You see
a good example when carbon dioxide is bubbled through limewater; the cloudy liquid is actually a suspension of chalk
(calcium carbonate, to give chalk its chemical name). Another good example is sand; sandy water is very cloudy
indeed!

Insoluble solids form suspensions

Quicksand is a
suspension of sand and
water. There are so
many sand particles that
you can’t really tell
there’s any water there!

Cloudy suspension of
calcium carbonate (COz in
limewater).

Sedimentation occurs when soil and rock

Some insoluble
particles settle out of water.
material settles to the
bottom; this is called
the sediment.
Water as a solvent
Water is a very common solvent, but it isn’t the only one. A substance that is insoluble in one solvent can be soluble
in a different one. The solubility of a substance is a measure of the amount of a substance that will dissolve in a
particular solvent. Many industries depend on substances having a different solubility in different solvents.

Not all solutes are soluble in water

Some stains aren’t removed But other solvents

by water, especially greasy (like those used by dry
or oily stains. cleaners) can dissolve
and remove these
difficult stains.

Nail varnish is dissolved in propanone, so it can be spread onto your

nails. It is insoluble in water, so it won't easily wash off.

SUBSTANCE (Solute) SOLVENT IMPORTANT POINT

Pigment in gloss paint White spirit Paint colour does not dissolve when it rains.

Pleasant smelling oils Alcohol Alcohol evaporates after spraying,

in perfume and aftershave leaving a pleasant smell behind.

Correcting fluid (Tipp-ex) is white pigment Solvent evaporates and leaves white pigment
in a fatty solvent. particles behind.

SOME SOLVENTS ARE HARMFUL!

Some solvents can dissolve away fats in the cell membranes. Cells can
burst and injury or death can result.
DON'T SNIFF SOLVENTS!
Temperature and solubility
You can tell if a substance has dissolved in water because the substance seems to disappear and the solution is clear.
However, you can’t just keep on dissolving a substance; eventually no more will dissolve and some of the substance
will begin to settle out at the bottom of the container. When this happens, we say that the solution is saturated. No
more particles of the solute can be fitted between the particles of the solvent and so the undissolved particles of the
solute stick together. Scientists can use this to check on how different conditions affect the solubility of substances.
Some important factors that affect the rate at which a substance will dissolve are:

6 The amount of mixing or stirring that goes on.

® The temperature of the solvent.

] The size of the solute particles (whether the solute is in lumps or has been ground down to a powder).

The way temperature affects solubility can be investigated by measuring the amount of solute that will dissolve in
100 g of water at different temperatures. The results of an example of this type of investigation are shown on the graph
below.

o_k ms(=)

Potassium nitrate The higher the

— pe)oO temperature, the
more the solute
dissolves.
— ‘SsoO
The amount Why doesn't the
of solute that graph go right
dissolves depends © (o) up to 100 °C?
on how much opper sulphate
solvent is present.
The figure for fe)(eo)
solubility is ~
always given as
‘grams of solute a [e)
per 100 g of water’.
tio
pe)S)

)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Solubility
(no.
dissolved
water)
of
solute
100
in
grams
g Temperature, in °C

Dilute or concentrated?
A solution with many solute particles in a certain volume of solvent is concentrated (this is a more scientific term than
saying it is strong), and a solution with very few solute particles in the same volume of solvent is dilute (or weak). We
can concentrate a solution by adding more solute to it, and we can dilute a solution by adding more solvent to it.

You will find out how to separate the different substances in a solution on page 170.
162 | Science Book 2

Key words
Solution — a mixture of a solute in a solvent.

Solute — the substance that dissolves in a solvent when a solution is made.

Solvent — the liquid that dissolves a solute.

Insoluble — unable to dissolve in a solvent.

Solubility — means how much of a substance will dissolve in a certain volume of a solvent.

Saturated — a solution made when the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve has been added to a
solvent.

Suspension — a mixture made of a liquid and an insoluble substance.

Exercise 13.2: Solutions and solubility

the Match up words from the first column with the correct definitions from the second column:

|Word Definition
BS: oe
Dissolve The name for a substance that dissolves in a liquid
ai

Concentrated The amount of a substance that will dissolve in a liquid

S|
Dilute A mixture of a solvent and a solute |

Solute A solution that cannot accept any more solute

Soluble A solution with many solute particles in a small volume of solvent

Solvent This means ‘can dissolve’

Solution What happens when one substance seems to disappear when it is mixed with a liquid

Insoluble A solution with very few solute particles

peated The name for the liquid part of a solution

Solubility This means ‘cannot dissolve’

2. Coca Cola is a solution:

(a) Find out three main solutes and the solvent in Coca Cola.

(b) Coca Cola manufacturers want the manufacturing process to take as little time as possible. How can
they make sure that the solutes dissolve quickly in the solvent?
 aterials
and their properties —

3. Look at the diagram below which shows an experiment on dissolving a solute:

First beaker with Second beaker with

cold water warm water

|
Same amounts
of sugar
and water.

\
Stir 10 times.

Add another
spoonful and
stir again 10
times.

Keep adding
sugar and
stir until crystals
of undissolved
Only 3 spoonfuls of sugar are seen. 10 spoonfuls of
sugar dissolved sugar dissolved

What is the input (independent) variable in this experiment?

(b) What is the outcome (dependent) variable in this experiment?

(c) What has the scientist done to make sure that this is a fair test?

How could you alter the experiment to investigate the effect of lump size on the solubility of sugar?
 ~ Science Book 2

Extension question
4. Gena and her friend Izzy decided to investigate the solubility of sugar in water. They added weighed amounts
of sugar to a beaker containing 100 g of water until no more sugar could dissolve. They repeated the
experiment but varied the water temperature. Here are their results:

Temperature in °C Mass of sugar that dissolves in 100 g of water in grams

Noa 0

(a) Plot their results in a line graph.

(6) How much sugar dissolves in 100 g of water at 40 °C?

(c) How much sugar would dissolve in 250 g of water at 50 °C?

(d) Give two factors that they would need to keep constant if this were to be a fair test.

(e) Suggest two ways in which they could have improved the reliability of their results.
 Materials and their properties

Separating mixtures of materials

Starting points
© A pure substance is one in which all of the particles (atoms or molecules) are the same.

=) A mixture contains different types of particle.

@ Different materials have different useful properties.

Air, tap water and sea water are good examples of mixtures. They are made up of different particles that are not
combined with one another. Because they are not joined by chemical bonds, these particles can be separated using
physical methods.

Mixtures contain more than one type of particle

ge You can find the actual

0) ‘ proportions of the different

oo % ae
substances in these
©
mixtures on page 197.

aww
ao ec)

Air is a mixture of elements and Seawater is a mixture of elements and

compounds. compounds.

What is separation?
We often want to separate the different materials in a mixture. We usually want to do this because one material is very
useful for a particular reason (getting pure drinking water out of sea water, for example). There are many ways in which
you can separate the different materials in mixtures; all of these methods depend on some difference between the materials
in the mixture. The sort of questions a chemist might ask before trying to carry out a separation would include:

6 Do all the materials have the same solubility?

@ Do all of the materials have the same boiling point?

@ Are some of the materials solid while the others are liquid?

@ Do any of the materials have some special physical property that none of the others has?

We have already seen that iron can be separated from other elements because iron is magnetic (see page 157).
This is an unusual method of separation. Usually other methods — decanting, filtration and evaporation, for example —
are used when you need to separate materials from a mixture (see Science Book 1, pages 157-159).
 “Science Book 2

Separating a solid from a liquid: Decanting

Decanting is a process that you should all by now be very familiar with. In many parts of Africa and Asia, for example,
drinking water is collected from the nearest river in large jars. Sometimes the water is quite muddy or sandy because
there are soil particles floating in the water. The people who collect the water leave the jars to stand, so that the mud,
sand and silt will settle out at the bottom of the jar. The clear water can then be poured off and the solid materials from
the mixture can be left behind at the bottom of the jar.

Separating a solid from a liquid: Filtration

A filter is a layer with many tiny holes in it. The tiny holes allow small particles in a liquid through, but keep the larger
particles of the solid back. Many filters are made from paper, and these can hold back extremely small particles of
solid. Using filter paper is very important in scientific experiments.

Separating solids and water: Evaporation

We can use filter paper to separate an insoluble substance from a liquid because the particles of the insoluble
substance (the solid) are too big to get through the gaps in the filter paper. However, when a substance dissolves in a
liquid, the tiny particles of the dissolved substance are so spread out that they can pass through these gaps. This
means that you can’t use filtration to separate a solute and a solvent. The way in which you can separate a solute and
a solvent is by getting rid of the solvent. You can do this by evaporation (the changing of a liquid into a gas).

The process of evaporation and crystallisation separates solutes from solvent

Particles of liquid
A | change into gas and This process can be used to show
2 mavemioiho ain that sea waiter, tap water and
S : distilled water are different from
S 2 each other. Distilled water gives no
crystals, tap water gives a few but
sea water gives many crystals of
several different types.
Particles of solid are
left behind in the dish.

As the liquid evaporates slowly and the solid

If the liquid is water, it is safe to
dries out, the solid forms crystals. This
speed up evaporation using a flame.
process is called crystallisation and can
NEVER do this with a flammable produce a pure solid. An example is the
solvent, such as ethanol or propane. formation of copper sulphate crystals from
copper sulphate solution.

Evaporation takes place if a liquid is left to stand in a warm place. The process is very much quicker if the solution is
gently heated, using a low Bunsen flame, but slow evaporation is best if you want to collect crystals of the pure solute.
Be careful, never heat the solution until its completely dry, otherwise hot crystals of salt could spit out.

In the process of crystallisation most of the solvent is removed by heating but then the solution is allowed to cool slowly.
This process works because crystals form as the saturated solution cools. Remember that the solubility of a solute falls
as the temperature is reduced.
Filtration and evaporation can be used in the same separation
Sometimes a mixture can be quite complicated. There may be a solvent, a solute and an insoluble substance all
together! A mixture like this can be separated into the different substances if two methods, filtration and evaporation,
are combined. Evaporation would mean that the solvent would be lost, so a third process, condensation, can be
included.

One mixture of this type is rock salt which is made up of sand and salt. The steps in the separation are:

Crush the rock salt to make the particles smaller.

Mix the rock salt with water to dissolve the soluble salt.

Filtration, when the mixture is filtered through filter paper. This leaves the sand as a residue and the salt
solution passes through as the filtrate.

Evaporation, when the salt solution is warmed. The water evaporates and leaves the salt behind as crystals
in the evaporating dish.

You could also collect the water by condensation. This is when the water vapour is cooled, so that it is turned
back to water.

The process of separating a mixture

Mixture
iin
eo

Water hay
evaporates
Sand * Salty water

Salt
and
water

\kekiel>”

Salt solution Salt

Mixture:
Sand +salt+ water |

Separation by Filtration + |een

168 | ‘Science Boo

Separation of a solvent from a solution: Simple distillation

So we now know that evaporation separates a solute from a solution, but the solvent is usually lost unless special
precautions are taken. Sometimes the solvent is valuable and needs to be saved. This can be achieved by evaporating
the solvent and then condensing it in a piece of apparatus where the solvent can be collected. The solution is heated,
so that the solvent boils quickly and evaporates. Simple distillation can be performed using this apparatus:

Cos WATCH OUT! :

If the water level rose up to the
condenser tube, there could be a >
x problem! If the air in the flask
cooled, it would-contract and suck |
pure water back into the ink (or
sea water)!

iced water
to cool vapour.
Ink (or Distillate
sea water) (The purity of the
ve distillate can be
THERMAL checked by
ENERGY measuring its boiling
The thermal energy must be controlled quite point.)
carefully to ensure that the vapour is only produced
at a rate that can sucessfully be condensed.

Simple distillation can also be performed using the apparatus shown below. Here the vapour is directed into a water-
cooled condenser. This piece of apparatus has a central tube for condensing the solvent and an outer tube that
carries cold water. It is more efficient at cooling the vapour than the apparatus shown above. The condenser is often
known as the Liebig condenser, after the scientist who first worked out how to perform this kind of separation. The
separation of pure water from sea water is described below:

100 °C: This should stay the same,

as long as pure water is evaporating.

THERMOMETER: The The WATER COOLED

bulb of the thermometer Warmed CONDENSER must slope
should be exactly i.water out downwards, so that the
opposite the side-arm condensed water does not run

CS
of the flask. back into the boiling mixture.
WATER VAPOUR: As
the water evaporates, e
the sea water
becomes more and
/
\ Cold
-,
The purity of the PURE
WATER could be checked.
more concentrated. a water in | We know pure water should
| boil at exactly 100 °C.
Sea water |

THERMAL
ENERGY
 "Materia
andls
their properties |169
Notice how the diagrams on the previous page are
SAUDI SPRING WATER!
drawn in cross section. This helps us to see how
the apparatus works. From the the bottom picture In Saudi Arabia and other desert
on page 168 we can see that the steam passes countries drinking water is
through the middle part of the condenser and is obtained by distillation of sea
cooled by the cold water on the outside. water.

Separation of two liquids from a mixture: Fractional distillation

Some liquids, like ethanol and water, mix together. Liquids that mix together in this way are said to be miscible.
Miscible liquids can be separated as long as they have different boiling points. Remember that every pure substance
has a fixed boiling point. Ethanol boils at 78 °C and water boils at 100 °C, so when a mixture of the two is heated the
ethanol will evaporate first. Ethanol vapour starts to reach the condenser, cools down and drips into the collecting
beaker. Some water does evaporate from the mixture but the cool glass beads in the fractionating column turn the
water vapour back to liquid which trickles back into the flask. If the temperature is kept at 78 °C, almost pure ethanol
can be collected.
Thermometer
Fractional distillation can separate 78°C
ethanol from beer or wine

water out

SS ————————— Condenser
The fractionating column is packed
with glass beads and condenses water
vapour into liquid water.
This column is very important when
trying to separate liquids with similar
fF ; water in
boiling points.

To get very
pure ethanol,
Ethanol this product
may need to
be distilled
several times.

Ethanoi and water could come from the

brewing industry. The organism yeast can Some alcoholic drinks,
carry out this important chemical reaction: such as sherry and
port, are made by
sugar =~ ethanol + carbon dioxide adding a small amount
yeast of distilled ethanol
to wine.
The ethanol is still mixed with water. The
maximum ethanol concentration that the yeast THERMAL
can survive is about 12% ethanol : 88% water. ENERGY
To make ethanol more concentrated, it must be
distilled.

Strong alcoholic drinks (spirits like brandy and whisky) are made in this way. Great care is taken to make sure that the
ethanol is separated from other substances with very similar boiling points, because some of these substances can be
poisonous. Cheap spirits may not have been distilled very carefully and can cause great harm to anyone who drinks them.
170 Toi
(=) Ter= Wy=fele), @r'4

Separation of several different soluble substances: Chromatography

Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of different soluble substances. This process depends on substances
having different solubilities in a certain solvent. The process is also affected by how much the substances stick to the
paper used in the separation. The method for separating a mixture of coloured inks is shown below:

Using water as a solvent in simple paper chromatography

Dropper with ink Dropper with water

Yellow
ring Blue ring Red ring

Filter paper

Step1: Step 2: Step 3:

Place a drop of black ink at the Carefully squeeze small drops of In this ink there are three coloured
centre of a piece of filter paper water onto the ink. Leave a little substances: blue, red and yellow.
and let it dry. time between drops to let the ink Notice that the blue dye didn't
spread out. As the water moves move as fast as the others. It got
across the filter paper, it will carry left behind and so formed its own
the colours with it. However, what ring. Next the red stopped moving.
you will see is that different colours The yellow substance was the most
travel at different speeds. soluble and so moved the furthest.

Chromatography can be used to identify unknown substances in a mixture. Look at the experiment on the opposite
page (page 171):

® A spot of the mixture is placed on a baseline drawn on a piece of chromatography paper. The baseline must be
drawn in pencil, or any colours in the baseline will interfere with the result!

® A separating solvent is placed in a jar and the sample paper is allowed to stand in the solvent, until the solvent
nears the top of the paper.

@ The separating solvent runs up through the paper and pulls the different substances from the spot. The most
soluble substance travels furthest up the paper, and the least soluble substance travels the shortest distance.
Each different dye in the coloured mixture will form a spot in a different place.

@ The unknown spots can be compared with spots of known substances, so that the unknown materials can be
identified.
 "Materials and their properties

Chromatography can identify unknown substances in a mixture

At the start After the solvent has soaked up the paper

Rod holding C
paper SOLV.Ctg ee oes ee sees eceeriewess
has
reached
Pure this far up
substances Chromatography the paper.
for comparison paper (white
filter paper)

Mixture Beaker

Pencil line
where the
samples started

Solvent (often
propanone or
ethanol)
If you put several drops on and allow Sample X was a mixture of pure
the spot to dry each time, you will get substances, C and D. We can tell this
a more concentrated sample. This because it formed two spots of colour.
will make your results easier to see. The yellow travelled the same distance
as D and the blue travelled the same
distance as C.

Some mixtures are not soluble in water, so other solvents must be used to separate them by chromatography. Two
important solvents used in this way are propanone and ethanol. Chromatography is not only used for checking the
dyes in different inks, it is also important in:

@ checking the sugars in different kinds of foods;

@ identifying different parts of the blood, including tests on blood at crime scenes; and

@ comparing the pigments (colours) in different types of flowers and leaves.

Key words
Pure — describes a substance that is made of only one type of particle.

Mixture — contains more than one type of particle, not linked to one another.

Filtrate — the liquid that can pass through a filter paper.

Filtration — the process of separation that uses a paper to separate a solid from a liquid.

Decanting — separation of a solid from a liquid by careful pouring.

Evaporation — the change of state from liquid to gas (vapour), speeded up by heating.

Condensation — the change of state from vapour to liquid, speeded up by cooling.

Distillation — the process of separation that depends on substances in a mixture having different boiling
points.

Chromatography — separation of dissolved materials depending on how well they are carried through a
special kind of paper by a moving solvent.
Exercise 13.3: Separating mixtures
ile Copy and complete these paragraphs, using words from the list below:

physical evaporation alcohol boiling points

identical mixtures chromatography — gold/salt

(a) Most natural substances are .......... , they are not pure. The particles of each substance in a mixture are
MOlWnie to each other and so these substances can often be separated because they have different
sevteaeesete properties.

(b) There are several different ways of separating substances, including .......... which can separate different
soluble substances in a mixture and .......... which can provide pure crystals of a solute from a solution.

(c) The process of distillation depends on the fact that different substances have different .......... . The
process can be used to collect .......... from sea water and .......... from beer or wine.

Freddie has a motorcycle and he likes to clean it in his garage.

(a) After cleaning it, he sweeps up the floor of the garage, so that it’s tidy for next time. The sweepings
contain iron filings, aluminium shavings, salt and sand. Explain how the different substances in the
sweepings could be separated from each other.

(b) Freddie noticed some liquid on the floor. He thought that it was probably just water, but wanted to check
that it wasn’t leaking fluid from his brakes. Describe one test he could do to check whether the liquid was
just water.

Gena loves Smarties. She wanted to look at the colourings used to give the colour to different Smarties, so
she tested different coloured Smarties and compared her results with a similar test she did on some artificial
colourings, identified with E-numbers. The results of both tests are shown below:

Orange Green Brown Blue Yellow Violet Pink E104) Eld0s 16120 SEl22.E1s3

(a) What is this method of separation called?

(b) Which colours contain more than one colouring?

(c) How many of the ‘E’ numbered colourings are there in brown Smarties?

(d) Gena is sensitive to E110 (it makes her hyperactive). Which colours of Smarties must she avoid?
 ~ Materials and their properties

Chapter 14
Acids, bases and indicators
Think back to what you already know about acids:

e There is hydrochloric acid in your stomach, where it helps to digest proteins.

® Many people enjoy the smell of vinegar on fish and chips.

Acids in everyday life: Natural acids

We come across many acids in our everyday lives. If you eat yoghurt, the slightly sour taste is because you are eating
lactic acid (made from the sugar in milk). If you are bitten by an ant, the sting you feel is because the ant has injected
methanoic acid under your skin. If you add vinegar to fish and chips (mmm... — that delicious smell!), the vinegar is
partly made of ethanoic acid. We don’t just come across these acids by accident; they usually have a particular
purpose.

@ Acids often slow down the growth of microbes and so can be used to preserve foods. For example, vinegar has
been used for centuries to pickle foods, such as onions and cabbage.

@ Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), found in foods such as oranges and lemons, helps to maintain healthy (connective)
tissues and prevent scurvy. Ascorbic acid is also added to many foods because it prevents the oxidation of food
molecules, a process which makes stinking and unpleasant smells.

Some of these natural acids are shown in the table below:

Name of acid Where it is found

Ascorbic acid In some fruits (like oranges) and vegetables (like potatoes)

Citric acid Lemon juice

Ethanoic acid Vinegar

_— -——

Hydrochloric acid Stomach juices

ees :
Lactic acid Sour milk and yoghurt

Methanoic acid Stings from ants and stinging nettles

Tannic acid Tea

 Sol [-14[e1=1 ={e0), a4

Acids in. the home and car

Vinegar contains
Fruit juices, such as
ethanoic acid in
orange juice contain citric
water. Vinegar
acid and ascorbic acid.
adds flavour to
many foods.

Battery acid.
Sulphuric acid in
batteries reacts
with lead plates to
make an electric
current. This
current is enough
[to start a car.

Coca cola. Fizzy drinks contain

dissolved carbon dioxide to make Tea and coffee
both contain weak
them fizzy. The dissolved gas makes
acids. Tannic acid
a weak acid called carbonic acid.
gives tea its
Acid and sugar in fizzy drinks are brown colour.
bad for your teeth!

Laboratory acids
Acids used in the laboratory are more corrosive than natural acids — this means that they can damage clothing, eyes
or skin. All containers of laboratory acids must have the warning symbol for corrosive on them. Here is a reminder of
what that symbol is, and a few hints about using acids:

Working with acids

CORROSIVE

Acids are corrosive, and eyes and skin must be

protected. REMEMBER! This symbol is part of the Hazchem
system. These symbols tell us which chemicals are
Remember this poem! safe and which dangerous. Check back to page 128 to
Here lie the bones of Samuel Jones, remind yourself of the other symbols.
He'll never breathe no more.
What he thought was HzO was HzSO«
 Materials and their properties

HAZARD! Water Acid

In the laboratory never add water to an acid ina test
tube or beaker. Always add acid to water. This is
because some acids give out thermal energy when
diluted. The water can boil and '‘spit'
p into viyour face! Acid Water

Dealing with spills

In the laboratory @ Wash the affected area On roads or in factories:

with a lot of water. Symbols on the lorry tell police and firefighters which
@ Tell the teacher. chemicals the lorry is carrying. If it is acid, it is diluted
with lots and lots of water.
@ Mop up the area, then wash
it again with water.

John Haig was the ‘Acid Bath Murderer’ in 1949. He murdered a women and tried to
destroy her body ina bath of sulphuric acid. Unfortunately for him, sulphuric acid
does not destroy plastics. She was identified by her false teeth, and Haig was
sentenced to death by hanging.

One material that is not corroded by acid is glass. This is why glass bottles are used for keeping and storing acids in
the laboratory. The three common laboratory acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid. They are used
in many chemical experiments and they also have important uses in industry.

This table shows what the three common laboratory acids can do:

Acid Salts made in Important uses in industry

laboratory
reactions

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Chlorides In metal processing and purification of ores

Nitric acid Nitrates Making fertilisers and explosives

if lr

Sulphuric acid Sulphates Making fertilisers, making paints and plastics;

used in car batteries
176 - Science Book 2°

Strong and weak acids

It is very important not to get mixed up between how strong an acid is and how concentrated it is.

® Strength is a chemical property of an acid. It tells us how easily the hydrogen in an acid combines with another
substance. For example, a strong acid will react very quickly with a metal.

® Concentration is a physical property of the acid. It depends on how much water is present in the solution of
the acid.

It is quite possible to have a dilute solution of a strong acid. For example, dilute nitric acid is a dilute solution of a strong
acid — it is not very concentrated but still reacts quickly with metals. It is also possible to have a strong solution of a
weak acid. Many metal cleaners are solutions of weak acids, like methanoic acid; these cleaners will remove the lime
scale from inside a kettle but will not attack the metal of the kettle itself.

lf a large amount of an acid or an alkali is spilt, the fire brigade will often hose down the area with large volumes of
water. The corrosive substance will become less concentrated. Dilute acids and alkalis are less hazardous than
concentrated ones.

Bases and alkalis

There are so many different chemicals in the world that it is impossible to remember them all. What scientists like to
do is to put chemicals into groups. All the chemicals in the same group have similar properties and this helps scientists
to predict what they can be used for. Acids make up one of these groups, and bases and alkalis make up another.

® A base is a substance that can neutralise an acid. Metal oxides, carbonates and hydroxides are all examples
of bases.

@ An alkali is a base that can dissolve in water. The oxides of reactive metals, e.g. sodium and calcium, are
alkalis. Hydroxides, e.g. ammonium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide (lime water), are also
alkalis.

® Alkalis can be strong or weak. Oxides and hydroxides of sodium and calcium are stronger than those of less
reactive metals.

Bases and alkalis are the chemical opposite of acids.

Uses of alkalis
Alkalis can be just as corrosive as acids and can be very dangerous to humans. We say that these substances are
caustic. We use many alkalis as cleaning materials:

OVEN CLEANER sometimes contains very

The importance of alkalis concentrated and very strong alkalis. This
SODA CRYSTALS ~ |reacts with fats and burned-on grease and
can dissolve in makes them easier to dissolve in water.
water to clean pans
and sinks. MILK OF MAGNESIA
neutralises stomach
acid (see page 20) to
overcome upset
- if : : stomachs.
‘HAZARD! Alkalis can be even more | SOAP is alkaline. It
is made by mixing
‘corrosive than acids. For this
together fat and TOOTHPASTE is an |
/reason, gloves, overalls and eye | | alkali which helps to
protection should be worn when caustic soda (sodium
whiten the teeth and |
‘using oven and drain cleaners. hydroxide).
neutralise acids from
food. |
 Key words
Acid — a substance that can give up hydrogen in a chemical reaction.

Base — a substance that can neutralise an acid.

Alkali — a base that is dissolved in water.

Corrosive — able to attack other materials, including skin.

Strength — how easily an acid or alkali reacts with other substances.

Concentration — how many particles of a substance there are mixed with a certain number of particles of water.

Exercise 14.1: Acids and bases

1. Why does pickling food help to preserve it?

2. Give two uses of acids in industry.

3. What is an alkali? Give one important use of alkalis.

4. Copy and complete this paragraph, using words from the list below:

water corrosive goggles/eye protection overalls/lab coat _—acid

Acids and alkalis are .......... , which means that they can cause damage to the skin. If one of these substances
is spilt or splashed onto the skin, plenty of cold water must be run over the splashed area. In the laboratory,
you should always add ........... LO eee and never the other way round. When working with acids or alkalis,
you should always wear .......... AMC eee :

Extension questions
5. What is the benefit of having hydrochloric acid in your stomach? Why could this be harmful?

6. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an antioxidant. Use the Internet or your library to find out what an antioxidant
does, and which kinds of food contain antioxidant.
 Unite

boYod
[<1p(e1= =fole)@

Acid or alkali? Using indicators

Starting point
@ Acids and alkalis are important chemicals but can be dangerous if they are not used properly.

@ Acids have the opposite chemical properties to alkalis.

Strong acids and alkalis are corrosive and so could be very harmful to humans. Even so, there are many chemical and
industrial reactions where we need to use these chemicals. How can we test for these chemicals without harming
ourselves? You can find out if a substance is an acid or an alkali by using an indicator. An indicator contains a dye that
changes colour, depending on whether it is mixed with an acid or an alkali.

Plant dyes can be used as indicators

You can make an indicator from the dye in some coloured plants. Red cabbage, blackcurrant and raw beetroot are all
suitable plants and the indicator can be obtained as shown below:
Why do you think
pickled cabbage
Stirring rod is red?
Filter coloured
solution

____ Beaker

Boiled water
Kes

Acid Alkali
Cut leaves of
red cabbage

sodium hydroxide| green/yellow

hydrochloric acid red/purple

Using litmus
An indicator which is often used in laboratories is called litmus. This can be used as a liquid, or as papers which have
been soaked in the liquid and then dried out. The colour changes for litmus with acid and alkali are shown in the
diagram below:

Two common acidic

gases are carbon a
dioxide and sulphur
dioxide.
LITMUS

aia
In acid In water In alkali
(neutral)
 ‘Materials and their properties | 179

Universal indicator and the pH scale

Litmus and plant dye indicators only tell us whether a substance is acid or alkaline. These indicators do not tell us how
strongly acidic or alkaline the substance is. Some indicators can measure how strong an acid or alkali is and give us
a numerical value on the pH scale. On this scale the values run from 0 to 14. Neutral substances have a pH value
of 7, acid substances have a pH below 7 and alkaline substances have a pH value above 7.

One very useful indicator, which shows a range of colours, is Universal Indicator (or Full Range Indicator). This indicator can
show whether a substance is acid or alkali and how strong it is.

Universal indicator and the pH scale: How to find out if a substance is acid or alkali
Step 1. Put some water Step 2. Add a few drops of Step 3. Add the substance
into a test tube. Universal indicator. and shake it until it is disolved.

Universal
indicator
‘

Universal indictor (has a whole range of colours).

pH pH 4 pH 5 pH 6 pH 7 pH 8 pH 9 pH 10 pH114
or less

Universal
indicator

STRONGER ACID WEAK ACID NEUTRAL aepespnshiiny ces STRONGER

e.g. hydrocloric acid SUBSTANCES SUBSTANCES : ALKALINE
and sulphuric acid, e.g. vinegar, e.g. water, sugar, Po aeou SUBSTANCES
including battery acid fruit juice and alcohol and salt solution, detergent, | e.g. sodium hydroxide
lemonade solution _baking soda and (caustic soda) and
indigestion mixture nUanielcanae

PH scale (a scale of numbers ranging from 1 to 14).

sat

2 ia

ear Neutral SS Si ee
ee
Becoming Weak Weak Becoming
more acidic acid alkali more alkali

STRANGE BUT TRUE!

Each unit on the pH scale means a change in strength of 10 times! An acid with pH3 is 10 times
stronger than an acid with pH4, and 100 times stronger than one with pH5!

Substances with very low or very high pH values are the most dangerous.
180 Science Book2

It was a Danish chemist called

Segrensen who invented the pH scale.
He worked for the Carlsberg brewery.
The pH level is very important in the
process of fermentation by yeast.

Neutralisation: Reactions between acids and alkalis

When acids and alkalis are mixed, they cancel each other out. If the correct amounts are added to each other, a neutral
solution can be formed. This kind of chemical reaction is called neutralisation and is a very common reaction in
chemistry. Universal indicator can be used to show a neutralisation taking place.

Checking neutralisation with Universal indicator

Acid is added
from a syringe.

10 cm’ alkali 10 cm’ alkali 10 cm? alkali 10 cm’ alkali

+ indicator + indicator + indicator + indicator
no acid +9cm* of acid + 10 cm’ of acid ‘eilecm: acia

(Note: Neutralisation is
obtained by mixing equal
quantities of acid and alkali
of the same concentration.)

The chemistry of neutralisation produces a salt and water. This is a word equation for this type of reaction:

acid + base — salt + water

One example is:

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide —> sodium chloride + water

Universal indicator gives us the pH value as a whole number, but sometimes we could disagree about the exact value
because we each see colours slightly differently. The pH scale actually has values between these whole numbers —
there can be a pH of 4.2 or 9.3, for example. A pH probe can be used to measure the pH of a solution when an exact
value of pH is required.
 Materials and their properties

Using a pH probe to study neutralisation

Sodium
hydroxide

fe) [rece]
Hydrochloric | Se
acid (25 cm) Data logger Graph plotter

Making salts
Neutralisation reactions are important because they can be used to make salts. Some of these salts are very useful
chemicals, for example as fertilisers, weedkillers or drugs. It is important to measure the pH during neutralisation,
because the acid needs to be exactly neutralised by the base. The diagram below shows how a salt can be made using
neutralisation.

Remember: acid + base — salt + water

Salts can be made by neutralisation Remember: Water is

Larger crystals are evaporated.
obtained if the solution
is allowed to evaporate
slowly, without extra
Just enough sulphuric heating.
acid to neutralise the alkali

Evaporating basin

Alkali (dilute The salt (magnesium sulphate)

magnesium
hydroxide)

| Salt can also be made in

other chemical reactions Important!
involving acid (see p187). The word 'salt' means a compound
formed from an acid. Common salt,
the substance used to flavour food,
is sodium chloride. So common salt
is just one example of a salt!
82 | Science Book 2

Acids can be neutralised by insoluble bases as well as alkalis. For example, sulphuric acid is neutralised by copper
oxide to form copper sulphate and water.

copper oxide sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water

(black powder) (colourless solution) (blue solution)

Note if:
@ the colour changes;
@ new substances
are formed; and
e there is some
changein
temperature.
It's a chemical
copper oxide
(black) a Bek

Using neutralisation in medicine and industry

Neutralisation can be useful. Here are some examples of important commercial neutralisations:

ANTACID: Too much acid in the

stomach causes indigestion. a : en gece
RediCine aToreuro higicanieontaln ra BETTER SOIL: Most crop plants do not grow well in acidic
alkalis (usually magnesium gnesa soils. Farmers add lime to neutralise the acid and make the
hydroxide) to neutralise the acid. soil more suitable for plant growth.

DEALING WITH STINGS: Wasps and bees MANUFACTURE OF FERTILISER: Plants need nitrogen to
give painful stings, but ... grow well. Farmers add nitrogen fertilisers to increase the soil
* a weak acid, like vinegar, can neutralise a fertility. Fertilisers can be made by neutralisation.
wasp sting, because a wasp sting is
alkaline;
¢ a weak alkali, like ammonia or baking
soda, can neutralise a bee sting or a nettle nitric acid + ammonium hydroxide
sting because bee and nettle stings are (acid) (alkali)
acidic.
ammonium nitrate + water
(salt) (water)
(fertiliser)
 Materials and their properties 183 :

It's a secret! Invisible ink

/ Plants cannot absorb minerals in
When you want to send a secret note you can use neutralisation.
acidic soils. Carnivorous plants,
Here’s how to do it:
such as sundew, obtain their
® Write using a cotton bud dipped in a solution of baking
nitrate from the bodies of
soda (an alkali).
insects they catch.
® Show up the writing by painting over the paper with
vinegar or grape juice (both are acids).
© The acid and the alkali react together to produce a
coloured salt, so that it can be read.

STRANGE BUT TRUE!

Prisoners-of-war used sweat
(acid) and saliva (alkali) to
write invisible messages!

Key words
Acid — a substance that can give up hydrogen in a chemical reaction and always has a pH less than 7.

Alkali — a base that is dissolved in water and always has a pH more than 7.

Neutral — a solution that is neither acid nor alkaline and has a pH of 7.

Indicator — a substance that changes colour according to the pH of another substance.

pH — a scale of numbers, from 0 — 14, that gives a measurement of acidity or alkalinity.

Neutralisation — a chemical reaction between an acid and an alkali or base.

Salt — one of the products of a neutralisation reaction.

 Yo] (Ja [oi= Wy={ele), a4

Exercise 14.2: Neutralisation

We Nettle stings contain methanoic acid. What would you rub on a nettle sting to make it less painful?

Za Aspirin solution turns Universal Indicator pink. What does this show?

This table lists the pH of several solutions:

Solution A B Cc D E

pH iG 5 1 10 3

Name the solution or solutions that:

(a) would turn litmus blue.

(b) would turn universal indicator orange or red.

(c) is neither acidic nor alkaline.

(d) could be used on a wasp sting.

Extension questions
4. You have four different antacid treatments (indigestion remedies). Describe how you would tell which one was
most powertul. Include a list of the apparatus you would use and the steps you would take.

Gena and Felix carried out a neutralisation reaction. They slowly added sodium hydroxide to 25 cmé of
hydrochloric acid and used a pH probe to measure the pH of the solution. Here are their results:

Volume of sodium hydroxide added (cm?) PeOmeomees0 | 20%) 25> 30 | 40 | 50

pH Pele | 16.125 17. | 40 112541 42
(a) Plot their results in a line graph.

(b) Try to explain the shape of the graph.

(c) How could they improve their results?

More reactions of acids
Don't forget
@

@ Some metals react with acids to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.

@ Alkalis react with acids in a process called neutralisation to produce a salt and water.

Acids and metal carbonates

Metal carbonates are compounds that contain a metal and a carbonate. The carbonate is made up of carbon and
oxygen. An acid always reacts with a carbonate by breaking it down to give off carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide
makes the mixture fizz (this fizzing is sometimes called effervescence). It also turns limewater milky. The diagram
below shows how you can test that this is happening.

Reaction of acids and carbonates

This reaction goes on for longer if the salt is Delivery tube

soluble. For example, hydrochloric acid
and calcium carbonate make calcium
chloride. This dissolves away and lets the reaction
carry on. Sulphuric acid and calcium carbonate,
however, make calcium sulphate. This salt is Test tube
insoluble and makes a layer around the calcium
carbonate. This keeps the acid away from the
Carbon
carbonate and the reaction is stopped.
Test tube containing Hoxie
a carbonate and an
acid. This produces
carbon dioxide. Limewater
(turns cloudy
when it reacts
with carbon dioxide)
A good example is:

+ sulphuric acid ——> + water + carbon dioxide

Sherbet sweets contain sugar, citric acid CARBONATES AND CAKES!

and carbonate. The saliva in your mouth Some cake recipes use flour and baking
dissolves the acid and the acid reacts with powder. Baking powder contains weak acid
the carbonate. This produces carbon and sodium hydrogen carbonate. When
dioxide which fizzes on your tongue! the baking powder is heated, carbon dioxide }
bubbles are made. These tiny bubbles make =. J
the cake rise, giving it a light and fluffy
texture.
186 | Science Book2

The general word equation for this type of reaction is:

acid + metal carbonate — salt + water + carbon dioxide

You can see that a salt is formed, as well as the carbon dioxide. Remember that salts are very important chemicals,
so this is another good method for the production of salts. Some real word equations for acids reacting with metal
carbonates are:

nitric acid + lead carbonate — lead nitrate + water + carbon dioxide

hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate — calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Limestone contains the compound calcium carbonate. Rainwater contains weak acids and these react slowly with
limestone and break it down. Buildings, pavements and statues made of limestone are attacked by rain and can be
severely damaged over a long period of time. The problem is made worse if the rain becomes more acidic. Acid rain
(see page 211) contains extra acids and so speeds up the breakdown of limestone rocks. The importance of these
reactions with limestone is described below:

Reaction of limestone with acid

Limestone contains calcium carbonate (and so does marble).

Calcium carbonate reacts with the acids:

e calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid —® calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

This is very soluble This fizzes and so is an

and easily washed excellent test to check
away — the limestone whether a rock
seems to disappear! contains a carbonate.

Limestone

® Acid rain damages buildings

made of limestone and makes underground
caves in areas of limestone rock. ie

Acid rain
Marble
Joints between The cracks are
blocks widened by the
acid rain.

( EXTENSION IDEAS!
For a chemical reaction to occur, particles of different substances must come into contact with one another.
The reaction goes more quickly if more particles bump into each other more often. This can be done by:
@ Increasing the surface area - many small particles react faster than a few large ones.
@ Increasing the concentration - more particles in the same space.
@ Raising the temperature - so more particles move faster.
_ @ Adding a catalyst - to hold the particles in contact with one another.
 "Materials and their properties 187

Acids and metals

Acids react with metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas (see page 136).

For example: zinc + sulphuric acid — zinc sulphate + hydrogen

+ Wa
metal + salt + hydrogen gas

Summary of acid reactions

Acids are very important chemicals. We have spent a lot of time looking at their properties and their reactions. There
is a lot to learn, so here is a-useful summary of these properties and reactions:

Properties of acids

React with metals to give off hydrogen.

Have a pH lower than 7

acid + metal -» salt + hydrogen —_s?

eae! Change the

Are neutralised by bases and alkalis. colour of he oe
indicators, a
acid + base —> salt + water e.g. litmus.

acid + alkali —» salt + water

Are CORROSIVE, so
can be dangerous ...
React with carbonates to give off carbon ACI D ... but can be
dioxide. kept safely Ee
= in glass bottles.
acid + carbonate —» salt + water +
carbon dioxide NATURAL ACIDS, e.g. in
fruits, have a sour taste.
188 Science Book r4

a
Remind yourself!
Bacteria in your
Test for hydrogen: The mouth feed on sugar
SQUEAKY POP. and create acids.
ae. These acids can
Test for carbon dioxide: cause tooth decay. 6
The MILKY LIME WATER.

Key words
Carbonate — a compound that contains a metal, carbon and oxygen, and always gives off carbon dioxide when
it reacts with an acid.

Lime — a compound made when limestone is crushed and heated strongly.

Exercise 14.3: More reactions of acids

1. Copy and complete the following word equations:

(a) ZING: > zinc chloride + hydrogen

(b) nitric acid + magnesium > ......... I eee

(Chere + potassium hydroxide % potassium sulphate + .........

(d) copper carbonate + hydrochloric acid > ......... oe esnaae feeeaecen

(e) lead+......... > lead sulphate + .........

2 Which acid and base would you use to produce the following salts?

(a) copper chloride (c) iron chloride

(b) lead nitrate (d) zinc sulphate

3. Why is acid kept in glass bottles and not in metal containers?

4. Read this passage and answer the questions which follow:

When an excess of calcium carbonate is added to dilute hydrochloric acid, a chemical reaction occurs. Some
of the powder dissolves and a gas is given off. Once the reaction is finished, the excess calcium carbonate
can be filtered off. The salt formed can be obtained by evaporation of the filtrate.

(a) How can you tell that this is a chemical change?

(b) What is the name of the gas given off? How can you test for this gas?

(c) How can you tell when the reaction is finished?

(d) What is the name of the salt formed during the reaction?

(e) How could you make sure that you obtained large crystals of this salt?
 Is and their properties

Copy and complete this paragraph, using words from the list below:

carbonate hydrogen salt (squeaky) pop calcium carbonate

Acids react with most metals to produce a......... and a gas called......... . This gas makes a......... when tested
with a lighted splint. Acids react with ......... to make a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas. Limestone contains
the compound ......... which can be dissolved by acid in rainwater.

Extension questions
6. A well-known recipe for making blackcurrant and apple jam recommends that the fruit is boiled in a copper
pan and not in an iron pan. Can you explain this?

Gena and her friend Charles were interested in the reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric
acid, They added 20 g of large marble chips to 50 cm of dilute hydrochloric acid in a large conical flask, as
shown in this diagram.

Cotton wool plug

Conical flask

Dilute
hydrochloric
acid calcium carbonate
(marble chips)
Balance (can
measure to 2
decimal places)

The decrease in mass during the experiment is noted at one minute intervals.

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid —» calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water

They measured the loss in mass every minute for ten minutes. This was their first experiment. Gena and
Charles then repeated the experiment, but this time they crushed the 20 g of marble into very small pieces
before they added it to the hydrochloric acid. This was their second experiment. The results of their
experiments are shown in the table on the following page.
 Time in min First experiment: Loss of mass in grams | Second experiment: Loss of mass in grams

2 1.90 3.05

= 3 2.50 3.45

4 2.95 3.65

5 3.20 3.70

6 3.40 Bo)

Tf 3.50 3.70

8 3.60 3.70

9 al S170) 3.70

ee 10 3.70 3.70

(a) Plot a graph of these results. Put time on the x (bottom) axis and loss in mass on they (side) axis.

(b) Which experiment goes the fastest at the start of the reaction?

(c) Why do both of the graphs eventually become horizontal?

(d) What do the results tell you about the effect of surface area on the rate of a chemical reaction?

Project
Acid rain is partly caused by chemicals in the exhaust gases from car engines. These gases can be collected and
quickly converted to less harmful gases if a catalytic converter is fitted to the exhaust system of the car. Find out
how a catalytic converter works. Use a diagram to explain your answer to a friend.
 Materials and their properties

Chapter 15:
Elements and compounds
Remember
@ Atoms are the simplest particles found in matter.

@ Molecules may contain more than one atom.

Elements
A substance that is made of only one type of atom is called an element. For example, in the element aluminium there
are only aluminium atoms. Aluminium, like every other element, cannot be broken down into simpler substances in the
laboratory. There are more than 100 different kinds of atom, which means that there are more than 100 different
elements. About 90 of these elements occur naturally on Earth. The other elements are made by nuclear reactions in
special laboratories.

Each atom is made of even

smaller particles. The number of
some of these smaller particles,
called protons, electrons and
neutrons, is constant for each
element. The number of protons
in each atom is the atomic
Atoms are tiny!
number for that element. For
There are more
a example, each carbon atom
than 5 million,
‘ contains 6 protons and so the
million, million,
atomic number of carbon is 6.
million in a glass
of water.

There are about 90 natural elements.

Nuclear reactions are needed to make any
new ones.

DODQVVOIS 20 ree’
DDDDIDIID A 2006

All the atoms within an element behave in the same way, but they are different from the atoms in other elements. For
example, atoms of gold are heavier than atoms of aluminium, so gold is a heavier metal than aluminium.
Symbols and formulae for elements
Scientists have made up a series of symbols for describing elements; this saves a lot of time when they need to write
down the names of the elements many times! The symbol given to an element usually comes from the first one or two
letters of its name. The symbol for oxygen is O, for example, and the symbol for calcium is Ca. Some elements have
symbols that aren’t so obvious. The symbol for iron is Fe, for example. This is because this element was named when
scientists still wrote down much of their work in Latin. The Latin name for iron is ferrum. The diagram below points out
some of the rules for chemical symbols:

The first letter of a symbol is always a capital letter. If there is a second letter
Rules for it is always lower case.
chemical
symbols: The symbol is usually the first one or two letters of the name.

Every element has a different symbol.

Some elements get their symbol from an old name, often from Latin.

Here are some common elements with their symbols:

aluminium hydrogen oxygen

calcium iron sodium

chlorine lead sulphur

gold nitrogen zinc

In most elements the particles are individual atoms, but in a few elements the particles are molecules (that is, made
up of two or more identical particles bonded together). The formula for an element tells us whether it is made of single
atoms or of molecules. Some examples are shown in this table:

a Pam
Name Symbol Diagram Formula Description
of atoms of particles of particles of particles
Lm 4
helium He He atoms

magnesium Mg Mg Mg atoms

+ —

hydrogen H (HYH) He molecules

(each with two atoms)

sulphur S Ss molecules
(each with eight atoms)
The Periodic Table
All the elements are listed in the Periodic Table. In this table:

The elements are listed in the order of their atomic number.

The elements are shown as their symbols, and not their formulae.

The elements are arranged in natural groups (particular types of metals, for example). Each group is a vertical
column of elements.

There is always a gradual change (called a ‘trend’) in the properties of the elements as you look across the
table. Each horizontal row showing this trend in properties is called a period. Part of the Periodic Table is shown
below:

Groups are the columns of elements. Groups all have similar

properties. Group 1, for example, are all metals that react
quickly with many other substances, and Group 0 are all gases
e
that hardly react at all. dor 8

The zig-zag line

separates the
metals (at the left
hand end) from the
non-metals (at the
Periods are the rows of elements.
right hand end) of
Each element has its own Periods show a gradual change
the Periodic Table.
unique atomic number. in properties; for example, see
how the third period begins with
sodium, a very reactive metal and
ends with argon, a very unreactive
gas.

The difference in properties between

metals and non-metals is one of the
most important pieces of information
given by the Periodic Table.
This arrangement of the elements was worked out by a Russian
scientist called Mendeleev.

Dimitri lvanovich Mendeléev was born in 1834 in Siberia, the

youngest of 15 children. His father went blind when Dimitri was
young and his mother struggled to bring up the family while running a
glass factory. She saved to send Dimitri to be educated, though she
died exhausted shortly after he started his studies at St. Petersburg.

As well as his famous work in chemistry, Dimitri was a brilliant

chemistry teacher. Everyone wanted to come to his lectures. At that
time women were not allowed in university classes, so Dimitri gave
extra classes for women in his spare time.

He was very down to earth, he always travelled third class in trains

along with the peasants and he swore like a trooper. He cut his hair
once a year, in spring when the warm weather set in.

Using the Periodic Table

The Periodic Table is very useful for predicting the properties of elements we don’t know very much about. As long as
we know its atomic number, we will have some idea of an element’s properties. The table is also very useful in letting
us predict how different elements listed in different parts of the table will react together.

Key words
Element — a substance made of only one type of atom.

Symbol — a letter or group of letters standing for the name of an element.

Formula — the formula for an element tells you whether it is made of single atoms or a molecule.

Periodic Table — a chart that arranges all the elements in order of their atomic number and in groups according
to their properties.

Exercise 15.1: The Periodic Table

1. Complete these sentences using words from this list:

nuclear molecular elements atoms hundred

are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Some, such as carbon, are made
of particles called ......... , and others, such as oxygen, are made of particles called ......... . There are about a
Pee of these substances; the heaviest ones can only be made during ......... reactions.

2. Which of these substances are elements?

Carbon, water, sugar, magnesium, sulphur, air, lead.

Metals and non-metals
Don't forget
8

@ An element is a substance made of one type of particle.

@ Elements can be arranged into the Periodic Table.

There are two types of element: metals and non-metals. Of the elements that occur naturally, about three-quarters
are metals and one quarter is non-metal. The metals are arranged on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table with the
non-metals on the right. Look back at the Periodic Table on page 193 to remind yourself that the metals and non-metals
are separated by a zig-zag line. The metals close to the line have some of the properties of non-metals and the non-
metals close to the line have some of the properties of metals. The important physical properties of metals are shown
below and the properties of metals and non-metals are compared in the table on the next page.

Metal properties can be explained by particle theory

Most metals have high melting
Some metals are points (mp) and boiling points (bp)
tough; they don’t break this means they can absorb a great
easily because there deal of energy before they melt. This
are very strong bonds is because the metal particles
ffl «: Blade between the particles. (atoms) are joined to each other by
strong bonds.(Sodium and mercury
are exceptions with low mps.)

Some metals are Most metals have high densities ggeeeeeeee

shiny; they reflect light, which means they feel heavier for @ 8S882eeeoe

especially when they their size because they have 3338303839

are polished or cut. many particles packed closely
Tin star together into a small volume.

a (Sodium and potassium are exceptions, they float

on water.)

Metals can be stretched or Some metals are magnetic

which means they can be
= hammered into different
attracted by magnets (see
shapes. The bonds between
page 315). Only iron,
the particles are strong enough nickel or cobalt (or alloys
to stop the metal from breaking, made from these metals)
even when the particles are re-arranged. are magnetic.

\\ i | 1/7 Copper wire Metals can make alloys:

3uzz! Metals conduct electricity. ¢ an alloy is a combination of different
This happens because metals; and
metal particles can pass on e an alloy has a combination of the
the electrical charge from properties of different metals.
one to another. For example, an alloy wheel combines lightness
from one metal with strength from another.

Metals conduct internal/ MERCURY is the only metal that is a liquid at room
Aluminium
pan
thermal energy. The hot temperature. Mercury is used in some thermometers.
particles vibrate strongly. BUT metals can corrode (go rusty, for example) if
They move and pass they react with air and water.
energy from particle to
There is one non-metal, GRAPHITE (a form of carbon),
particle.
which is a good conductor of electricity.
Table 1: The properties of metals and non-metals compared

METALS
| NON-METALS S
Found on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table. Found on the right-hand side of the Periodic Table.
—

Usually solids at room temperature. Usually solids or gases at room temperature.

Good conductors of electricity. Poor conductors of electricity.

|
Good conductors of internal/thermal energy. Poor conductors of internal/thermal energy.
on ae

Shiny (lustrous) when they are polished or cut. | Do not reflect light very well and so are usually dull.
=

Malleable (can be hammered into a different shape). Most are brittle (they break if they are hammered).

Sonorous (sound like a bell when they are hit). Not sonorous.

Ductile (can be stretched).

Usually very dense.

Not ductile.

Have a low density.

:
Have high melting and boiling points. Usually have low melting and boiling points.
=
Strong and tough, so they are very hardwearing. Not strong or tough, so not hardwearing.

There are also some important differences in the chemical properties of metals and non-metals. These will be looked
at when we study some of the chemical reactions of metals and non-metals on page 199.

Non-metals
The simplest way to tell a metal from a non-metal is that most non-metals do not conduct thermal energy or electricity.
The diagram on the right shows a simple circuit that can be used for testing the electrical conductivity of a material.

Many non-metals are very good thermal insulators (they do not

conduct thermal energy very well). Gases are especially poor
conductors of thermal energy because the molecules of a gas are too
far apart to pass thermal energy from one to another. It is very
important to look at more than one property if you are trying to decide
whether a material is a metal or non-metal. For example, most metals
are solids but mercury is a liquid at room temperature and most solid
Test substance
non-metals are very brittle, although the hardest natural substance is
diamond (a form of carbon, which is a non-metal). The table shows that almost all non-metals have certain properties.

The group of photographs on the next page show how non-metals can be very different from one another — some are
solids, some are gases and one is a liquid!
 Phosphorus under water in a jar Bromine liquid and vapour in a jar

Although there aren’t as many non-metals as metals, most of the objects around us are made from non-metals.

Non-metals form much of our world

Many man-made (synthetic) substances contain large amounts Dry air is a mixture of non-metals.
of non-metals. For example, plastics are mostly made up of carbon These are all gases.
and hydrogen. Nitrogen 78%

Other elements,
including carbon }
That's weird! (carbon dioxide)
The elements of the and inert gases,
human body would only 1%
Oxygen 21%
cost £15-20 to buy
(unless you have gold
fillings in your teeth!).

The sea is a mixture of substances.

Because the Sea is mainly water, most of it is
made up of the elements hydrogen and
The body is mainly made up of non- oxygen. There are still quantities of metals
metals. Most of the metal is calcium in dissolved in sea water.
teeth and bones, sodium in the blood
plasma and iron in red blood cells. Oxygen 91%

Phosphorus 1% Oxygen 65% Other elements

including silicon,
Strange but true!
aluminium, gold,
One cubic kilometre of calcium, potassium,
sea water contains 6 iodine, bromine 0.4%
Metals 3% tonnes of gold - worth
Nitrogen 3% about £60 000 000 in Sodium 1.0%
| Hydrogen 10% Carbon 18% 2003. Chlorine 1.9% Hydrogen 5.7%
 Science Boo

Key words
Metal — an element on the left of the Periodic Table that usually conducts internal/thermal energy and electricity.
Non-metal — an element on the right of the Periodic Table that usually does not conduct internal/thermal
energy or electricity.

Exercise 15.2: Metals and non-metals

te Complete the following sentences:

(a) polar form much of our world.

Air is mostly a mixture of nitrogen and .......... . Other elements, such as .......... GING aeaasears , are found
in much smaller proportions.

The most common element in the sea is ......... , followed by .......... :

Most metals are solids. The exception is .......... which is liquid at room temperature. Metals are usually
much tougher than non-metals, although the non-metal .......... is the hardest natural material on the
Earth.

The most common difference between metals and non-metals is that metals are good .......... of
thermal energy and electricity, whereas non-metals tend to be .......... . These properties are explained
ON WREY opcccnos. Theory of Matter.

This table shows the percentage, by weight, of different elements in the Earth’s crust:

Aluminium 8.0

Calcium Sis)

Magnesium

Iron

Oxygen

Potassium

Sodium
t
Silicon Qe5

Other elements 2.0

Plot a pie chart of these percentages.

Which is the most abundant metal on Earth?

Find out where would you find most of the silicon on the Earth?

If you had a sample of these pure elements, how could you separate the iron from the other elements?

Which non-metal is not shown here but is a large part of the human body?
 ” Materials and their properties

Comparing oxides of metals and non-

metals
Remember
Metals and non-metals can be told apart because they have many different physical properties (see table on page
196). They also have some different chemical properties. The oxides formed when metals and non-metals react with
oxygen can be either acidic or basic. The diagram below shows how oxides can be tested to see if they are acidic or
basic.

element
ae oxide Dissolve
oxygen in water

(from the air)

Solution
Rule: of oxide
- Metal oxides are
basic.
- Non-metal oxides
are acidic. Test the solution
Colour with using an indicator.
Universal An indicator is a
indicator compound that
iat changes colour
according to whether
: a substance is an
Sulphur dioxide acid or an alkali —
(een see page 178
Magnesium oxide Ms ; as Ronee ;

(CaO) Le ee ey Acidic Neutral Basic/

alkaline

These chemical reactions show us another difference in the properties of metal and non-metals — that metal oxides
are basic and that non-metal oxides are acidic.
 Tod [=Jploro =fele), a4

Compounds
Compounds are made when elements combine.

@ An element is made of only one type of atom.

@ Each element has its own particular properties.

@ Metallic and non-metallic elements have very different properties.

®@ During chemical reactions new substances are formed.

Elements can combine during chemical reactions. When two or more elements combine they form a compound. The
particles in a compound are called molecules. These molecules are all the same in one particular compound but they
contain atoms of more than one element. When atoms of different elements combine during a chemical reaction, the
link between them is called a chemical bond.

Different elements can combine to produce a new compound .

rey Extra information
Forming these chemical
bonds depends on the
electrons in the atoms:

Here are atoms of carbon and These atoms can combine to form a @ Sometimes electrons are
oxygen. They are two different molecule of carbon dioxide. The atoms shared between atoms,
elements. These are the of carbon and oxygen are linked by making covalent bonds.
reactants in this chemical chemical bonds. Carbon dioxide is the @ Sometimes electrons pass
reaction. product of this chemical reaction.
from one atom to another,
making ionic bonds.

Elements and compounds have different properties

Hydrogen and oxygen are elements. Hydrogen is a colourless gas that is flammable (will burn) and oxygen is a
colourless gas that helps other substances to burn. If these two substances are mixed and then the mixture is heated,
a chemical reaction takes place. This reaction produces a new substance, water, and this new substance has very
different properties from the two elements that made it. Water is a colourless liquid that puts fires out! This new
substance is a compound.

HH H H. Ho

Chemical H
|
"0
Mixi xe’) @ ey " | é
% Le reaction
: _—_—)
,
H
H ’
H Hl oe WY g®
H H - Hwy

Hydrogen (H,) Oxygen (O,) This is a mixture of oxygen (Oz) After a chemical reaction, a new
and hydrogen (He). This mixture compound, water (H2O), has been
would have the same properties formed. This compound has totally
as the two elements. different properties from the two
elements which reacted together.
 ‘Materials and their properties

We can write a shorter version of what has happened in this reaction in the form of a chemical word equation. The
word equation for the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen is:

hydrogen + oxygen — water

Another important example that shows the main features of a chemical reaction is the reaction between the two
elements iron and sulphur:

Iron is magnetic. iron sulphide is

not magnetic.

Mixture of two e lements, iron and sulphur A compound called iron sulphide is formed.

iron + sulphur —> iron sulphide

(thermal energy)

Reacting with oxygen

Many elements combine with oxygen, in a process called oxidation, to form compounds called oxides.

Burning, also called combustion, needs thermal energy to get it started. Once it is started, it will give out both thermal
and light energy. The light can look like a flame or even like a bright flash.

LIGHT+
—- THERMAL
ENERGY

carbon + oxygen > carbon dioxide

(Coal, for
example)

+ @ ap ce:
THERMAL
ENERGY

magnesium 2 oxygen > magnesium oxide Bright

. sparkling
powder (White) ight
 Oxidation by burning provides light. The following are used to
make fireworks:
@ Magnesium gives a bright, white light.

® Calcium gives a red, sparkling light.

Firework display over

Tower Bridge, London

The formulae of compounds

When elements combine to form a compound there is always a fixed number of atoms. This allows us to write a
formula for the compound.

A formula is a way of showing a compound as a set of symbols

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

The fixed number of atoms in a compound is very different
from a mixture. Ina mixture there could be any number of
atoms. For example, CO. is a compound but a mixture of
carbon and oxygen could have 1000 times as much carbon as
oxygen, or only 1/10*" as much!

fe) We can write the formula as...

Rule 1: The number of Rule 2: We never write

atoms is always written the number 1, because
below the line. a single atom needs
no number.

It is very important to remember that a formula like CO means that the compound contains carbon (symbol C) and
oxygen (symbol O). If you mixed up capital and small letters, you might write Co which is the symbol for the element
cobalt. So be very careful not to mix up capital and small letters!
Names for different compounds
If you just learn these simple rules, you will easily be able to work out the name of a compound:

If two elements are combined, then the name of the compound ends in -ide. If one of the elements is a
metal, then the name of the metal comes first.
For example:
Sodium chloride is made from sodium and chlorine.
Magnesium oxide is made from magnesium and oxygen.

If the compound contains more than one atom of one of its elements then you might use mono-, di- or tri-
in its name. This can be very useful in telling some similar compounds apart.
For example:
Carbon monoxide has only one oxygen atom, whereas carbon dioxide has two oxygen atoms.

When three or more different elements combine, and the third one is oxygen, the name will end in —ate.
For example:
Potassium sulphate contains potassium, sulphur and oxygen.
Sodium nitrate contains sodium, nitrogen and oxygen.

Exercise 15.3: Compounds

Complete this table to compare the properties of elements and compounds:

Name of substance Solid, liquid or gas Colour | Is it flammable? Any special property
it

Iron

Sulphur
Iron sulphide

Oxygen
Hydrogen

What is a compound? Which of the following substances are compounds?

Al2O3 NaCl He HCl CO Cle K H2O Na Co

Which elements are found in the following compounds?

(a) sodium nitrate (c) calcium carbide (e) aluminium oxide

(b) magnesium carbonate (d) nitrogen hydroxide (f) hydrogen sulphate

 Which of these are:

(a) elements?

(b) compounds?

(c) mixtures?

(d) made up only of atoms?

(e) made up only of molecules?

Extension question
a: Look at this simplified Periodic Table, and then answer the questions that follow:

(a) Which two elements would you expect to have very similar properties?

(b) Which element is likely to form a basic oxide?

(c) Which element is a very unreactive gas?

(d) Which element is likely to have some properties of a metal and some properties of a non-metal?
Chapter 16: Chemical reactions
Remember
2) Everything that we use is made of materials. These materials are chemicals.

@ Each material has properties that might make it useful to humans.

@ The properties of materials may be altered by chemical changes.

Almost all materials are made through chemical reactions, which means that chemical changes are extremely
important in everyday life. Some materials are obviously man-made, such as concrete, plastics, medicines, fertilisers
and detergents. Some other materials are made by ‘natural’ chemical reactions. For example, oxygen in the air and
starches in plants are made by photosynthesis.

In a chemical change:

) the starting materials are called the reactants;

© the new materials made during the reaction are called the products;

@ there is always an energy change; and

e the reaction is difficult to reverse.

How to recognise a chemical reaction

There are definite signs that we can look for to check whether a chemical reaction has occurred. These changes are
described below:

How to spot a chemical change: The reactants will be changed and difficult to reverse.

The product is a new The product may be a different colour The product may be a
substance. It may be a solid from the reactants. For example, copper gas, so the reaction
which sinks to the bottom of is shiny brown but copper oxide is mixture may fizz.
the test tube or beaker. This black. When bubbles of gas
type of solid is called a are given off, we call it
precipitate. effervescence.

Reactants

EXPLOSIONS
are exothermic Energy is usually given out as Some energy may be
reactions which thermal energy and the given out as light. This
| usually give out a temperature rises. may be a dull glow, ora
great deal of +5 Reactions which give out thermal Z very bright flame.
light and energy are called exothermic
A burning match Burning magnesium
sound! reactions. Some reactions take is an exothermic gives the sparkle to |
in thermal energy — these are reaction. sparklers.
called endothermic reactions.
This type of apparatus can be used to observe some chemical reactions:

Observing a chemical reaction

Thermometer

_— Piece of iron

Copper
sulphate
solution

Balance
to record the fact
that mass is conserved.

Describing chemical reactions

Chemical reactions can be described by word equations. Word equations are like short sentences that describe
chemical reactions. In a word equation:

® We list the reactants first, and then the products.

® We change some of the words from the sentence into symbols, to save space. The ‘+’ sign means ‘and’, and
an arrow ( => ) means ‘changed into’.

reactants — products

Here are some examples of word equations:

exothermic
e The burning of carbon in oxygen: carbon + oxygen — carbon dioxide
exothermic
@ The reaction between iron with sulphur: iron + sulphur — iron sulphide

Many chemical changes are useful to humans. There are also some that are not useful. Whether a reaction is useful
or not, it is important that scientists work out how a chemical reaction might be controlled. Science allows us to
understand how chemical reactions take place; once we understand what is happening in a chemical change, we might
be able to control it, so that it suits our human purpose. It is, however, important that we always consider how these
reactions might affect the world around us.
 ~ Materials and their properties 207

Key words
Chemical change — a reaction which results in new products and an energy change
and which is very difficult to reverse.

Physical change — a change of state which involves no new products and which can be reversed.

Reactant — the starting material in a chemical change.

Product — the material present after a chemical change has taken place.

Equation — a scientific way of writing out what happens during a chemical change.

Exercise 16.1: Chemical changes

1. Write down two things that you might see when a chemical change takes place.

2. Write down two things that you might hear when a chemical change takes place.

3. Read this description of a chemical reaction demonstrated by a teacher:

~

"A small quantity of the metal sodium was placed into a gas jar containing green chlorine gas until a dirty-white
solid was formed. Although the reaction was slow to start, eventually a lot of thermal energy was given out."

(a) Write out a word equation for the reaction which has taken place.

(b) Give three reasons why you believe a chemical reaction has taken place.

4. Gena investigated differences between physical and chemical changes. She put three chemicals in separate
crucibles and weighed each one. She then heated each crucible. She weighed each crucible again when it
had cooled down.

She recorded her observations in a table as shown below:

Change in mass

A Magnesium The silvery magnesium burned brightly Increase

(a silvery solid) in air. A white powder was formed.

Potassium manganate | The purple crystals crackled and turned Decrease

VII (purple crystals) black. A colourless gas was given off.

Zinc oxide The white powder turned pale yellow No change

(a white powder) on heating. It turned white again on cooling.

(a) (i) In experiment A, magnesium reacts with a gas in the air. Complete the word equation for the reaction:

magnesium + ......... Parente

(ii) Explain the increase in mass in experiment A. Use your word equation to help you.

(b) The gas given off in experiment B relit a glowing splint. Give the name of this gas.

(c) Name the white powder left at the end of experiment C.

(d) In each experiment, A, B and C, state whether a chemical change or a physical change has taken place.
Useful chemical reactions
There are many reactions that are useful to humans. The diagram below illustrates some of these.

Chemical reactions can make useful products

Separate reactants can Raw reactants can be made Neutralisation removes acid or alkali,
combine with a chemical into tasty products by which could be harmful reactants.
change to make superglue. cooking!
One example of neutralisation removes
000000 excess stomach acid.

Ire hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide

(acidic)

magnesium chloride + water

[\aelbeiaee eines | (neutral)

Reactants
a
Products
|
ee
Useful metals are products of smelting:
a. Fermentation makes ethanol and
carbon dioxide:
¢ An ore is a rock with a high percentage yeast hy bods i fF
of metal in it. sugar ——» ethanol + carbon dioxide {
no oxygen
e This chemical change releases a metal
element from a compound.
cre
For example:
Furnace Sugar and oxygen are products of e
iron oxide + carbon monoxide —> iron
photosynthesis.
+ carbon dioxide

¢ Another metal extracted from ores in this way is * Plants convert:

iis
light
copper. carbon dioxide + water _» sugar + oxyge

Reactions may release useful energy. For example:

* Combustion (burning) gives out thermal energy and light.
thermal ene’
Combustion requires fuel + oxygen’ carbon dioxide + water + energy
¢ Respiration gives out energy from food. Q4tt>
In living cells sugar + oxygen —» carbon dioxide + water + energy
Some of these useful reactions are explained in more detail in other parts of this book. However, it is worth just
summarising them here before we move on.

Combustion gives out energy. This energy can be used for heating homes, factories and hospitals, for
example. It can also be used for making other chemicals react together, or for generating electricity. Combustion
only goes on if oxygen is present (see page 214).

Neutralisation involves the removal of acid or alkali because these substances may be harmful (see page
180).

Smelting is the extraction of metals from ores. This provides us with purified metals that have many important
properties and uses (see page 247).

Fermentation is the production of alcohol (and carbon dioxide). This chemical reaction only goes on properly
if no oxygen is present and was one of the earliest chemical reactions that humans used.

Photosynthesis is the production of sugar and oxygen using light energy. This process is the start of all the
food chains in nature: no food chains, no humans (see page 99).

Respiration is the process that releases energy from food molecules inside our cells. This energy is used to
keep all of the life processes going. Without this chemical reaction there would be no living things (see page
45).

Cooking of food makes food safer, tastier and easier to eat. Molecules in the food are changed during cooking.
For example, frying an egg alters proteins and fats in the egg so that the cooked egg has products that are more
solid and taste differently from a raw egg.

Glues and adhesives work by forming a bond between different materials. Some glues stick because different
substances in the glue react together. Superglue works because the molecules of glue change the way in which
they are arranged (they become much more sticky) when they contact moisture or alkali. This is why this type
of glue is sometimes called contact adhesive.
 ENZYMES ARE CATALYSTS
Yeast is a living organism. Yeast cells contain molecules called enzymes. These molecules can
speed up a chemical reaction without being changed themselves. Enzymes are damaged by
thermal energy and acids and alkalis. Enzymes in yeast work best at 28 °C and in neutral
conditions, and the yeast is killed above 45 °C.

FERMENTATION is a chemical reaction, so: This energy is needed by the

* We can tell which are reactants and which are products. yeast to carry out its life
e The arrow shows the direction of change. Seber ee ie veas cals
e New substances are produced and there is an energy change. reproduce using tus an engyge
Th . 5 some yeast cells may remain in
€ process cannot be reversed. ihe Cotte,

glucose m=) ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy

|
=
Glucose (sugar) is the reactant. | |Ethanol is important in brewing
This substance comes from a fruit
(e.g. grapes) or a seed (e.g. malt).

Hops (for flavour)

The beer is made
It's a matter of taste! Yeast more sugar fizzy by carbon
Fruits and seeds contain iASena, dioxide from
: 28 °C solution stoppered a second
other chemicals as well as (flat, since bottles fermentation.
glucose. These chemicals Germinating barley all the carbon
give different tastes to (for malt sugar) Sane
escape
different alcoholic
drinks. For example, oo
potatoes canbe (> Carbon dioxide is especially paring: a
used to make Vodka! (hie rene j
important in :
; bread making ¢ kills yeast; an
*evanoraies tericenol

Yeast +
flour, salt fermentation |,
N.B. Ethanol is a poison. eer = Dough smmz—) Rising
It will eventually kill the g eg warm water dough
yeast cells which produce raleing age
it and does the peuilg (Carbon dioxide bubbles cause the dough to swell.)
to human cells if
taken in too
large a quantity.

Fermentation can only produce a

mixture of ethanol and water.
Distillation (see page 168) is needed
to purify the ethanol.
Spirits, such as gin, whisky and brandy,
are made from distillation.
Chemical reactions that are not useful
Many materials can take part in chemical reactions, although some materials are much less reactive than others.
Sometimes these materials are useful as they are and it is a nuisance if they change into something else. Some ‘non-
useful’ chemical reactions are shown below:

Some chemical changes cause damage or danger

Food spoiling: Food molecules are reactants in the chemical changes of decay and decomposition.

food molecules + oxygen ——————® products that taste nasty!

Microbes

Food preservation stops food spoilage

Keep food in
Keep food in __| acid
Keep food
A conditions,
in tins or Dry food to UNS a2
e.g.
or freezer, so that
packets Siaaas keep the hero vinegar to
without oxygen. Kill microbes by microbes pee
can't reproduce. kill microbes.
heat treatment. without water.

t
Reactants
ee a= Products

Corrosion converts useful metal into a damaged Pollution is caused by products of chemical
product. reactions which take place in industry.
¢ The process is called oxidation. It uses oxygen
from air or water. Acid rain:
metal + oxygen ——® metal oxide e Combustion of fuels produces
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
¢ Metal oxide is weaker and softer than the metal,
e Oxides react with the water in
so corroded objects break easily.
clouds to make acid rain.
e The most important example of corrosion is ¢ Acid rain irritates our lungs and
rusting. eyes, damages leaves on trees
and dissolves some building
materials.

Greenhouse effect:
¢ Carbon dioxide is a product of
burning fossil fuels.
e Methane is a product of cows'
digestion of grass.
e These gases trap warm air close
to the Earth's surface. Melting of ice caps — bad
news for penguins!
This list gives a summary of these reactions and tells you where you can find out more about them:

1. Decay and decomposition are processes that break down

other materials. This includes the rotting or spoiling of food and
some diseases. When food rots, it reacts with oxygen in the air
to form new compounds that taste unpleasant; we say that the
food is rancid. This happens most often with foods that contain
fat, so foods such as cheese and crisps are often sealed up in
bags filled with nitrogen. Because there is no oxygen in the bags,
the fats are not oxidised and the food is preserved. Some foods
rot because microbes called decomposers use the food ,
molecules to carry out the chemical reactions needed for the
microbes to stay alive. Rotting and mouldy figs

Corrosion is the oxidation of metals. This includes rusting which damages many structures and buildings (see
page 238).

Acid rain is formed from the products of burning fossil fuels. It can cause damage to buildings, trees and your
lungs (see page 186).

The greenhouse effect is caused by certain gases which trap internal/thermal energy close to the Earth’s
surface. One way in which these gases are produced is by the combustion of fossil fuels (see page 217).

Key words
Chemical change — a reaction which results in new products and an energy change and which is very
difficult to reverse.

Reactant — the starting material in a chemical change.

Product — the material present after a chemical change has taken place.

Exercise 16.2: Important chemical changes

le A baker wanted to try out a new dough mix. He needed to know how long it would take to swell to a certain
size; the dough needs to swell before the bread is baked in the oven.

He made up a sample of the dough and dropped it into a measuring cylinder, as shown in the diagram. He
left the dough standing on a radiator and went back to check it every five minutes, for half an hour.

0 min
30 min
(Start of experiment)
Copy this table and complete it, using the baker’s results:

Time in minutes Volume of dough in cm?

10

15

20

co
25

(a) Draw a line graph to show how the amount of dough changed over the half-hour period.

(ob) Use your graph to work out how long he would need to leave the dough for it to swell to twice its
original size.

(c) The baker decided to try to find out how much the amount of sugar in the dough affected the volume
of the dough.

(i) What would be the input (independent) variable in this experiment?

(ii) What would be the outcome (dependent) variable in this experiment?

(iii) Give two important variables the baker would need to control if this experiment were to be a fair
test. Explain how these variables could be checked.

Give two examples of useful chemical reactions that occur naturally and two examples of natural chemical
reactions that are not useful.

Make a list of ten substances that you could find at home. Pick out which of the substances have been
made by a chemical reaction. Choose one substance from your list and find out which reactants were
needed to make it.
 Yel (=)glex-m ={el0), a4

Combustion
Burning is a chemical change called combustion.

® Combustion is a chemical reaction in which thermal energy and light energy are produced.
® During combustion, oxygen from the air combines with another element to form an oxide.

Some substances burn when they are heated in air. When these substances burn, they are changed completely. The
burning process cannot be reversed. Burning happens when substances react with oxygen in the air and give out
thermal and light energy. Burning makes new substances. The substance that burns is called the fuel, and is often
changed into another solid material (ash). It is easy to see the ash but there are in fact other substances that are
created during the burning process. One of these is a gas, called carbon dioxide, and the other is water.

THERMAL
Products of burning Carbon dioxide. goat.
an

ae”

af Oxygen gas of geass +

Take FUEL such ... plus OXYGEN ... and some THERMAL
> S
as COAL ... in the AIR ... ENERGY to start
off the burning.g Water IMPORTANT!
The thermal
This process creates a energy given out
Some THERMAL ENERGY is used to get things going;
chemical change and by burning is
even a match has to be rubbed against a matchbox
results in NEW MATERIALS always more than
before it will catch light.
being made. the thermal energy
needed to start
it of f.

This diagram below shows the products of the following burning reaction:

hydrocarbon + oxygen —> water + carbon dioxide

(from fuel) (from air)

Solid particles of soot: To pump: This sucks

e This is hydrocarbon which has up the air and pulls the
not burnt. products of burning
* It is damaging to the through the apparatus.
environment (blackened
buildings).

The filter
funnel collects
the products of
burning.

A burning candle: Don't

forget it's the candle wax
Ice/water mixture: Limewater: Turns cloudy
that is burning! The liquid
Cools the water vapour and (milky/chalky) as carbon
wax is sucked up the wick
condenses it to liquid water. dioxide bubbles through it.
and burns at the top.
 "Materials and their properties |

Combustion is a chemical reaction (see page 205) and when combustion occurs new products are formed. It is
important that you know what these products are and how you can test for them. These tests are described in
Chapter 11 (page 135).

Air contains only about 20% oxygen (the rest is mostly nitrogen and materials will not burn in nitrogen). Oxidations
occur much more quickly if pure oxygen is used. The reactions may be so quick that an explosion occurs, so using
pure oxygen for combustion is very dangerous!

Using fuels
Burning fuels is an important chemical change.

The energy that is given out in this process is useful to humans. The thermal energy can warm our homes and cook
our food and the light can help us to see when it is dark. Very large amounts of fuel can be burned in power stations.
The thermal energy given out can be converted into electricity. Electricity is a more useful kind of energy because we
can send it along wires. This means that humans can use even more energy and they can use it in a different place
from where it was released. This means that our lives can be cleaner and more convenient.

However remember that:

@ Fossil fuel supplies won't last forever.

@ The burning of fossil fuels causes air
pollution.
1 |
| ]i

Hi aN

Rina a A— mel
Fossil fuels can be burned in power stations to provide
electricity to heat and light our homes.

Combustion and the environment: Problems with fossil fuels

Natural gas, coal and oil are called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are substances that were formed millions of years ago
from the remains of dead animals and plants. These fuels contain many of the chemicals that were present in the live
animals and plants. These chemicals are made up of different elements, including carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and
nitrogen.

As we learnt earlier on, when fuel is burned (combustion), these elements combine with oxygen from the air to make
oxides. Because these reactions are all chemical changes, we can write out word equations to describe them.
216 Yes [=a lor =fefe)

Burning fossil fuels

—»| carbon + oxygen > carbon dioxide

—>| nitrogen + oxygen > nitrogen dioxide

For example, natural gas contains the

hydrocarbon called methane.
COAL contains
carbon, sulphur,
nitrogen and
methane + oxygen > carbon dioxide
hydrogen.
+ water

ELEPHANTS HAVE WIND!

Did you know that a single
CARBON MONOXIDE KILLS!
elephant ‘farts’
If there is too little oxygen present, carbon
enough methane
may react with oxygen to form
every day to run
carbon monoxide (CO). This gas binds onto
a small gas stove
the haemoglobin in the red blood cells which
for 8 hours!
means that less oxygen can be carried by the
haemoglobin. This can be fatal.

Burning fossil fuels gives out very large amounts of energy, but there are two important problems:

Fossil fuels are non-renewable: in other words they are not being made any more, so that once they are used
up, there won’t be any more available for us to use.

Fossil fuels cause pollution: smoke, ash and waste gases cause damage to our environment, especially to the
air. Some of this damage affects humans as well as other living organisms (see page 218).
The greenhouse effect
The Earth is warmed by radiation from the Sun. The radiation reaches the Earth and is then reflected back out towards
space. Some of the reflected radiation is trapped by the atmosphere. Layers of gases stop this reflected internal/
thermal energy from escaping back into the atmosphere and reflect it back towards the Earth’s surface. This is a
natural effect and keeps the surface of the Earth at an ideal temperature for life (the average over the Earth’s surface
is about 16 °C). This effect is very similar to the way in whicht the glass in a greenhouse lets light energy in but stops
internal/thermal energy from escaping. This is why the layers of gas are called greenhouse gases.

The greenhouse effect

Radiation from the
Greenhouse gases let some Sun includes light
radiation out but reflects (visible radiation) and
thermal energy back towards thermal (infra red
the Earth. radiation).

STRANGE BUT TRUE!

Termites produce more methane than
all the cows in all the world!

Greenhouse gases include: Visible and |

@ Carbon dioxide (the mainone), | eK - ¢ infrared
@ Methane (another important one) oa Sars
which is released by cows when 35 km ae = d
they break wind! Se re

ae
Le rd
gi /
re Lower < UP
15km — atmosphere _J

The temperature at the Earth’s 14 IJ

surface is on average of 16 °C. This
a3
siete Glass in a greenhouse acts
provides an ideal balance between
like a greenhouse gas; it lets
i liquid water and water vapour.
ese i light in, which is good for
photosynthesis, but it reflects
internal/thermal energy back
into the greenhouse.
Earth's
surface

Burning fossil fuels produces more of these greenhouse gases and so more thermal energy is continually reflected
back towards the Earth’s surface. This makes the Earth warmer. Scientists have measured the Earth’s temperature for
hundreds of years and they think that the Earth has become about 2 °C warmer in the last 100 years. This is called
global warming.
 ience Book 2

We think that global warming might have some very serious effects. These effects are shown below:

The effects of global warming

Heavy rain, as Stormy winds

the water cycle become common.
is affected by
faster
evaporation.

Pests can spread

to new areas.
Mosquitoes could
carry Malaria to
Britain.

Ice caps melt.

Flooding of low-
lying areas means
that much fertile land
is lost. Fewer crops
mean famine.

Acid rain
Combustion produces new products called oxides. Some of these oxides are acid gases (See page 199). Two of these
acid gases are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. The acid gases dissolve in water in clouds and form acids. When
it rains, these acids fall and land on the Earth. This acid rain causes many problems, as you can see below:

DON'T FORGET!
Carbon dioxide is a weak acid. Gases dissolve in tiny
drops of rain.
This means rain is always
slightly acidic.

nitrogen + oxygen——> nitrogen dioxide

sulphur + oxygen== sulphur dioxide Acid rain falls.

Snails can't make Fish gills become

their shells. clogged up.

Burning of fossil fuels eR | sen Damage to wildlife

Dealing with air pollution
Although humans can cause damage to the environment, they are also the only ones who are able to work out the
best way of reducing this damage. Because scientists understand what a greenhouse gas does and why rain becomes
acid, they can suggest ways to deal with these problems. For example, the greenhouse effect can be reduced by:

@ reducing the cutting of forests for cattle ranches and rice fields (burning the forests produces more carbon
dioxide and reduces the number of plants that can absorb carbon dioxide);

@ planting more forests (plants absorb carbon dioxide for photosynthesis); and

@ reducing the burning of fossil fuels by trying to find alternative energy sources.

Estimated carbon dioxide emissions

=.je)oOoO

dioxide
carbon
of
Tonnes
Gwh
perhours)
(gigawatt
(scale
1000)
1to

Carbon dioxide emission from various energy sources (Nuclear Issues, January 1995)

All countries are being put under pressure to reduce their carbon emissions. In many countries rising energy demands
are being met by coal or oil power stations, which, as you can see from the chart above is not the way to reduce these
greenhouse gases. Interestingly, nuclear power stations emit hardly any carbon dioxide, so countries with a substantial
nuclear power programme have managed to reduce these emissions significantly. For example, France (80% nuclear)
has, since 1970, halved its emissions of carbon; Japan (32% nuclear) has achieved a reduction of 20%.

Acid rain can be reduced by:

® not burning coal which has a high sulphur level;

@ building more efficient power stations that can clean the gases they let out
into the atmosphere; and

6 designing cars with catalytic converters (these get rid of acid gases from
the exhaust fumes).

Farmers sometimes add crushed chalk to their fields or lakes to neutralise the
acid rain, but this is very expensive and takes a lot of time.
 Key words
Combustion — is a chemical change that releases energy by combining a fuel with oxygen.

Acid rain — happens when oxides made in combustion combine with water vapour in the air.

Fuel — is a substance that can be burned to release energy.

Greenhouse effect — is the trapping of internal/thermal energy close to the Earth by a layer of gases.

Global warming -— is the raising of the Earth’s temperature and is a result of pollution and the greenhouse
effect.

Exercise 16.3: Burning

de Which one of these is not a fossil fuel?

natural gas, wood, oil, coal.

Give a reason why covering burning wood with a blanket will put out a fire.

A scientist wanted to find out how much thermal energy is given out when fuels burn. He took different
fuels, burned them and measured the thermal energy released. Here are the results:

Type of fuel Units of thermal energy Amount of fuel burned Units of thermal energy
released in grams from 100 grams of fuel

40 60

Gas 54

Paraffin 36 r
L ere Eo
Petrol

Diesel oil

(a) Copy out the table and complete the final column. Why is it important to complete this final column?

(b) The scientist always used the same amount of air for his experiment. Why is this important?

(c) Draw a bar chart of the results from the final column. Which is the most useful heating fuel?
Exercise 16.4: Air pollution
ke Acid rain is harmful to the environment. How could you test whether a sample of rain was acid rain?

(as Why do we say that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas?

Extension questions
3. Two students were interested in the effects of sulphur dioxide on living organisms. They decided to
investigate the effect of sulphur dioxide on the germination of oat seeds. Twenty-five sets of apparatus were
set up, five sets of apparatus for each of five different concentrations of sodium disulphite solution. Sodium
disulphite breaks down to release sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. The table below shows the results
obtained one week after setting up the experiment:

=
as |
Concentration of sodium Number of seeds germinated Percentage germination
disulphite (%) out of twenty (five experiments)

1 Ore ter Oe TO

iy GS) I) al@)

WO ARS Aa

0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

(a) Complete the table to show the percentage germination of the oat seeds at each sodium disulphite
concentration.

Plot the results in the form of a bar chart.

Why was the experiment repeated five times at each concentration?

Water (i.e. 0% sodium disulphite solution) is used as a control. What is the purpose of this control?

What is the lowest concentration of sodium disulphite which had a harmful effect on seed
germination?

How could the students modify the experiment to find a more accurate value for the concentration of
sodium disulphite which had a harmful effect on seed germination?

For this experiment, what are the input (independent) and the outcome (dependent) variables?
Suggest two factors which might affect seed germination and which are controlled variables in this
experiment.

The sodium disulphite in the experiment released sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere in the
apparatus.

(i) Which human activity releases large amounts of sulphur dioxide into the natural environment?

(ii) Suggest two other effects, apart from reducing seed germination, of sulphur dioxide on living
organisms.
4. The following table contains information about the sources and effects of greenhouse gases:

Gas Sources of gas Percentage overall contribution

to the greenhouse effect
H
uereees
Carbon dioxide Burning forests, burning fossil fuels, 54
production of cement

Chlorofluorocarbons Aerosol propellants, refrigerants, 21

(CFC’s) coolants in air conditioners

Methane Waste gases from domestic animals, 14

rotting vegetation, rice growing

Nitrogen oxides Exhaust gases from internal it

combustion engines,
breakdown of fertilisers
j——

Low level ozone Combination of nitrogen oxides 2

with oxygen

Present these results in the form of a bar chart.

The only other greenhouse gas is water. Use the above data to calculate the greenhouse effect of
water.

Which of the gases shown in the table is produced by natural processes?

What, exactly, is a greenhouse gas?

Suggest three possibly harmful effects of greenhouse gases.

Use the data in the table to suggest why the following are valuable conservation measures:

(i) |reducing forest clearances for cattle ranches;

(ii) improved insulation for houses;

(iii) the use of alternative energy sources, such as nuclear, windmills and wave machines.

In 1900 the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 0.03%. In 1990 this had risen to
0.035%, and is expected to rise further to 0.055% by 2030.

(i) |By how much did the carbon dioxide concentration increase between 1900 and 1990?

(ii) What is the expected increase in carbon dioxide concentration between 1990 and 2030?

(iii) Suggest why the figure you calculated in (ii) is so much higher than your answer to (i).
 Materials and their prop

Conservation of mass during chemical

changes
All chemicals are made up of particles (see page 150). During a chemical reaction these particles are rearranged into
a new pattern but they are never broken down.

Particles in a chemical change

100 particles of carbon

50 particles of carbon

7 ;
Qn Ste ese SORES

— ie
Carbon dioxide

THERMAL
ENERGY
Before this experiment began, the carbon particles were packed tightly into a solid. When the carbon burns, it reacts
with oxygen particles in the air. Anew substance called carbon dioxide is made. Each particle of carbon reacts with
two particles of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide gas spreads out into the air, but if it were
collected and weighed it would contain the missing 50 grams of carbon.

During any chemical reaction there is conservation of mass. This means the total mass of the reactants used is the
same as the total mass of the products formed. The diagram below shows a demonstration of the conservation of mass
during a chemical change:

Before After

potassium lead
iodide nitrate
solution solution

potassium + lead lead potassium

iodine nitrate Re RTE iodide —- nitrate
solution solution solution solution
_dok at the diagram below. It shows an experiment where magnesium ribbon is burned in air.

Step 1: Before heating, weigh the magnesium ribbon, crucible and lid.

Step 2: Heat the ribbon strongly.

Lid

Crucible

Magnesium ribbon

LN Never watch magnesium

burning. The bright light can
damage your eyes, unless you look
through a protective blue filter.

Step 3: After heating, weigh the magnesium oxide and crucible lid.

The following results were obtained:

Mass of crucible 50 g

Mass of crucible + magnesium ribbon 62g

Mass of crucible + contents after heating 70g

Explain these results.

Chemical reactions can be reversed
The different substances in a mixture can usually be separated quite easily (see page 156). The methods used for
these separations involve physical changes because the substances in the mixture have not been changed into
different substances. It is more difficult to break up a compound into its elements but it is sometimes possible.

In Book 1 you will have learnt that chemical reactions are normally non-reversible. The honest truth is that some
chemical reactions are in fact reversible but under special circumstances. Another chemical reaction is needed. The
type of chemical reaction that can break up a compound is called a decomposition, and usually requires a great deal
of energy.

The energy to break up some compounds can be supplied by thermal energy, in a type of reaction called a thermal
decomposition. Other compounds can be broken up using electricity, in a type of chemical reaction called electrical
decomposition or electrolysis. To break up a compound by electrolysis, the compound needs to be molten or
dissolved.

Some compounds are not very strongly bonded together and can be broken down into simpler materials by heating.
The thermal decomposition of hydrated copper sulphate is reversible and forms a test for water (see below).

Examples of decomposition reactions are shown below:

Thermal decomposition uses thermal energy to break up a compound into elements

anhydrous copper sulphate + water

(white)

Cold glass plate

or mirror

LIQUID DROPLETS:
How would you test
whether these droplets
are water?

Copper sulphate Copper sulphate

(hydrated) (anhydrous)
>

A Do you think that there Anhydrous Evaporating dish

will be any change means for collecting
L
EMERY in mass? without water. the water
Explain your answer.
 Lime water
Copper |
carbonate

Bubbles of
carbon
dioxide

A Black copper
oxide
THERMAL
ENERGY

potassium permanganate en ; iatelavelelarax (ellebdiela

(VII) (purple) potassium manganate(IIT) + oxygen + (black)

OXYGEN GAS: How could you

collect and test for this gas?

potassium manganate (Ill)

potassium permanganate (VII) manganese dioxide

Finally, the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in limestone.

calcium carbonate —_» calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

(white)

The calcium carbonate must be heated very strongly for this to happen. The heating can take place on a large scale,
where crushed limestone is heated inside a special type of oven called a kiln. These lime kilns can still be seen in many
parts of the country where limestone is common. Calcium oxide is called lime and is an important product for agriculture.
Chemists dissolve lime in water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and then use this slaked lime to neutralise
acidic soils.
 ' Materials and their properties

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to break up a compound into elements

copper chloride —+ chlorine + copper

Solution of
copper chloride

Power pack
supplies electrical Copper metal
energy. sticks to negative
electrode.

Chlorine gas bubbles

away from the
positive electrode.

Decomposition is unusual - you get more

than one product from a single reactant.

Key words
Compound — a chemical substance made of different elements linked to one another.

Mixture — a group of different substances that are not linked to one another.

Combustion — a chemical reaction that involves a substance burning in oxygen and giving out thermal energy.

Corrosion — a chemical reaction between a metal and the air without any burning.

Decomposition — a chemical reaction in which one substance is broken down into several products.

Formula — a shorthand version of the name for a compound, written using chemical symbols.
228 | Science Book 2

Chapter 17
The reactions of metals
We already know that
® During chemical reactions new substances are formed.

© A new substance formed by combining two or more different elements is called a compound.

() During combustion, oxygen from the air can combine with another element to form an oxide.

If an element easily takes part in a chemical reaction, we say that it is reactive. Some metals are very unreactive;
gold and silver, for example, do not easily take part in many chemical reactions. Most metals are reactive, and some
are very reactive indeed. We can arrange all the metals into a sort of league table of reactivity, depending on how easily
they react with other substances. This table of reactivity is usually called the Reactivity Series. It can be worked out
by comparing the reaction of different metals with oxygen, water and acids.

Metals and oxygen

You should already have an idea of how metals react with oxygen (See page 199), and we also know that some metals
react much more quickly than others do. Reactions with oxygen are called oxidations. Products of oxidation reactions
are called oxides. The equation for one of these oxidation reactions is shown below:

metal + oxygen — metal oxide

The different metals can be compared in their reaction with oxygen using the apparatus shown below:

Metals and oxygen

Like many chemical

reactions, this won't
begin until some
thermal energy is Combustion
supplied. Overall, spoon
combustion is
exothermic (gives out Magnesium
more thermal energy ‘ Wes
that it takes in). — Thermal energy
from bunsen Oxygen in gas jar

SAFETY! Sodium burns so

Oxygen = violently that it is
gas inta jay —=5 dangerous! You would not
be allowed to burn sodium
in the school laboratory!
 Materials and their properties 229

This table lists the results obtained in a series of experiments:

|Metal | Reaction with oxygen Product

Sodiivn Burns very quickly even after gentle heating. Sodium peroxide (a pale yellow powder)

|Calcium | Burns easily with gentle heating. Calcium oxide (white powder)

ere Burns easily with a brilliant white flame. Magnesium oxide (grey-white powder)

ioe ; Burns slowly and only if there is strong heating lron oxide ( black powder)
and the iron is powdered or in strands.
—
1
Copper Does not burn, but a black layer is formed on Copper oxide (black powder)
the surface of the metal.

Gold _ No reaction, even with strong heating.

lf the metal is reactive, an oxide is formed; this oxide is a base (remember that this is a comparison with non-metal
oxides — see page 199). If a base dissolves in water, it makes an alkaline solution.

Metals and water

lf a reactive metal, for example sodium or calcium, is placed in water, it reacts vigorously to form the hydroxide. For
example:

water + sodium —> sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

This reaction is strongly exothermic and the thermal energy ignites the hydrogen. The reaction of potassium with water is
even more exciting (see page 235).

Less reactive metals react with steam to form the oxide and hydrogen:

water + metal —> metal oxide + hydrogen

This occurs with magnesium, iron, aluminium and zinc.

water + magnesium —- magnesium oxide + hydrogen

— Gv) * Hydrogen
The metal is so
reactive it 'steals' is given off
oxygen from the as a gas.
water.
 ALUMINIUM SEEMS TO BE ODD!
It is very hard to make aluminium react with water, because it's already reacted with oxygen!
Aluminium metal very quickly gets covered with a thin layer of aluminium oxide. This layer stops water
molecules reaching the metal, so they can't react with it! This means we can use aluminium for very
lightweight pans and kettles without worrying about any reaction with water.

Some metals do not react with water. Imagine what would happen if a copper pan reacted with water, or if gold reacted
with water and you forgot to remove a gold ring when you washed your hands! Some metals react quite slowly with
water (magnesium is an example), but some react so violently that they must be kept under a layer of oil or they would
react with the water vapour in the air!

This table lists the results of experiments in which metals and water are allowed to react together:

Metal Reaction with water Products k

Sodium Reacts very violently and catches fire. hydrogen gas + sodium hydroxide solution

Calcium Reacts quite quickly. hydrogen gas + calcium hydroxide in solution

al

Magnesium Reacts slowly with water but quite vigorously hydrogen gas + solid magnesium oxide
with steam.
=
Iron No reaction in cold water, but iron will react hydrogen gas + solid iron oxide
with steam.
=I

Copper No reaction.

Gold No reaction.

Metals and acids

Acids are compounds and include hydrogen in their structure. When a metal reacts with an acid, the metal replaces
the hydrogen and the hydrogen is given off as a gas. As well as hydrogen, another product, called a salt, is produced.

Most metals react with acids. For example, if magnesium is put into hydrochloric acid, this reaction takes place:

hydrochloric + magnesium === magnesium + hydrogen

acid chloride

; Gas
Acid Metal samp Sa It given off

Dilute
hydrochloric
acid
When these react: The products are:
Acid + Metal —_ A salt + hydrogen Magnesium
 Materials and their properties

This diagram shows what is happening in the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid.

The magnesium (Mg) has displaced

< d, the hydrogen (H) (‘displaced’ means
+ Tig =a (mig) ce
4>
‘has taken the place of’).

The magnesium
is ready to make
chemical bonds
because it is very
reactive.

The presence of hydrogen can be tested using a lighted splint.

|Hydrochloric POR
| acid
Magnesium P aa splint

An acid reacts with a metal, = This test shows

and gas is collected in an that the gas is
upturned test tube. hydrogen.

If we are going to compare the reactivity of metals with acids, we should always use the same acid in the tests. This
table gives results for the reaction of some different metals with dilute hydrochloric acid.
oaths
Metal Reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid Products

Magnesium Reacts very quickly. | Hydrogen gas + magnesium chloride in solution

+

Reacts slowly. Hydrogen gas + zinc chloride in solution

Reacts slowly, unless the mixture is warmed.| [ Hydrogen gas + iron chloride in solution |
No reaction.
|

No reaction.

This next table gives results for the reaction of some different metals with sulphuric acid.

Reaction with dilute sulphuric acid _ Products

—_ j

| . 5 ;
Magnesium Reacts very quickly. | Hydrogen gas + magnesium sulphate in solution

Zinc Reacts slowly. _ Hydrogen gas + zinc sulphate in solution |

Reacts slowly, unless the mixture is warmed.|Hydrogen gas + iron sulphate in solution
ij
No reaction.

No reaction.
=
 Science Book 2

The Reactivity Series

lf you look back at these three tables of results, you should be able to see that we can arrange the metals in a list
according to how reactive they are. This list is called the Reactivity Series and a short version is shown below:

Most reactive The REACTIVITY SERIES gives a league

Potassium (K) table of metals, according to how easily
Sodium (Na) they react with other substances.
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Zinc (Zn)
Carbon (C) Hydrogen and carbon are not metals.
Iron (Fe) Hydrogen is often placed in a reactivity
Lead (Pb) series because it helps to explain the
Hydrogen (H) ¢———| heactions between metals and water,
Copper (Cu) and between metals and acids.
Silver (Ag)
Least reactive Gold (Au)

Hydrogen and carbon are not metals, but they are often placed in the Reactivity Series. These elements play a useful
part in some reactions with metals, so it is useful to know where they fit (see page 236).

Metals from the Earth

Metals are found underground, in rocks. The rocks that contain metals are called ores. They are dug out of the ground
by miners, so that the rocks can be crushed and the metals extracted. The unreactive metals, such as gold and silver,
do not easily form compounds, so that they can be found as tiny pieces of pure metal. The more reactive metals form
compounds, and are not found as pure metals. They need to be separated from other elements before they can be
used. This separation process is described on page 247.

Competition between metals: Displacement reactions

Metals that are high in the Reactivity Series are more likely to react than metals that are low in the series. If two metals
are present in the same solution, the more reactive metal will bind onto any other chemical in the solution. For
example, a chemical reaction occurs when a piece of zinc is placed in a solution of blue copper sulphate. The zinc
turns darker and the blue copper sulphate turns paler. If this sounds complicated, have a look at the diagram below;
it should help you to understand the process.
Zinc —&”
zinc + copper sulphate rf

zinc sulphate + copper

The zinc and copper compete The zinc turns

darker because
for the sulphate. Zinc is more a a layer of copper
reactive, which means it can The copper sulphate solution begins to form on
form stronger bonds, so it turns paler because zinc top of the zinc.
displaces the copper from the sulphate solution is colourless.
fnhice There is also less copper sulphate
copper sulphate. present to give the blue colour.
 Materials and their properties

The kind of reaction, in which one metal replaces another, is called a displacement reaction. The metals displace
one another in a regular order, and we can predict this order from the Reactivity Series. The predictions can be
checked by carrying out a series of experiments; in these experiments different metals are added to different solutions
of metal salts.

The results of one set of experiments are shown in the table below:

Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with
magnesium iron nitrate lead chloride copper sulphate silver nitrate
chloride solution solution solution solution solution

Magnesium VY Vv Vv

Lead x
Copper x
Silver x

In this table, a¥ sign means that a displacement reaction took place and a X sign means that no displacement reaction
took place.

These results show a pattern that confirms the order of metals in the Reactivity Series. A displacement reaction only
takes place when the metal being added is higher in the Reactivity Series than the metal that is already present (in
the salt solution).

For example, iron can displace lead from a lead chloride solution because iron is higher in the series (i.e. more
reactive) than lead.

iron + lead chloride — iron chloride + lead

However, iron cannot displace magnesium from magnesium chloride solution because iron is lower in the series than
magnesium.

We can use displacement reactions to make new salts from salts we already have. If we need some magnesium
sulphate and we have some copper sulphate and some magnesium, we can make magnesium sulphate by mixing the
two chemicals in water. The magnesium will displace the copper and magnesium sulphate will be formed.

magnesium + copper sulphate —>+ magnesium sulphate + copper

Displacement from solids: Metals and metal oxides

Not all displacement reactions involve solid metals and metal salt solutions. Displacement reactions can also take
place between solid metals and solid metal oxides. However, these reactions can be quite dangerous and are not so
easy to carry out in a school laboratory.
One example which can be demonstrated in a school laboratory involves the reaction of powdered iron and copper
oxide:

Metals can be displaced from metal oxides THINK ABOUT IT!

Give two ways in which
you know that a chemical
reaction has taken place.

’ —p
iron and copper oxide glowing mixture copper and iron oxide

A
ENERGY
The iron has gained oxygen. We can say that: We can also say that:
@ the iron has been oxidised; and @ ironis a reducing agent; and
@ that it is an oxidation reaction. @ copper oxide is an oxidising agent for iron.

The copper has lost the oxygen to the iron. We can

say that:
@ the copper has been reduced; and
®@ that it is called a reduction reaction.

In this reaction the iron and copper are competing for the oxygen but because iron is more reactive (higher up the
Reactivity Series) than copper, it steals the oxygen away from the copper oxide.

Another well-known example of this kind of reaction occurs when powdered aluminium and iron oxide are heated
together.

aluminium + iron oxide — iron + aluminium oxide

Once this reaction is started, it carries on very quickly and gives out enough internal/thermal energy to keep the iron
molten. The reaction is called the Thermit Reaction. This Thermit Reaction is very useful in industry when a small
amount of molten iron at a high temperature is needed. This reaction, for example, is used to join two lengths of railway
line together. So much internal/thermal energy is given out that it melts the ends of the rails and they form a very strong
joint as they cool together.

Using the Reactivity Series to predict chemical reactions

From the reactions you have learnt about in the last few sections, we can make a useful Summary which will allow you
to use the Reactivity Series to predict the outcome of chemical reactions.

® The Reactivity Series allows us to predict what will happen.

For example, it tells us that sodium is a very reactive metal. If sodium is added to water, we know that there will
be a violent reaction and hydrogen gas will be given off.

® The Reactivity Series can also let us predict how fast a reaction will occur.
 For example, calcium fizzes gently when it is placed in water
because bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off. Some internal/
thermal energy is given off and the water becomes warm.
Potassium is higher in the Reactivity Series, so we would predict
that it would react more violently with water than calcium does. In
fact potassium reacts so violently that it whizzes around in the
water, the hydrogen bursts into flames and the water can get very
hot! Potassium and hydrogen are a long way apart in the
Reactivity Series, which is why the reaction to ‘steal’ the oxygen oa
from the hydrogen in the water is so violent. Potassium reacting with water

If two metals are close together in the Series, then the reaction between them will be slow and gentle. For
example, when powdered lead and copper oxide are heated together, copper is displaced from the copper
oxide and lead oxide is produced, but because the two metals have almost the same reactivity, the reaction
goes on very slowly.

The Reactivity Series can also predict how stable a compound is likely to be.

Metals that are high in the Reactivity Series form compounds so quickly because they can bond very tightly
to other elements. Once one of these compounds has been formed, it is very difficult to break them down again
— scientists say they are hard to decompose. For example, copper carbonate is easily decomposed by heating
but potassium carbonate will not decompose, even if it is heated strongly for a long time.

copper carbonate -—> copper oxide + carbon dioxide

thermal
energy
potassium carbonate — no reaction
thermal
energy

Rules for predicting chemical changes

Reactions of metals are faster and stronger the nearer the metal is to the top of
the Reactivity Series.

Metals higher up the Series can displace metals lower down the Series from their
compounds.

Compounds of metals higher up the Series are more stable than the compounds
of metals lower down the Series.
Here is a summary that you can use to predict what will happen in chemical reactions:

Predicting chemical reactions

with the reactivity series Potassium

Potassium compounds are more

Sodium
stable than compounds of iron or
lead. Calcium

Magnesium
This large gap helps us
Aluminium predict that the reaction
between magnesium and
Calcium is above iron, lead Zinc copper oxide will be
and copper. We can predict violent.
that calcium would displace Iron
iron, lead or copper from
Lead
solutions of their salts.
together. This indicates that
Copper zinc and iron oxide
probably react together
Silver very slowly.

Gold

Using the Reactivity Series: Understanding the uses of metals

Metals are used in many industries and activities. Scientists who understand the Reactivity Series can suggest which
metal is most likely to be useful for a particular job. There are usually several things to think about when making a
choice of a metal to use:

@ Is it cheap enough?

® Is it unreactive, so that it will not combine with other substances and change its properties?

® Can it easily be made into useful shapes?

Here are some ways the Reactivity Series can predict how metals may most usefully be used:
4

Metal Use How reactivity suits its purpose |

Silver |Electrical contacts Very unreactive, so it does not corrode inside electrical equipment.

Gold Jewellery Very unreactive, so it does not corrode when in contact with skin.
Spectacle frames
--

Lead Roofing Does not react with water, so is ideal as a waterproof roof.
It is also soft enough to be easily shaped.

Copper Piping Does not react with fluids moving through pipes.
Electrical wiring Does not corrode. |

Iron Many uses in Quite reactive, but it can be protected from corrosion.
engineering
 Key words
Reactive — will easily take part in a chemical reaction.

Displacement — a reaction in which one element replaces another one in a compound.

Reactivity Series — a table listing metals in order of how easily they take part in chemical reactions.

Oxidation — a chemical reaction in which oxygen is added to an element.

Base — a substance which will neutralise an acid.

Oxide — a compound formed when an element combines with oxygen.

Acid — a chemical that can give off hydrogen when it reacts with a metal.

Salt — one product of the reaction between an acid and a base.

Decomposition — a chemical reaction in which a substance breaks down to form more than one product.

Exercise 17.1: -The Reactivity Series

1. Apiece of zinc is placed in silver nitrate solution. As the zinc dissolves, the solution turns grey and a silver
coating appears on the zinc.

(a) Which is more reactive, zinc or silver?

(b) Copy and complete the following word equation:

zinc + silver nitrate —.........

2. Look at the following situations. For each one, say whether a reaction will take place. Give a reason for
each of your answers.

(a) Copper heated with iron oxide.

(b) Magnesium placed in dilute hydrochloric acid.

(c) Copper placed in dilute sulphuric acid.

(d) Magnesium placed in copper sulphate solution.

(e) Silver warmed with water.

Extension question
3. You have some pieces of an unknown metal, called M.

(a) You also have solutions of copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, iron sulphate and magnesium sulphate.
Metal M is thought to be either copper, magnesium, iron or zinc. How could you test to see what metal
M is?

(b) Metal M reacts with hydrochloric acid, and gives out a gas. Describe a useful test you could carry out
on the gas, and suggest what the result wouid be.

(c) Metal M can be converted to a carbonate. The carbonate decomposes if it is heated, and a gas is
given off. What is this gas? How could you test for its identity?
Corrosion of metals
Remember
) Metals can react with oxygen to form oxides.

@ Metals high in the Reactivity Series react more quickly with oxygen than metals lower in the Reactivity Series.

Most metals turn dull when they are exposed to the air. The dullness is usually a coating of metal oxide, formed when
the metal reacts with oxygen in the air. With aluminium, for example:

aluminium + oxygen — aluminium oxide

This layer can be useful, because it stops the oxygen getting at the metal under the coating. The layer is so useful that
sometimes it is deliberately made thicker if it is especially important that the metal does not corrode (see page 241).
Copper reacts with carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere and forms a thin coat of a green compound called
verdigris. This can often be seen where copper has been used in making a roof on a building.

Corrosion is generally a slow process, although very reactive metals, such as sodium and potassium, are kept in a
bottle of oil, so that they can’t react with oxygen in the air. The metals at the bottom of the Reactivity Series hardly
corrode at all, which is one reason why silver and gold are so important in the production of jewellery.

Rusting is the corrosion of iron

Of all the metals that can be obtained from the Earth, iron is used more than any other. This is because:

® lron is easy to obtain because there is a lot of iron ore in the Earth’s crust.
® It is quite easy to separate iron from iron ore. Iron ores are refined in a blast furnace. The product of the blast
furnace is called pig iron and contains about 4% carbon. Cast iron is made when pig iron is re-melted in
furnaces (see page 248). This cast iron contains between 2% and 6% carbon.

® Iron can be mixed with other substances to make its properties suitable for a wide range of jobs.

Most iron is used in this way to make steel (steel contains less carbon than pig iron and doesn’t shatter or crack
so easily — see page 249).

Rusting is the name given to the corrosion of iron and steel. This process is a problem because so many man-made
structures get their strength from iron or steel. It is therefore important that we understand the processes involved, so
that we can do something to stop this process happening!
 Materials and their properties

An investigation into the rusting of iron

Iron nails are a very convenient source of iron for this experiment. It is easy to get a set of nails that are all the same
size and shape, so that the experiment will give reliable results. The diagram below shows an experiment to investigate
the conditions that cause rusting:

An investigation into the rusting of iron

Air and water Air and warm Air, water and Air, water and
pene eal (control) water salt acid
1 2. Freshly 3. Gs 6.
boiled
water
cooled to
room
Air temperature

Nall Ps Nail Nail Nail Nail

Calcium Nail Water Warm Salt Dilute

chloride water (sodium acid

(50 °C) chloride solution
solution)
SPECIAL SPECIAL SPECIAL SPECIAL SPECIAL CONDITIONS
CONDITIONS CONDITIONS CONDITIONS CONDITIONS Make Sure rae he tenn neta Tinreriotine
The calcium Boiling removes _ | This tube is the Thig ony diferne eeanee o¢
chloride removes | the air from the one that all other y 3
from tube 3 by
water from the water. Alayer of | results can be inettempareune
air. The rubber oil means no compared to. No
bung means that | more air can rubber bung of-the water.
no more water enter the water. means that air can
vapour can enter. enter the tube.

RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS RESULTS

NO RUST NO RUST RUSTY VERY RUSTY VERY RUSTY VERY RUSTY

There are three main conclusions that can be drawn from this experiment:

6 Both air and water are needed for iron to rust.

@ Rusting occurs more quickly in the presence of acid or salt.

@ Rusting occurs more quickly at higher temperatures.

Rustingis the combination of oxygen with iron
The experiment described below shows that iron combines with oxygen in the air when rusting takes place.

Rusting and oxygen

AFTER 2 - 3 DAYS

The steel CE The steel wool

wool Is shiny ES) now looks
grey in colour. rusty.

The water level This is the control. It is only

rises by one- different from the experimental
fifth. tube in one way — there is no wire
wool present.

> Air contains about 20% (i.e.

7/5) oxygen. Our conclusion
is that iron reacts with |
oxygen from the air to rust.

Look back at the investigation on page 239. Think about two ways in which you could speed up this
experiment so that you didn't have to to wait for 2-3 days.

So, rusting is the combination of iron with oxygen. The material that we call rust, that is the brown flaky material that
forms on iron and steel, is actually a special kind of oxide called hydrated iron oxide. The word equation for the
formation of rust is:

iron + oxygen + water — hydrated iron oxide (rust)

Once we have understood the conditions needed for rusting to occur, we can explain some observations that we can
make about rusting in different conditions.

Rusting is a problem because the hydrated iron oxide is very brittle (breaks easily) and weak. Since so many man-
made objects get their strength from iron or steel, this weakening could be extremely dangerous. For example, many
cars must be scrapped because the bodywork has rusted, even though the mechanical parts, such as the engine and
gearbox, are still working quite well.
Understanding rusting

There is almost no
water in the desert air.

Crashed aircraft in the

desert do not rust! Acid in rain water
speeds up rusting.

The salt in sea water

speeds up rusting.

A 1960s sports car in California. Cars

rust faster where there is acid rain - it
doesn't rain much in California.

| nken ships in deep oceans hardly rust at al

Deep in the ocean it

is cold and there is
almost no dissolved
oxygen.

Prevention of rusting
Because iron and steel are so important in, for example, building and engineering, they must be protected from
corrosion. There are two ways in which iron and steel can be protected:

® by forming a physical barrier to keep out air and water; or

@ by attaching the iron to a more reactive metal that can oxidise more easily than the iron does. This is known as
sacrificial protection.

The diagram on the next page describes these two methods.

 AYod
=) [or=4 ={efe) ay

Prevention of corrosion

Barrier methods keep air and water out | Sacrificial protection

Remember all that
stuff about the
OIL or GREASE
Reactivity Series!
keep water
away from
moving parts of
machinery, e.g.
a bike chain.

ZINC on a ship’s steel hull.

‘TIN’ CANS are about 99%
Zinc is more reactive than
steel (cheap) with a very thin iron so oxidises quickly.
covering of tin (very
expensive). This protects the
stee!, especially from acid
foods such as tinned fruits. MAGNESIUM is bolted to
underground oil and gas pipes.

PAINTING a cover onto steel in a bridge. Paint is

cheap and a large area can be covered quickly. ZINC COATING (GALVANISING)
1S
on steel in buckets and screws
——— combines a physical barrier with a
pees \ ia

S| sacrificial metal, but:

@ itis expensive; and

@ the zinc adds extra weight.

A PLASTIC COATING can be ELECTROPLATING uses electricity to put a thin layer

put on a chain-link fence.
of an attractive (but expensive) metal onto iron or
steel. Chrome parts on a car or motorbike are steel
KY
WYOY OOOO IAN,OY KAY(X
Hea KRY)
Iaracaretshcacaretcaricaretatcarareteardcie with a very thin layer of chromium on top.
RX
AN RNKNKXKKKRXRNKRX
RXRXR RRNA
RXR OXRR)
AYA
RRR RX RMR RXR RX RX RN
RAR RRNA
’ RXNKNKNRY
OVO,
PRX) <a
\)
PX
PLASTIC COATING on
chain-link fencing.

Once rust starts to appear on metal, it must be rubbed away (usually with sandpaper) and then the base
metal can be carefully repainted.
 Materials and their properties | 243

Each method has certain advantages and disadvantages.

Physical barriers are often cheap and can be used to cover large areas of iron or steel. The main disadvantage is
that once the coating is scratched or damaged, then air and water can get to the iron and rusting will begin. Physical
barriers cannot be used if the iron is being rubbed or worn, such as when it is made up into railway lines.

Sacrificial protection can be used to cover areas of iron or steel that are often bumped or rubbed during normal use.
The method is usually more expensive than coating, and the more reactive metal will eventually be used up.

Galvanising involves both types of protection

lron and steel can be protected by coating them in a thin layer of zinc. This is usually done by dipping the metal object
in a big bath of molten zinc. Thirty per cent of all the zinc extracted from the Earth is used for galvanising, which is
the name given to this process. Galvanising is used:

6 For car panels, especially in more expensive cars.

For motorway crash barriers.

6 For dustbins.

e For iron roofing sheets.

6 For girders used to support parts of buildings.

The zinc acts as a barrier against corrosion by keeping out air and water. The advantage of this type of coating is that
if it is scratched, the iron is still protected, as zinc is a more reactive metal.

Key words
Corrosion — damage to a metal due to combination with oxygen from the air.

Rusting — the corrosion of iron.

Oxide — a compound of an element with oxygen.

Galvanising — protection of a metal by coating it with zinc.

Oxidation — a chemical reaction in which an element is combined with oxygen.

Exercise 17.2: Corrosion

1. Copy and complete these paragraphs:

(a) Corrosion involves a reaction between a ......... and some substance in the ......... . In most cases an
A ence is formed on the surface of the metal.

(b) Rusting is the corrosion of .......... aN eer: os . This is a dangerous process because the ......... is weak
and brittle. Rusting can be prevented by coating the metal with, for example, ......... . Another method
of prevention involves ‘sacrificing’ a second metal, such as ......... '
2. The rusting of car bodies is the main reason why cars need to be scrapped.
(a) Write a word equation for the rusting of iron.
(0) Why do cars rust more quickly in England than in California?
(c) Give two ways in which car manufacturers can protect cars against rust.

3. Galvanising is a method used to stop corrosion.

(a) Why is galvanising such an effective method of protection?
(b) Give three examples of the use of galvanising.
(c) Why can’t coating be used for preventing corrosion of railway lines?

4. A scientist was trying to work out the conditions needed for rusting. She set up 5 test tubes as shown in this
diagram:

Layer of oil

1. Water + air 2. Salty water 3. Warm water 4. Warm salty 5. Warm, boiled
+ air + air water + air salty water

After ten days she took the nails out of the tubes and measured how much of each nail was covered in rust.
She wrote down the results in this Table, giving a figure of O if there was no rust and 1 if the nail was
completely covered in rust.

Tube number Amount of rust (a) Draw a bar chart of these results.

1 0.4 (b) Which had the bigger effect on rusting:

5 | 06 a salt or warmth? Give a reason for your answer.
T 4
3 0.7 (c) She did not write in the result for the fifth tube.
4 +6 _ What do you think the result would be?
Give a reason for your answer.
5

Extension questions
5. Look back to question 3. Design a FAIR TEST to investigate whether galvanising offers double protection
for steel.

6. Use the Internet or your library to find out about stainless steel — how is it different from iron and how is
it made?
 Materials and their properties

7. Gena carried out an experiment to investigate how much change in internal/thermal energy went on when
magnesium reacted with a copper sulphate solution. During the reaction the magnesium replaced the copper,
and the copper was left at the bottom of the tube.

She mixed different amounts of magnesium powder with copper sulphate solution in a set of boiling tubes.
She carefully measured the temperature of the copper sulphate solution before she added the magnesium
powder. The temperature was measured again when the reaction was completed. Her results are shown in
the table below:

Mass of magnesium in g Starting temperature in °C Final temperature in °C Rise in temperature in °C

22 22

23 30

0.50 23 38 a

0.75 22 46

1.00 : 22 IS

eo 22 61

1.50 23 68

| leo 24 69

(ee 2.00 23 68

2225 22 67

ZO) 23 68 |

(a) Complete the fourth column of the table to show the rise in temperature.

(b) Write down a word equation for this reaction.

(c) What is the input (independent) variable for this reaction?

(d) What is the outcome (dependent) variable in this experiment?

(e) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?

(f) Using graph paper, plot a suitable graph of the results.

(g) Explain the shape of the curve you have plotted.

(h) What steps would need to be taken to make sure that this was a fair test?

(i) 25 g of copper sulphate solution was used in each of the experiments. What was the total mass of the
chemicals in the boiling tube at the end of the experiment when 1.50 g of magnesium was added?
Explain your answer.
246 | Science Book 2

Extraction of metals from ores

Starting point
@ Metals have important properties that are useful to humans.
® Most metals are not found in a pure state in the environment but instead are found combined with other
substances as ores.
) The Reactivity Series helps us to predict how difficult it will be to separate a metal from other substances.

A few metals are so unreactive that they can be found uncombined (as the element) in the ground. Because they are
found as pure metals in nature, they are called native metals. These metals include gold, platinum and silver.

Most metals, though, are found combined with other substances in compounds — usually the compound contains the
metal and either oxygen or sulphur. An ore is a rock or mineral that contains a metal. The rock will need to be broken
down if we are to obtain the metal. There are three main steps involved in the extraction of the metal:

e Locating and mining the ore.

@ Decomposing the ore to release the metal.
®@ Purifying the metal, so that its properties exactly suit its purpose.

Extraction

Metals are found

(ee, Ae ‘ underground.
ca PEA oi an

NERY:A

Some metals like GOLD,

SILVER and PLATINUM
are found as pure lumps
of metal.

Many metals are found mixed in with rocks.

These mixtures are called ORES; iron ore is
Some metals are mixed with an example. The ores are crushed and
other metals to make new ones. treated with chemicals to get the metal out.
STEEL, BRONZE and BRASS | IRON, COPPER, TIN, LEAD and ALUMINIUM |-
are made like this. are all made this way.
 Materials
and their properties

IS IT WORTH IT?
To decide whether it is worth mining an ore, one needs to consider:
@® How much ore there is?
@ Will the mining be dangerous?
@ How expensive is the extraction and purification?
@ Does the metal have important uses, so that someone will want to buy it?

AND DON'T FORGET:

@ Will mining and extraction damage the environment?

Methods of extraction
The extraction of metals from their ores involves chemical reactions to break down the compounds and release the
metal. These chemical reactions are examples of decomposition, because the compound is decomposed (broken
down). The reactions are also reduction reactions because the reactions reduce the number of elements combined
with the metal. Many ores are oxides, so reduction in this case means the amount of oxygen combined with the metal
is reduced.

There are three main methods that can be used to reduce ores and extract metals:

@ Roasting the ore (using only thermal energy).

@ Displacing the metal by heating with carbon.

6 Using electrical energy to split the compound in a process called electrolysis.

Understanding the Reactivity Series means that scientists can predict which method will be needed. The higher up the
Reactivity Series a metal is, the more stable its compounds will be. The very stable compounds will need a great deal
of energy to reduce them to the pure metal. This table lists some ores, the metals they contain and the method needed
to extract the metal:

Position in the Reactivity Series | Ore Method of extraction

Aluminium High — above carbon Bauxite (mainly aluminium oxide) Electrolysis

Iron Middle — below carbon Haematite (iron oxide) Heating with carbon

Lead Middle — below carbon Galena (mainly lead sulphide) Heating with carbon

Copper Middle — below carbon Malachite (mainly copper carbonate) | Heating with carbon
eer |
Mercur y Very y low Cinnabar (mainly mercury sulphide) | Heating in the air

Silver Very low Silver oxide (some silver is also Heating in the air
found as ‘native’ silver)
248 | Science Book2

Thermal decomposition: Extraction by thermal energy alone

Thermal energy can decompose some compounds of the very unreactive metals. For example, silver can be produced
from silver oxide by strong heating in air, as shown below:

Extraction of silver by thermal decomposition

The glowing splint relights.

Remember this is the standard
Silver can also be Silver chemical test for oxygen.
found as a native oxide
metal, i.e. as the
uncombined metal.
Silver is formed. The word equation is:
silver oxide > silver + oxygen
HEAT

Mercury, and sometimes copper (depending on the ore it is found in), can also be obtained in this way. This is a very
inexpensive method, but it cannot be used for the compounds of the more reactive metals.

Heating with carbon: Extracting iron

Iron is the second most
common metal in the Earth’s lron ore (haematite),
carbon (coke) and
crust, and is the metal most limestone are added.
Waste
useful to humans. Fortunately gases out
the metal is not very reactive — w
most important is the fact that
These gases
iron is below carbon in the
are hot and
Reactivity Series. The most
are used to Iron ore is reduced to iron
common ore of iron is heat up the air iron oxide + carbon monoxide
haematite which is made up of blast. This —> iron + carbon dioxide

iron oxide and sand. The iron means that

oxide is reduced in a set of less energy is
wasted.
chemical reactions that depend
on the presence of carbon. This
The oxygen converts carbon
process may be carried out on to oxides of carbon
an enormous scale in a Blast carbon + oxygen — carbon dioxide
Furnace. Here iron is carbon dioxide + carbon —> carbon monoxide

produced by the reduction of

carbon.

Slag is a waste
material, but it can A blast of hot air into the
be used in roof furnace supplies oxygen.
building.

Molten slag: The plug-hole allows the

The cast iron is
sand + limestone
=» slag molten iron to be taken out
now treated to
and poured into moulds.
make steel.
 eir properties

The sand in the original ore makes the iron impure, which is why limestone is added to the furnace. The limestone
reacts with silica (sand) to make a compound called calcium silicate. The molten calcium silicate, called slag in the steel
industry, is skimmed off the top of the molten iron. This molten iron still contains about 4% carbon — it is called cast iron
and is very brittle. Most industries need the iron to be less brittle and so the cast iron is converted to steel. Steel is
made by removing most of the carbon and by adding small amounts of other elements. Stainless steel, for example,
contains chromium and nickel as well as iron.

Decomposition by electrolysis: Extraction of aluminium

You will all have used an aluminium product, since billions of aluminium cans are made every year for the soft drinks
industry! Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, but it is one of the most expensive to extract.
Aluminium is so high in the Reactivity Series that its compounds are very stable. A great deal of expensive energy is
needed to decompose these compounds. The most common ore of aluminium is bauxite (mainly aluminium oxide, with
some sand and some iron oxide). The extraction of aluminium has several steps:

@ Removal of impurities to make pure aluminium oxide (alumina).

@ Dissolving of the alumina in a solvent, to reduce its melting point and to make it a better conductor of electricity.

& Electrolysis of the alumina to release pure aluminium.The most important step is the electrolysis stage:

Extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

Extension: How does electrolysis work?

® Electrical energy splits aluminium oxide into positive particles of aluminium and negative particles of oxygen.

® Positive particles move towards the negative electrode, and negative particles move towards the positive electrode.

® The negative electrode neutralises positive aluminium particles ===> aluminium metal.

@ The positive electrode neutralises negative oxygen particles === oxygen molecules.

Graphite (lining of = Electrical energy is

cell — negative Graphite — positive split between the two
electrode). electrode. electrodes.

This process is very expensive:

@ alot of electricity is used; and
@ alot of thermal energy is used
| to melt the Bauxite.
The steel cell
is strong and |
‘does not react with |
|molten bauxite. | Aluminium has many uses,
such as making aircraft
panels and window frames,
for two main reasons:
@ it has a low density, i.e.
large pieces are very light
in weight; and
Molten Molten Bubbles of @ it quickly gets covered
aluminium oxygen hiaien
bauxite with a layer of oxide
aluminium
out.
which protects it from
WOOF aluminium oxide —> aluminium + oxygen any more corrosion.
equation:
 Science Book 2

The process of electrolysis requires large amounts of electricity and so is very expensive. It is only used for metals
that are high in the Reactivity Series, like calcium, magnesium and aluminium, and for those which are very valuable
for human activities. Fortunately, aluminium can easily be recycled by melting down used cans etc. This is cheaper
and more environmentally friendly than extracting fresh aluminium from the ore.

Key words
Ore —a rock that contains a metal.

Decomposition — a type of chemical reaction that breaks down a single substance into several products.

Reduction — a chemical reaction in which substances lose oxygen or gain hydrogen.

Electrolysis — a decomposition that uses electrical energy to split a substance into several products.

Exercise 17.3: Extraction of metals

1. Copy and complete this paragraph:

Some metals, such as ......... and silver, are found as the uncombined metal in nature. Most metals are found
combined as ......... Insets , such as haematite and bauxite. There are three stages in the extraction of a
metal: ......... ise eeCENCe (which always involves some chemical reactions) and ......... (which makes the metal
suitable for use).

2. Copy and complete this table:

Main ore One important use of the metal Method of extraction

Haematite

Wire for the conduction of electricity

Bauxite

Mercury

3. Write out word equations for each of the following chemical reactions:

(a) The thermal decomposition of mercury oxide.

(b) The use of carbon to reduce tin oxide.

(c) The electrolysis of calcium oxide.

Everything that we know of is made up of materials. The properties of these materials have a huge impact on how
useful they are to humans. Now that you have finished this section of your science course, you should understand
how materials are made up of tiny particles, and how the arrangement of these particles helps to explain the
properties of the materials. You will also know how different materials can react with other materials and how humans
can affect how easily these reactions can go on. You will also be able to explain to other people how important it is
we know something of the parts played by materials in our everyday lives.
 Physical processes 251

Chapter 18
What is energy?
Nothing can happen without energy. You use energy when you lift a mobile phone to your ear and the mobile phone
uses energy to send a message. Energy is used whenever a force makes something move. The more energy that is
used, the greater the force generated and the further something is moved. Energy is used to heat things up; the tiny
particles that make up all matter move faster when they are given more energy. Many scientists would say that life
depends on using energy. Once the body cannot use energy to keep all its molecules in the right places, then the body
is dead! All these different things that energy is used for are examples of work. So, we could define energy like this:

Energy is the measure of:

(a) work that has been done; and
(6) work that is able to be done.

There are different forms of energy

Energy can take different forms:

Chemical energy Electrical energy Internal/thermal energy

Energy stored in a FOOD, a Energy due to fast-moving

FUEL or in an ELECTRIC a) particles in hot objects. For
CELL. The energy is released example, internal/thermal
Energy due to electrical charges energy is transferred from the
during a chemical reaction
moving. For example, electric open fire to the room and the
(burning, for example — see
current in a wire. people sitting in it.
page 214).

Electrical energy is the most

convenient form of energy,
because it is so easily
converted into other forms,
and because it can be
transmitted over long
distances by wires.
iyi WC ae

In addition to chemical, electrical and internal/thermal (heat) energy, there is:

Sound energy Light energy

Energy carried by sound

waves. For example, sound THERE ARE
waves from a loudspeaker. This MANY
energy always results from Anything luminous gives out
vibrations. DIFFERENT light energy.
FORMS OF
Kinetic ENERGY
Shen rh energy You'll see later that light
ouierts tinal energy from the Sun drives
are moving.
many reactions on the Earth.
For example: a
moving Car, a
moving ball, a
moving Notice that
pendulum. these forms of
energy come
Don't be confused! An about because
object only has kinetic we've moved an
energy when it is actually object from one
moving, not when it is place to another.
ready to move.

Strain/elastic (potential) Gravitational (potential) energy Nuclear energy

energy WS

Energy stored in materials that Energy stored in materials that have

have been bent or stretched. For been moved upwards, so that they can
example, tightly wound springs in now fall down. For example, a skier at Energy due to changes in the
clocks, stretched elastic bands in a the top of a mountain, a diver ona nuclei of atoms. For example, in
catapult. This can be thought of as high diving board, or a hammer about the radioactive fuel in a nuclear
strain energy or elastic energy. to hit a nail. power station.

These different forms of energy do not just vanish when they are used. Energy can be changed from one form into
another; this is called transforming energy.
 Physical processes ‘| 253

An every day example of transferring energy is shown below:

A runner gives out internal/thermal energy.

Respiration releases chemical energy

from food.

A runner gains movement (kinetic) energy.

The standard unit of energy is the joule (J). One joule isn’t really very much energy and the number of joules used to
carry out a particular piece ‘of work might be very large, so larger amounts of energy are usually measured in
kilojoules (kJ). 1 kJ = 1000 joules. Here are some examples of different amounts of energy:

Strain/elastic (potential) energy: Radeeont

Stretched rubber band 1J

Gravitational (potential) energy

You, on top of a step-ladder

Kinetic energy:

Kicked football 50 J
Joule, the scientist after whose
work the unit of energy is Small car at 70 mph 500 000 J
named.

Internal/thermal
energy:

| Hot cup of tea 150 000 J

Chemical energy:
How many kJ of energy || Torch battery 10 000 J
are there in 10 litres of Chocolate biscuit 300 000 J
petrol? Litre of petrol 35 000 000 J
254 Science = foto) ¢ 2

Energy chains
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. These changes of energy are called energy chains. (Do you
remember food chains — the flow of energy from one living organism to another? See page 99.) In every energy
chain the total amount of energy stays the same even though the energy is changed from one form to another.
Scientists have measured many different examples of these energy transformations and have written down their
observations as the Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy cannot be made or destroyed but it can change from one form to another.

i.e. the total amount of energy at the start = the total amount of energy at the end

Here is an example of an energy chain

Chemical Kinetic energy Potential Kinetic energy Thermal energy

energy ee (movement) ee energy ca (movement) ed Sound

ENERGY CHAIN

@ Energy is never created nor destroyed, just changed from

one form to another.
@ Some energy is always lost as thermal energy (for example,
you get hotter when you convert chemical energy to kinetic
energy when you exercise).
Living things, machines and electrical appliances convert
(transfer) energy from one type to another (see
page 280).

Describing energy changes

Energy is transformed when it changes from one form to another. For example, an electric kettle can transform
electrical energy into internal/thermal energy. A simple way to write down these changes is shown here:

Electrical energy — NEVE mom Internal/thermal energy

This means that electrical This means that energy is

energy is transferred transferred to the water as
to the kettle. internal/thermal energy.

Anything that can change one form of energy to another is called a transducer. Many machines are transducers.
Machines use energy to carry out work.
 ‘ Physical processes |“255

Key words
Work — any process that uses up energy.

Joule — a unit of energy (energy exerted when a force of one newton is applied over a displacement of one metre).

Transform — the change of energy from one form to another, e.g. electrical energy into internal/thermal energy.

Energy — the capacity for doing work (a measure of work done or able to be done).

Law of conservation of energy — energy cannot be created nor destroyed (although it can be changed from one
form into another).
Machine — a device that can use energy to carry out work.

Exercise 18.1: Energy

1. Complete these paragraphs, using words from this list:
energy joules elastic electrical light work kinetic
thermal transformed machine
(a) To carry out any action, ......... is needed. All of these different types of action can be called .........
Energy comes in different forms. For example, ......... energy is stored in materials that have been
stretched or bent. .......-. energy is the energy of movement. ......... energy is the result of fast-moving
particles in hot objects.

(b) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be ......... from one form to another. For example, a
torch changes ......... energy into ......... energy. Energy is measured in units called ......... ;

2. A fire gives out 20 kJ of energy. How many joules is this?

3. Amachine is a device for doing work. Use this list of machines to complete the table below:
torch radio catapult toaster fan motor car

Machine Energy is changed from to (mainly)

(transducer)

Electrical Sound

Electrical Thermal

Electrical Kinetic

Chemical Kinetic

- Potential Kinetic

Electrical

4. Describe the energy changes that take place when:

(a) You throw a ball up into the air.
(b) You pull on the brakes of your mountain bike.

5. Scientists say that energy can never be created nor destroyed. Explain what they mean, and say whether
you think this statement is true or not.
256 | Yet [Ja lor-Wy=fofe),4

Energy resources
Starting points
@ Energy is needed to do work.

© There are different forms of energy and energy can be changed from one form
to another.

6 Chemical energy is stored in fuels. The energy from fuel can be released by
a chemical reaction, such as burning.

You would not be able to read this book without energy; your brain requires energy to form images of the words and
pictures on a page and to understand what these images mean. Where does this energy come from? Your body uses
food as a source of energy (see page 46). The food is the fuel that supplies the energy for the processes of life.

Cities and towns also need large amounts of energy. Heating, lighting, transport and industry all use up energy. Much
of the energy for running cities comes from fossil fuels. Coal, gas and oil are called fossil fuels because they come
from the bodies of prehistoric animals and plants. Fossil fuels took millions of years to form and we are using them up
much more quickly than that. We need to conserve fuels by reducing the amount of energy that we use.

In some parts of the world, water can be used to generate energy, for example by harnessing tides and waves.

Electricity can also be generated by rivers in mountainous countries. Rivers are dammed to form large lakes and water
is then allowed to flow steadily through large turbines. This is called hydroelectric power and is a well-established
source that contributes to world energy production at a level approaching 3%.

Other energy sources are solar power in sunny regions and wind power in windy areas. If you go to Cornwall, for
example, you will see many wind turbines perched on top of hills, turning in the wind.

Water power, wind power and solar power are all renewable energy resources because they can be replaced
naturally and so will not run out.

Of all the renewable energy resources, hydroelectric power contributes the most energy but still produce much less
than coal, oil and nuclear, all of which contribute large amounts to world energy production. The renewables contribute
much lower amounts of energy, are costly or unreliable, or are only available in particular places on a small scale.

Another source of energy we must consider is the energy produced by splitting atoms (for atoms, see page 191). This
breaking up of atoms can be made to happen very rapidly, with a great release of energy. This energy source is called
nuclear power. The thermal energy produced in nuclear reactors can be used to boil water and to drive a turbine
which generates electricity, just as in coal and power stations.

We can get the energy we need in many different ways. However, the information we have on existing and projected
energy supplies from the traditional energy sources (coal, oil and natuaral gas) indicates that they will increasingly be
unable to satisfy our energy needs. Unless new energy sources are developed, there is the likelihood of a serious
energy shortage in the not-so-distant future. One of the challenges we face is how to choose which energy source will
give the energy the world needs as reliably, safely and cheaply as possible, with the least harm to the environment
(see page 105). This is the basis of the world energy crisis.
 Physical processes | 257

The table below summarises some of the issues associated with these possible energy sources:

-
Source Advantages Disadvantages Lifetime
Wood Easy to find. Limited amount.

Destruction of rainforests.
=I

Biomass Pasy to do. Uneconomic.

Fossil fuels

Coal Many deposits. Pollution. Approx. 250 years*

Oil Easy to extract. Pollution. Approx. 60 years*

Gas Easy to extract. Pollution. Approx. 60 years*

Renewable

Hydro Uses naturally occurring Limited number of rivers. Unlimited

valleys in mountainous regions Destructive to environment
to channel water. when valleys are flooded.

Wind Large amounts of energy. Expensive to concentrate. Unlimited

Wind does not always blow.
Unsightly additions to landscape.
Wind farms take up large
areas of land.

Solar Large amounts of energy but it Expensive to concentrate. Unlimited

is not always sunny. Solar Sun does not shine all the time.
power is more economical
in sunnier countries.

Wave Large amounts of energy. Expensive to concentrate. Unlimited

Damage to environment.
{ + +
Nuclear Non-polluting Radioactive waste. Unlimited

* These figures are based on the lifetime of current reserves and do not account for the discovery of new reserves or
new extraction technologies being developed (see page 273).

You may be wondering what we mean by ‘expensive to concentrate’? Well, quite simply, concentration is a measure
of how spread out the energy is. The more spread out it is, the more it costs to gather it all together to create a
usable piece of electricity. For example, there is enough energy in the air of a room to boil a kettle, but how would
you trap it and turn it into electricity?

In the case of wind and solar sources, the energy is spread out over a large area and so it costs a lot to put it ina
concentrated form that can be used. In the case of coal, oil and gas, the energy is very concentrated and in the case
of nuclear even more so. If energy is not concentrated, you cannot use it. So, the extent to which a fuel is concentrated
plays a very important part in helping us to decide which source will provide the most reliable, safe and cheap energy,
with the least harm to the environment in the future.
258 Science Book 2

Key words
Biomass — material in the bodies of plants or animals. A biomass fuel is plant material that can be burned to
release energy.

Energy — a measure of work done or able to be done.

Fuel — a store of energy that can go through a reaction to release the energy.

Fossil fuel — remains of long-dead animals and plants.

Renewable — an energy source that can be replaced naturally, and so will not run out.

Nuclear — energy released from the nucleus of an atom.

Exercise 18.2: Energy resources

1. Complete the following paragraphs. Use words from this list:

Bunsen energy thermal fossil renewable oxygen natural gas

(a) A fuel is a store of......... which can be released by burning in air. The air supplies the .........
for the burning process. Burning a candle shows that ......... energy and light energy are given out
during the burning process. In the laboratory a......... burner can give a controllable supply of thermal
energy by the burning of ......... z

(b) Coal and gas are examples of ......... fuels — once they are burned, they cannot be replaced. Water and
wind power are ......... energy resources because they can be naturally replaced and so will not run
out.

Extension questions
2. This table shows how energy is being used in the United Kingdom:

ie of energy Percentage of total energy used

Industry

Domestic (in homes)

Transport

Other uses

(a) Work out the percentage of energy used for other purposes.

(b) Plot a bar chart of these figures.

(c) Give two uses of energy that might be in the other uses category.

(d) Make a list of five different ways we use energy in the home.
 Physical processes 259

3. This table shows the sources of energy generated in the United Kingdom in 1999:

Source Percentage generation

Oil

Natural gas

Coal

Nuclear

International Atomic Energy Agency (Nuclear Issues, Nov 2000, p. 5, Vol. 22, No. 11, 1999, Electricity
in the U.K.)

(a) Work out the percentage of‘other sources of energy.

(b) What is the most likely source of energy in the other category?

Make a pie chart.of this information.

Give two reasons why we should use less coal and oil.

Give one reason why we should use more nuclear power, and one reason why we are anxious
about using nuclear power.
260 Science Book 2

Fossil fuels
Don't forget
i]

3 A fuel can be burned to release energy.

9 Fossil fuels are made from the bodies of prehistoric animals and plants.

Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they were formed millions of years ago. These fuels are the
remains of organic material, such as the bodies of dead animals and plants which have not been allowed to
decompose for one reason or another. Fossil fuels store chemical energy which can be released as other forms of
energy, such as thermal and light, when the fuels are burnt. Because fossil fuels take so long to form and cannot be
remade from the products of burning, they are known as non-renewable (sometimes called capital) resources. We
cannot replace them, so they will eventually run out.

Fossil fuels are common energy resources

PETROL and DIESEL are

made from oil. They are
used as fuel for cars, lorries,
ships and boats. More and
COAL is used for heating homes (not more engines use diesel
so much nowadays) and in power because it is more
stations for generating electricity. economical.

NATURAL GAS is mainly methane. It KEROSENE (PARAFFIN) is a

is used for heating and cooking in cheap fuel made from oil. It is
homes and factories, and in power used domestically for heating,
stations for generating electricity. and industrially as fuel for aircraft.

BUTANE and PROPANE

There may be other wastes, such as
are used in camping and
ash and sulphur dioxide. caravan stoves for
cooking and in home gas
heaters. It is pressurised
for storage as liquid, and
can be used as LPG (Liquified
There will be light, thermal and Petroleum Gas) in cars and vans.
perhaps some kinetic energy.
 Physical processes

The formation of fossil fuels

Plants use sunlight energy to store chemical energy in the molecules that make up their bodies. Millions of years ago
some of these plants would have been eaten by small animals, and some of them would have died before they were
eaten. Dead animals and plants are usually quickly decomposed by the action of fungi and bacteria, but conditions in
the environment might make this happen more slowly. It is the chemical energy in the bodies of these long-dead and
partly-decomposed animals and plants that is released when we burn fossil fuels. Look at the diagram below to see
how fossil fuels are formed:

Stages in the formation of coal: Fossil fuel from trees

Tree ferns lived 300 million years ago. As they
died, they fell down and began to rot. The decay
was very slow and the rotting plants formed a
thick layer on the wet and swampy floor of the
forest.

Bacteria change the decaying

plants to PEAT. This can be used
as a fuel.

The land sank and layers of mud and rock were

laid over the peat. As more and more rocks were
laid down, the peat was exposed to greater
pressure and higher temperature.

Over millions of years the layers turned into hard

coal. The coal is collected by digging pits and
mines.

Because decay is slow, coal often

contains fossils of plant from 300
million years ago. The period when
coal was formed is called the
Carboniferous Period.
262 Science Book 2

Oil and natural gas: Fossil fuels from the sea

Microscopic plants and animals have
trapped chemical energy in their bodies.
When these organisms die, their bodies sink
to the bottom of the sea.

The bodies are covered by layers of mud and

sand. As the bodies decay, they are changed
to thick black crude oil by high
temperatures and pressures.

The sedimentary rocks laid down in the

sea are porous. The tiny holes allow liquids
to move slowly through the rock.

Some decay continues and provides gas

(mainly methane). This is less dense than
the oil and so collects on the top of the oil.

Drilling rigs tap off

As the rock layers fold, crude oil becomes
trapped under solid, hard rock. Pockets of
trapped oil collect.

KNOWLEDGE IS POWER!
Geologists know:
* where to drill for oil;
* where sedimentary rocks are found;
- where folding has occurred; and
* where sound wave reflection tells
them the rock is missing.
 Physical processes 263

Using fossil fuels

Wood (not a fossil fuel) was the first fuel to be used by humans from the time they first discovered fire. But from the
nineteenth century onwards, humans began to use fossil fuels extensively. Coal was the easiest to extract from the
Earth, and so this was the first fossil fuel to be widely used. Oil and gas were not produced or used much until the
twentieth century. By the end of the twentieth century oil and gas were more commonly used than coal. Oil can be
used to make petrol and diesel fuel for motor vehicles, and to make many of the molecules needed for man-made
materials, such as plastics and fabrics. All fossil fuels make carbon dioxide when they are burned, but coal is dirtier
than gas and oil because it makes a lot of ash and smoke.

Check back on the sections in your book that deal with combustion (see page 214) and the use of the Bunsen burner
(see page 131) and remind yourself of the disadvantages of using fossil fuels (see below).

Different fuels for different uses

A fuel is a source of energy, so we might think that the most important thing about a fuel is the amount of energy it
gives out when it is burned. This is important but it is not the only thing to consider. Other important factors are:

Can the fuel be stored?

Can the fuel be transported?

Is the fuel easy to extract from the Earth?

Is the fuel clean to use?

Is the fuel solid, liquid or gas?

Is it easy to ignite the fuel (to start it burning)?

How much does it cost to extract the energy from the fuel?

Some fuels are better than others for a particular job. For example, petrol is a better fuel for cars than coal; you can
deliver it through a hose from a petrol pump, and it is easier to ignite. Gas is a good fuel for camping stoves because
it can be compressed into lightweight gas bottles that are easy and safe to carry.

Fossil fuels and electricity

Electricity is not a fuel, but most of it is produced by burning fossil fuels. These fuels are reliable, concentrated forms
of energy, but do need to be transported from where they are extracted to where they are burned in the power stations.
You’ve seen some of this in the previous section, but let’s just summarize some of the advantages and disadvantages
of generating electricity from these different fossil fuels:

Fossil fuel Advantages Disadvantages

Coal Still large deposits of this fuel available, Extraction and burning makes pollution.
enough for the next 200-300 years approximately.

Natural gas Burns with less pollution than coal or oil. Difficult to find.
—

Oil Can easily be transported in pipelines. Oil spills are very harmful to wildlife.
 Science Book 4 i

Conservation of fuel reserves

It is important that we save fossil fuels because:

they are non-renewable and are running out; and

burning them is the main cause of air pollution.

Fuels can be conserved by:

increasing the use of alternative, renewable energy sources (see page 267) and nuclear power;

using more efficient machines; and

being more careful with the use of energy (see page 275).

Exercise 18.3: Fossil fuels

1. Here are some statements about coal. Sort them out to tell the story of the formation of coal:

The rivers washed sediment on top.

The material was heated under pressure for millions of years.

Coal is a store of chemical energy.

When trees died, they fell into swamps but did not decompose.

The Sun shone onto the Earth, and the trees absorbed light energy from the Sun.

More trees fell on top.

300 million years ago there were huge forests of simple, fern-like trees.

Here are some statements about oil and natural gas. Sort them into the correct order to tell the story of the
formation of these fuels:

People build oil platforms to drill for oil.

Thermal energy and pressure changed the material in the bodies of plants and animals into oil.

The small organisms died.

The plants were eaten by small animals in the sea.

The Sun shone on the Earth and tiny plants in the sea obtained their energy from the Sun.

Movements of the Earth compressed the remains of the small organisms.

Gas pipelines bring gas to homes and factories.

Sediment piled up on the bodies.

Conditions change, so that some bodies are allowed to decay.

Gas is collected from above the oil wells.

Over millions of years, gas given off from the decay processes is trapped.

When the seas dried up, the small organisms became trapped.
 Ph ysical processes

3. What are the two reasons why it is important to conserve fuels?

4. Wood only gives out 10 kJ of energy per gram of fuel burned, but oil gives out 46 kJ of energy per gram. Why
do you think that wood is so popular as a fuel in Norway?

Extension question
5. This table contains information about the use of coal, gas and oil in the European Community (1973-1989):

Millions of tons used

Natural gas

116

174

Nuclear Power, Energy and the Environment, PE. Hodgson

(a) Plot this information as a line graph.

(b) What percentage of the total fossil fuel used in 1973 was natural gas?

(c) Use the graph and the table to decide whether our total use of fossil fuels has changed since 1970.
266 Yo) [=Jaler-M ={0le), a4

Renewable energy resources

Reminders
® Energy is a measure of work done, or work able to be done.

@ Energy is stored in fuels.

@ When fuels are burnt to release energy, they are used up and cannot be replaced.

What does renewable mean?

Renewable energy sources do not get smaller as they are used. For example, collecting energy from the wind does
not change the amount of wind energy that will be available in the future. Renewable energy resources are sometimes
called alternative energy resources, because they are seen as an alternative to the use of fossil fuels.

There are some important points to remember about renewable energy resources:

@ they are not used up; and

© they do not pollute the atmosphere.

However, with the partial exception of hydropower:

@ they are several times more expensive than fossil fuels (except hydro);

@ they can be unreliable and available only in particular places on a small scale;

e they contribute very little energy (except hydro); and

@ they can have bad environmental effects.

What types of renewable energy are available?

Whatever form of renewable energy is available, it must be converted into a form of energy that we can use. Most of
our machines and appliances work on electrical energy, so a renewable energy source must be capable of conversion
into electricity (with the exception of solar panels which enable the Sun to heat the water directly, and water from hot
springs and geysers).

Electricity is generated using a turbine and a generator, as shown below.

_a
af_ ite —oes Sa eee

RENEWABLE A TURBINE has a fan ree A GENERATOR can ELECTRICAL

ENERGY which turns using a change kinetic ENERGY can
renewable energy orm energy froma make many
RESOURCE source. ENERGY turbine into electrical machines and
energy. appliances wor
 Physical processes PAY f

There are several different forms of renewable energy. Engineers tend to use the one that is most available — this can
be very different from one country to another. For example, hydroelectric power is only available in mountainous
areas with swift-flowing rivers (Scotland, for example) and geothermal power (electric power generated using very
hot water or steam which breaks through the Earth’s surface from the hot interior) is only available in areas with hot
springs and geysers (New Zealand, for example). Here are some alternative sources of renewable energy:

Renewable energy resources

Tidal power
Wind power Wind
= turbine
These ‘nodding
duck' floats move
up and down on
the waves and
this motion turns
generators

Geothermal power
= Turbine house
Solar power Pump house |
Solar heating To heat _ /
houses =~
panels é
etc.

Photocells ELECTRICAL
ENERGY

Electricity can be generated from hot water

or steam from the Earth's interior.

Hydroelectric power
The dam holds back the water and, when the
Biomass gate is opened, the water flows past a turbine
Wood is a common biofuel. fan and electricity is generated. With tidal
Animal waste can also be used to generate
power the water goes over a barrier at high
biogas (mainly methane) which can be tide.
burned. Dam
fon Turbine Power house

Here is a final note on renewables before we move on. Wind power is the most promising of the renewables (with the
exception of hydroelectric power), and it hoped that wind might provide as much as 10% of Europe's electricity needs
by 2030. At the present level of power generation, the renewables are not in the same league as coal, oil and nuclear
and they cannot provide a solution for the world energy crisis (see page 256).
268 Science l=feye), a4

The Sun.provides many of our energy resources

Hot air rises

Cold air is denser than
warm air, so cold air falls
a and pushes warm air out of
the way. his is what The wind blows
causes winds. across water
and makes i
WIND waves. /

The air is heated more WIND

in some places than
others

THERMAL ENERGY
THERMAL
ENERGY

Animals
which
feed on
plankton.

Energy from the Sun

The Sun supplies almost all the energy on Earth. Plants trap the Sun’s energy and change it into stored chemical
energy in the form of food. Plants can then:

@ use the food themselves;

@ be eaten by animals and so pass on the chemical energy to the animals;

@ die and pass on the chemical energy to bacteria and fungi; and

e die and, together with some dead animals, become trapped under conditions that favour the
formation of coal, oil and natural gas.

The part that the Sun plays in the supply of our energy resources is shown above.
 \ Physical processes 269

The wind turns propellors dia

on wind turbines. Energy source
RENEWABLE

Wind ieee: NON-RENEWABLE

Waves
_
Water from the
sea evaporates. Clouds form.
Xa.
Hydro
VERGE . “of EL/ ein tes (electricity)

You can trap rainfall behind dams, then

use the flow to generate electricity.

Biomass
Another biomass
Time and
fuel is alcohol
Trees died and became buried pressure which is made by
in sedimentary rock millions of EERE fermenting sugar
years ago (like fossils). in sugar cane.

These died and

became buried
in sedimentary Fuels: are stores of
rock millions of energy. The energy
years ago can be released
(like fossils). when it is needed.

LIGHT j Solar panels

Light energy can be

used:
¢ for heating air and
water; and
¢ to generate electricity.
270 RYod(=)g[oy=) Book y4

There are some energy sources which don’t depend on the Sun.

Energy sources which don’t depend on the Sun

Tides
(Mainly caused by the Moon's
gravity — see pages 356-7.)

Water is trapped behind a dam when the

tide comes in (twice each day). The flow of
trapped water can be used to generate
electricity.

Geothermal The breakdown of radioactive

substances inside the Earth produces
thermal energy. The thermal energy can
be used to warm water and the water
can heat homes and factories.

Uranium can be mined from close to the

(e.g. uranium) Earth's surface.

Solar energy: Energy from the Sun

All fossil fuels originally made their stored chemical energy from the sunlight energy trapped by photosynthesis (see
page 68). Energy direct from the Sun is a very attractive energy source because there is no foreseeable reduction in
the amount of the Sun’s energy landing on the Earth. Having said that, though, it is important to remember that solar
power is expensive because the Sun’s energy is spread very thinly over the Earth’s surface, so we have to go to a lot
of trouble to concentrate it. The simplest way to make direct use of the Sun’s internal/thermal energy is to put solar
panels on roofs of buildings and let the Sun’s rays directly heat the water running through the panels. Some solar cells
(see below) change light and internal/thermal energy from the Sun into an electrical current; these are extremely useful
for equipment that is a long way away from a generator, such as a space station.

Calculator Space station

 Physical processes / 271

Investigation: What factors affect the performance of solar panels?

Solar panels are designed to collect as much of the Sun’s energy as possible. Several factors affect how well a solar
panel absorbs solar energy. These factors are investigated here:

Step 1
; Step 1
e Each of the balloons contains the Thermometer
same volume of water. |
Tr Ty
e Both balloons are the same colour. a = i
acne | q “ N

@ The balloons are then covered with |30 cm* water | : |

] \ j
cloth.

@ The hot lamp is kept at the same Seas x

distance from the balloons.

) The temperature of the water is

measured at the same time for the
two balloons.
Step 2
Remember what makes a FAIR TEST!

@ Change one variable (input or

independent variable).

@ Measure a second variable

(outcome or dependent variable).

@ Keep all other variables constant.

Black cloth White cloth

I.T. IN SCIENCE
The temperature can be measured with
an electronic sensor. ( )
]
ye

BS

Sensor Datalogge Lamp Stopclock

Key words
Alternative energy — an energy source that is not a fossil fuel.
Biofuel — an energy source that is made directly by photosynthesis.
Generator — a device that changes kinetic energy into electricity.
Geothermal — thermal energy from the ground.
Renewable — an energy source that is naturally replaced (not the same as reusable!).
Turbine — a rotary engine in which kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy by causing a blade
to rotate.
272 | Science Book2

Exercise 18.4: Renewable energy resources

1. Match the sentences in the second column with the resource named in the first column:

Renewable energy resource How this resource is valuable

Solar energy Water current turns a turbine |

Geothermal energy Can heat water or generate electricity

Wind Sea water turns a turbine

Tides and waves Thermal energy from underground rocks

Hydroelectric power Material from the growth of plants

Biomass Can move small boats or turn wind turbines

2. Why do we describe electricity as the most useful form of energy?

3. This table lists the percentage contribution of each resource to all renewable energy resources:

Energy resource Percentage contribution

a (a) Make a pie chart of this
Hydroelectric 77.4 information.
Biomase 186 (6) Which renewable resource is
=s most useful in a very forested
Geothermal 1.9 part of the world?
Solar heating 19 (c) Why does geothermal energy
make such a small contribution?
0.2

Energy consumption outlook in Western World 1990 (World Energy Needs and Resources)

4. This table shows the results obtained from the investigation described on page 271:

Time in minutes Temperature in °C

Black cloth White cloth

16 16
Yai ear I elNae

|
(a)
a Which balloon has the warmer water after 15 minutes?

(b) Which colour would be used for a solar panel?

c)
(c) Why is it important to use the same volume of water in each balloon?

(d) Describe how you could use the same apparatus to find out whether a shiny or a dull surface is better
for a solar panel.

5. Explain the difference between ‘renewable’ and ‘reusable’, when describing forms of energy.
 Physical processes | 273

Saving energy
Remember
e Burning fuels releases energy.

G8 Most of the energy we use comes from fossil fuels.

@ Fossil fuels are non-renewable.

Over 70% of the energy we use in factories and for our heating, lighting and transport comes from fossil fuels.

How long will fossil fuel reserves last?

Estimate of when the World’s currentily known energy supplies will run out (1994)

2300

Coal reserves are larger, but

2200 coal burning creates most
pollution of the atmosphere.

2000

1900
Coal : Gas Oil

Nuclear Power, Energy and the Environment, PE. Hodgson

These figures appear to be rather frightening but in fact they show what would happen if we did nothing about finding
more reserves or did not develop any new technologies for extracting these fuels. As the current reserves run low,
more efficient ways of extraction will be developed and we are likely to find more reserves of fossil fuels which will
substantially improve the life span of oil, gas and coal.

We are getting better at using renewable energy sources (see page 266) and we are developing nuclear power but we
still need to learn to make the most of the fossil fuel reserves we have. This is what is meant by energy conservation
— using the minimum amount of energy for each particular job. Energy conservation has three main benefits:

td It will mean that the Earth’s resources will last longer.

e It will cut down on costs for transport, heating, lighting and industry.

@ It will reduce pollution of the atmosphere, of the land and of the sea.

However, it is interesting to note that sometimes energy conservation can make energy cheaper which can encourage
people to use more of it, so it can sometimes have the opposite effect to the one we are trying to achieve.
274 | Science Book 2

How to save energy

There are two things to take into account when we think of ways of saving energy:

e How can we use less energy? For example, can we turn off the heating when we we do not need it?

@ How can we prevent energy from being wasted? For example, can we make machines and buildings more
energy efficient?

Using less energy: What can you do?

Here are some of the ways in which you can help to save energy.

Cycle or walk to Use low-energy light bulbs — Just doing this

they use less electricity.
school or work - most would let us shut
car journeys are less down fossil fuel
Turn lights off when you leave power stations!
than 3 miles long. the room.

Only boil the correct quantity

of water when making tea or
coffee.

Don’t leave TV or CD players

on standby. They still use up
10% of their energy on
standby.

The Government also has a part to play in helping to save energy. From the year 2000 they encouraged people to
drive smaller, more efficient cars by reducing the cost of the Road Fund Licence (the tax on cars for using the roads)
for cars with engines less than 1.4 litres in size.

This car does 50 This car does

miles per gallon of fewer than 20
fuel (and the car miles per gallon
was made of fuel and
completely from often carries
recycled only one
materials). passenger.

Thermal energy and the home

A lot of fossil fuel is burned so that we can heat our homes and other buildings. When the internal/thermal energy
escapes into the atmosphere, it is lost to us and can never be used again. This is a waste of energy and of money.
Scientists understand how thermal energy can be lost and they can give advice to builders on how to reduce losses
of thermal energy.
 Physical processes | 275

Here are some ways to prevent internal/thermal energy loss from a house or building.

Loft insulation: save £25 on every £100 bill! Insulating the hot water cylinder
Roof without insulation
saves a lot of energy.
Hot water is stored in copper
A thick layer of
cylinders. Copper conducts
fibreglass or mineral
thermal energy very well, so
wool with many small
insulation (lagging) can save
air pockets is a poor
a lot of thermal energy and
conductor of thermal
Br ih Heda room energy. Loft insulation money.
— 4-4 is one of the best-
value methods of
saving energy.
escaping

Warm room

25% of the thermal energy that

escapes goes through the roof.

10% of the
thermal energy
that escapes
goes through
the windows.
p c 35% of the thermal
Double glazing
energy that escapes
Glass can conduct thermal
goes through
energy, but special windows 15% of the the walls.
with a layer of trapped air can thermal energy |

prevent this. The best windows that escapes

have a partial vacuum between goes in
the panes of glass. draughts.

Draught excluders
Layers of foam or
plastic stop cold air
15% of the thermal energy
from blowing through
that escapes goes through
gaps. These are very
the floor.
cheap and are
excellent value for
saving energy and Cavity wall insulation
increasing comfort. Foam is pumped into the
space between the inner
and outer walls. This is
Excluder
another good-value method
for saving thermal energy
Carpets or cork tiles stop thermal energy escaping
because foam is a poor
through the floor. They are also important in sound
conductor of thermal energy.
insulation, and help to decorate the house.

Key words
Energy conservation — using the minimum amount of energy for each job.

Insulation — using a material to prevent loss of internal/thermal energy by conduction.

Exercise 18.5: Energy conservation
ih Complete this paragraph from the words in this list:
floor fossil renewable cycling flying walking insulation
windows doors pollution preservation
Reserves of ....... fuels will eventually run out, so energy ......... is necessary. We can use more .........
energy sources which will also reduce ......... . Humans can use less energy by ......... Ol Freie as instead of
driving everywhere. We can also save energy by cutting down losses of internal/thermal energy from our
buildings. ......... can reduce loss of internal/thermal energy from walls and roofs, while double-glazing can
reduce loss of internal/thermal energy through ......... and yas ;
Complete this table about energy conservation in your home:
aT
Do you have Yes or no

Cavity wall insulation

Roof insulation

Double glazing

Lagging on your hot water tank

Siesta
Draught excluders on external doors

Low-energy light bulbs

Extension question
3. Ted and Laura were investigating the effectiveness of insulation. They added 20 cm® of boiling water to a
boiling tube, and measured the temperature every two minutes. They repeated the experiment with added
layers of insulating material. Their results are shown in the table below:

Time in min Temperature in °C

No layers | 1 layer 2 layers le 3 layers 4 layers

ir
94 94 94 | 94 94 i

90 i. 91 91

86

(a) Plot these results as a line graph.

(b) What is the input (independent) variable in this experiment?

(c) What is the outcome (dependent) variable in this experiment?

(d) How can Ted and Laura make sure that this is a fair test?

(e) Each layer of insulation in a loft costs an extra £100. Does it make good sense to add five layers of
insulating material? Explain your answer.
 “Physical processes

Chapter 19
Generating electricity from a fuel
Remember
6 Fuels can be used to release energy.

® Electrical energy is a very useful form of energy.

Power stations
Power stations are able to change the chemical energy of fuels into electrical energy. Most power stations burn fossil
fuels. The fossil fuel is tipped into a large furnace and oxygen is then forced into the furnace. The burning fuel gives
out a large amount of thermal energy. The thermal energy is then used to boil water which turns into steam. The
steam is forced along pipes to make powerful jets which hit the blades of a turbine. The turbine turns a shaft in the
generator and electricity is made. This sequence is shown below.

How a power station works

COOLING TOWER: Water is released from
pipes about one third of the way up. This water
falls over criss-crossed slots which break the
water into little droplets. The cooling tower is
designed as a large chimney with a big updraft.
This updraft of cold air cools the water droplets ELECTRICITY is
as they fall. delivered to a grid of
power cables. These
take electricity to homes
and factories.
BOILER: Water in ‘
the pipes is turned
Fuel arrives by to steam.
lorry, train or
along pipelines.

GENERATOR: A shaft

| et
ee
||
mene
=e | ET OF
is turned and
electricity is generated.

ya “| FURNACE: Fuel is A TURBINE has blades

burned here. This which are turned by the
process needs a lot jet of steam.
of air/oxygen.

The steam is still very hot after it hits the turbine and needs to be cooled down, so that it can be turned back into
water before it is returned to the boiler. The steam is cooled in a cooling tower, where cold water is poured over the
pipes that are carrying the steam. This cold water evaporates quickly. This is the steam we see coming from the
cooling towers in power stations.
278 Yor [=I4[e- ={ele), a4

Efficiency of power stations

The efficiency of a power station describes how much energy is released from a certain mass of fuel. No power station
is 100% efficient and they always lose some of the energy from the fuel they are using. Some power stations are more
efficient than others. Gas power stations are about 50% efficient and are the best of the main power station types we
use.

Making the most of electricity

Electricity is generated in power stations and then must be transferred to the homes and
factories where it is needed. Most countries have a network of power cables leading
from power stations to smaller sub-stations and then onto homes and factories. These
power cables are often carried overhead from power stations to the sub-station, hanging
from tall pylons. The cables are usually then carried underground from the sub-stations
to homes.

Electricity is a very useful form of energy, because:

t It is easy to transfer along power lines and cables.

© It leaves no waste when it is used, so it is a clean form of energy.

® It is easily transformed into other forms of energy, such as the vibrations causing sound from a radio.

t It is easy to control electrical energy accurately. For example, think how fine the images can be from a digital
camera.

There are one or two disadvantages when using electricity, however:

e It is not easy to store large amounts of electrical energy, so engineers have to balance carefully the production
of electricity with its use.

re) The transfer of electricity requires high voltages and these can be very dangerous.

Key words
Fuel — a store of energy.
Turbine — a device like a propeller that can be made to move by jets of steam (see also definition on
page 271).
Generator — a device that changes kinetic energy into electrical energy.
 Physical processes 279

Exercise 19.1: Generation of electricity

1. What is the difference between a turbine anda generator?

2. Why does a power station need cooling towers?

3. This table shows the percentage efficiency of different power stations:

Type of fuel used Percentage efficiency

Nuclear

(a) Make a bar chart of these figures.

”

(b) Give two reasons why we would like to use less coal in power stations.

(c) Why do some people object to the use of nuclear power stations?
Electricity and energy
Starting points
@ Energy is a measure of work done and able to be done.

e Fuels and renewable energy sources can release energy in various forms.

e The most useful form of energy for human activities is electricity.

Electricity is a very useful form of energy (see page 278). It doesn’t produce pollution when it is used, it is easy to
control and easy to send from one place to another. When we use electricity, we often change itinto another kind of
energy, using an electrical appliance. An electrical appliance, such as those shown below, can change electrical
energy into another form of energy that is useful to us.

Some uses of electricity

The lamp changes electric

The electric fire changes energy into LIGHT and
electrical energy into THERMAL energy.
THERMAL and LIGHT energy.

The television changes

electrical energy into
LIGHT, SOUND and
THERMAL energy; so
does a computer monitor.

The food mixer changes

electrical energy into
MOVEMENT, SOUND and
THERMAL energy.
 | Physical processes | 281

Think back to the idea of energy chains (see page 254). You should be able to follow a chain of energy from the Sun
to an appliance, such as a computer monitor, as shown here:
Energy chain: From sunlight to computer images

Light energy

Ae Death - > i > ae a

Ni
ae Satie
ee esha iin
of years

Light energy is Stored _ Power station changes chemical Electrical energy is delivered A computer
trapped in chemical energy in fuel into electrical to homes through cables monitor
chemical energy in energy. (power lines). transforms
energy of fossil fuels. electrical energy
molecule in into light (and
plants. thermal) energy.

Wasteful transformations
Electrical appliances transform all the energy supplied to them, but sometimes the energy is transformed into a form
that isn’t really useful to us. This energy will be wasted (unless we think of some very clever way of using it for
something else).

S |2 Most appliances release some energy as

Ay x : /S waste thermal energy. A computer has a
al a fan inside it to get rid of the thermal
Mine WW energy - that's why it is so noisy.

\) Wu
Ke ~
= & A light bulb makes its surroundings warmer as well
as lighter. It transfers thermal energy [UUUV)\ as
well as light energy ~~ to its surroundings.

We will see more about the transfer of internal/thermal energy in Chapter 23, page 329.
282 | Science Book2

Getting an electricity supply

Large appliances often use electricity from the mains, usually through a socket in the wall. Because the mains
electricity is delivered from a wall socket, it means that these appliances can’t be moved very far.

Smaller electrical appliances often use batteries to supply the energy. This means that the appliances can be moved
from place to place. Batteries can store electricity, but they eventually run down which means they don’t have enough
electrical energy to run the appliance. Batteries need to be replaced by fresh batteries, or recharged so that their
energy is replaced.

The passage of electricity: Conductors and insulators

As we know, electricity needs something to travel through, to get from the place where it is made to the place where
it is used. Materials that allow electricity to pass through them are called conductors because they can conduct
electricity.

Conductors and insulators

The materials that are used most frequently as conductors are metals, such as copper in wiring. Some non-metals,
such as graphite, which is a form of carbon, are also used. There are other conductors but they are not so easy to
use. Tap, or sea water, for example, is not so easy to control and use, but can be a very good conductor, which is why
it is so dangerous to be near a source of electricity in wet conditions. (Pure water does not conduct electricity.)

Materials that do not conduct electricity are called insulators. Non-metallic substances are usually good insulators.
Plastic, rubber, glass and wood are good examples, but you should not let them get wet.

Dangerous electricity
Electricity is a very valuable form of energy, and most of us couldn’t imagine our lives without it. However, it can also
be very dangerous if it is not controlled. Electrical energy can cause great damage to our bodies and could even kill
us, SO it is very, very important to take great care when using electrical items.

The flow of electricity can be dangerous

SHOCKING NEWS - ELECTRICITY

CAN BE DANGEROUS!

MAINS ELECTRICITY can give you an

ELECTRIC SHOCK that could KILL YOU! ocr

NEVER» Stick scissors, pens or anything else

into a mains socket;
* use electrical appliances near water;
* touch switches or sockets with wet hands.

ALWAYS » hold the plastic part of a plug when ELECTRICITY FROM BATTERIES is less powerful
plugging in or unplugging appliances than mains electricity, but note that rechargeable
because it's insulated! batteries can discharge quickly and can cause burns.
 “Physical processes | 283

Wet hands (even sweaty The metal bulb holder

can conduct electricity into the is exposed and
body. makes a good conductor.

The cable is frayed

and the wires are
exposed.

DS ET
You have to be careful not to
The cables are not fixed touch overhead power lines with
to the plug properly and carbon fibre (graphite) fishing
the wires are exposed. rods or kites, particularly with
wet strings, because they can
conduct electricity.

Key words
Appliance — a device that can change electrical energy into a form of energy that is useful to us.

Mains — a source of electrical energy that is delivered to a house or factory from power lines.

Battery — a mobile source of electrical energy, made up of one or more cells.

Conductor — a material that allows electrical energy to pass through it.

Insulator — a material that prevents the flow of electrical energy.

Exercise 19.2: Energy and electricity

1. Give three rules for working safely with electricity.

2. Describe what a cell (battery) is and what it does.

3. Complete these sentences by choosing the missing words from this list:

plastic brass conduct insulator lead electricity graphite

The case of a plug is made from......... because itis a good......... . The pins of the plug need to.........
electricity, so they are made of......... . The covering on a wire is made of......... , SO that it will not conduct
Seon . Some electrical machines use ......... (a kind of carbon) to conduct electricity between different parts
of the motor.
 Science Book 2

Extension questions
4. This question deals with electrical appliances that you could find in your home or school. Make a list of ten
different appliances and use the list to complete a table like this one.

Appliance Is it powered by mains It converts electrical Some electrical

or battery? energy to ... energy is wasted as ...

5. Here is a drawing of an electrical circuit. If the circuit is completed and electricity can flow, then the lamp will
light up. Explain how the apparatus could be used to test whether a material was an insulator or a conductor.
 “Physical processes | 285

Chapter 20
Electricity on the move: Electrical
circuits
Starting points
e Electricity is a convenient form of energy.

e Electricity can move from one place to another through cables or wires.

e Electrical energy can be changed into other types of energy.

What is electricity?
Electricity can provide the energy to power electrical appliances, but what is it exactly? To get an answer to this, you
will need to think back to the structure of the atom (see page 191). Here’s a reminder.

The structure of the atom Electron (—): these can be

moved and when they do
move they carry a negative
Proton (+) = | charge.

Nucleus
Neutro
_e Atoms are NEUTRAL overall; the
e- Ee
= number of positive charges on protons
is balanced by the number of negative
charges on electrons.

Inside the atom there are two types of electric charge: electrons have a negative (—) charge and protons have a
positive (+) charge. Electrons do not always stay attached to atoms. If electrons flow, they set up a current — scientists
say that a current is a flow of charge.

Static electricity and electrical storms Polythene rod

Rubbing materials together can sometimes pull electrons from one to the other — for
example, rubbing a polythene rod with a cloth will pull electrons from the cloth onto the
rod.

The rod will now have a (negative) charge because of these extra electrons.

These charges stay on the material and are called STATIC ELECTRICITY.

The charges can move from place to place if there is a conductor (such as a metal) to
let them pass through. This is like an electric current, but only lasts for a very short time Cloth
(not long enough to be useful in working an electrical appliance).
 Science j={oye).¢ 2

An Electrical Storm

Thunder clouds contain tiny ice crystals and, as the clouds move around, the
ice crystals rub past one another. This rubbing creates a large charge of static
electricity. Each flash (bolt) of lightning during a storm is due to a huge electric
spark jumping from one cloud to another, or passing down to the ground.

Multiple cloud to ground lightning, Tucson, USA

Using the knowledge

Lightning jumps the smallest gaps, and often strikes tall or pointed objects. We know
that electric charge flows through conductors, so builders put a strip of metal running
from the top of a tall building down to the ground. This lets the electricity take the
easiest route to the ground and so stops damage to the building.

Round and round: Electrical circuits

You will remember from earlier in your work that blood flows in blood vessels around your body. The blood is pumped
from the heart, round the body and then back to the heart. We say it completes a circuit of the body. Electricity flows
in a similar sort of way around a circuit.

@ Electricity flows through wires (also called leads) instead of vessels. These wires act as electrical conductors
(see page 282).

@ Electricity begins and ends a circuit in a source of energy, such as a cell (battery).

@ Electricity flowing around a circuit is called electric current; it is a flow of charge.

Whether an electrical appliance uses the mains or a battery, the appliance will not work unless it is part of a complete
circuit.

POSITIVE (+)
POLE The CELL or BATTERY pushes
the electric current around
the circuit.

NEGATIVE (-)
PORE

|
aS 2 The WIRE (LEAD) lets
Za SS the electric current
flow from one
7 place to another.
The lamp lights
because the circuit
is complete.
The LAMP is a component
which needs electrical
energy to work.
 | Physical processes 287

How to connect up a complete circuit: A reminder

A cell (battery) pushes electric current around a circuit. Each cell has a positive end (+) and a negative end (-). These
are called the poles or terminals of the cell. The word polarity is used when we describe which end of a cell is which
and when we look at the direction in which the current is flowing. In order to connect up a complete circuit, you need
to:

®@ attach a lead to the positive pole of the cell;

e connect the other end of this lead to a component, such as a bulb. If the component has a positive or negative
side, connect the lead to the positive side; and

® attach another lead from the negative pole of the component to the negative pole of the battery.

There should now be a complete circuit.

Cells and batteries

A cell is a chemical source of electrical energy. Inside the cell are chemicals and, when these chemicals react together,
they make the current flow in a circuit. Once the chemicals have stopped reacting, they cannot react again and the cell
stops pushing charge around the circuit. The ‘push’ that a cell supplies to move charge around a circuit is measured
in volts (V). The higher the voltage of a cell, the more it pushes the charge.

A battery is two or more cells connected together in series. An electrical appliance, such as a radio, often needs several
cells to make it work — this collection of cells is the battery. People often use the word battery when they mean a single cell
because it sometimes isn’t possible to see all the cells. Here’s a diagram to show you more about cells and batteries:

Positive terminal (+)

(positive pole)

Case

Chemicals
inside cell
(These can
leak out
and damage
electrical
equipment.) cells make a AQ V battery
Negative terminal (—) A 1.5 V cell 3.0 V battery ate (6 x 1.5 V cells)
Cave a) ] 4.5 V battery

The pushing The power of a Take note: The (+) pole

power of a cell is battery is worked out of one cell must contact
measured in volts. | | by adding the voltage the (—) pole of the next
The symbol for of the cells together. cell.
volts is V.

A 12 V battery used to start a

car. It is made of 8 x 1.5 V cells.
 Science Book2

BECOME A HUMAN BATTERY! @ Touch both metal plates at the same time,
making sure that they are clean first.
@ The ammeter shows that a current is flowing.

Copper Aluminium WHY DOES THIS HAPPEN?

plate plate Sweat on your hands acts like acid in a battery,
starting chemical reactions with the two metals.
Your hand takes negative charges away from the
copper and gives negative charges to the
aluminium. This flow of negative charge produces
the current.
Ammeter (see page 291) IT WON'T HURT - HONESTLY!

Inside a circuit
It can be very difficult to imagine what is going on inside an electrical circuit because we can’t actually see anything
moving. The flow of electric current around the circuit can be compared again with the flow of blood in the human
circulation.

Human circulation Electrical circuit

FLSA
CELL gives a ‘push’
gives a
‘push’

CHARGE
flows in
BLOOD
electric current
flows Both electrical
circuits and the
blood system can ee ai
through have switches to “a
ARTERIES control the flow
and VEINS
(see page 290).
COMPONENTS do
TISSUES and ORGANS some work
do some work
 Physical processes 289

A model of electricity
It is sometimes helpful in understanding things we can’t see to make a model that we can see. Imagine a long tube
full of small steel balls (ball bearings). Each ball bearing is the same as all the others in the tube and the ball bearings
can be pushed through the tube using a handle.

Turning the handle puts energy into this circuit.

TOOK Pump to
K> Reet The energy is transmitted to the paddle wheel
Ly bearings by the movement of the ball bearings. The
L Weseeesen paddle wheel transforms the kinetic energy
= aro a (energy of movement) of the ball bearings into
XX
YN

movement of the paddle wheel.

OO Lee
XX bearings
|O XX
6
XO
XX Paddle XxX
XO
= wheel rs
2
@)
V KJ
KA . € A)

> SA < hy
SOOO
9 OO OSE
yY Y x 7

Key words
Current — a flow of electrons/charge.

Electron — a tiny particle that has a negative charge. Electrons can flow through conductors.

Circuit — the complete route from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a power source.

Lead — a wire that can connect different components in a circuit.

Terminals — the positive and negative ends of a power source.

Cell — a chemical source of electrical energy. Cells may be connected in series to make up a battery.

Volt — the unit of electrical ‘push’.

Component — one part of an electrical circuit.

Poles — the different ends of an electrical component — one will be positive and the other will be negative.

Exercise 20.1: Circuits

1. What three things are needed for a complete circuit?

2. What type of energy is stored in a cell?

3. What do the following represent in the model of electric current shown above?

(a) Ball bearings

(bo) Pump

(c) Paddle-wheel
290 | Science Book2

Series and parallel circuits

Remember
@ Electricity is a flow of charge.

S A current can only flow in a complete circuit.

Switches
Switches are used to control the flow of current in an electrical circuit. An open switch can put a deliberate break in a
circuit. The circuit can be completed again when the switch is closed.

A SPST switch can also be used to choose between circuits (see page 296).

Switches in circuits

SWITCH "OFF" : THE CIRCUIT IS NOT COMPLETE SWITCH "ON" : THE CIRCUIT IS COMPLETE

¢ When there is a gap, the circuit does not ¢ Here there is no gap. The metal
conduct electricity. The air acts as an insulator. contacts of the switch conduct
¢ The lamp does not light up. electricity.
¢ The switch is "OFF" or "OPEN". e The lamp lights up.
¢ The switch is "ON" or "CLOSED".

A Single Pole Double Throw

(SPDT) switch lets you
choose which circuit you will
complete.

This contact will light

the green lamp.
 : Physical processes | 291

Circuit diagrams
As you know, you need a complete circuit for electrical current to be able to flow freely. If a circuit has any breaks or
gaps in it, the electrical current will not flow freely. A circuit diagram is a simple version of a real circuit which makes
circuit drawing easier to master. The diagram should show no breaks or gaps, unless they are put there deliberately
with switches. We use symbols to make it easier to draw electrical circuits. Some of these symbols are shown in the
table below:

Circuit Symbols
COMPONENT SYMBOL WHAT THE COMPONENT IS USED FOR

Cell cm Le Provides electrical energy for the circuit.

Battery
= [lee Provides electrical energy for the circuit.

Battery (2/more celis) —fte-|E Provides electrical energy for the circuit.

Power supply (Lab Pack) ae Alternative to using cells.

Wire (!ead) conductor aa a ee Lets electric current travel through it.

Bole conductor crossover =_— Wire conductor join Paka

Light bulb/lamp : —)— Converts electrical energy into thermal and light energy.

Motor —(M)— Converts electrical energy into movement energy.

Buzzer a@ Converts electrical energy into sound energy. =

Switch (open) SPST oe Breaks the circuit and stops the flow of electric current.

SPDT Switch me ge Completes one circuit from a choice of two.

This diagram shows some examples of using circuit diagrams. You can see that it is easier to work out what is
happening by looking at a circuit diagram.

Outside Inside Circuit =—“e4yH——

diagram &
ia

TOY CAR ata a a

@ @
™)
oe

TORCH me

ae es

How is current measured?

If there is a light bulb in the circuit, we can judge the size of a current by looking at the brightness of the lamp. A
large current makes the lamp glow brightly and a small current only makes the lamp glow dimly or not at all.
However, this method is not accurate enough for scientific work, because one person might not agree with another
person about what is bright and what isn’t. For this reason, an instrument called an ammeter is used to measure the
current.

The size of the current is measured in units called amperes. Amperes is usually shortened to amps (the symbol for
amps is A).
292 | Science Book 2
When an ammeter is used it must be:
@ connected in the main circuit; and
@ connected with the red (+) terminal to the positive terminal on the cell, battery or power supply.

Using an ammeter

Correct
This terminal (the positive
terminal) MUST be
connected to the positive
terminal on the power
source.
Here the meter is connected in the circuit. It
measures the current passing through the
lamp.

= 4
SS

Here the meter is not connected in the main circuit. It Here the meter is connected the wrong way
does not measure the current passing through the lamp. around. The pointer moves the wrong way. The
The meter may be damaged. meter may be damaged.

Series circuits
In the simplest circuits all the components are joined together in one loop. There are no branches or junctions. These
are called series circuits.

Switch open — the switch cell and the two lamps Switch closed — the circuit is complete, so
are connected in series. both the lamps light up.

Here the switch is closed

but one lamp filament is
broken. The other lamp
goes out because the
series circuit is broken.

The most important thing to remember about a series circuit is that every component has to be working properly or
none of them will work. Think of the Christmas tree lights not lighting up. How often do you find that the culprit is just
one broken lamp?
 Physical processes 293

Current in a series circuit

The current is the same at all places in a series circuit. This is because the current has only one pathway to flow
througn — there is no choice. It has to pass through all of the components and back to the power source.

Wherever the ammeter is placed in the

circuit, it gives the same reading (0.6 A).
This means the current is the same
everywhere in the circuit.

This result also shows that the current

passes THROUGH the component and
is NOT used up by the component.

Tne more cells we add into the series circuit the greater the amount of current that will be ‘pushed’ around it. Any bulbs
in the circuit will be brighter or an ammeter will give a higher reading. If more bulbs or other components are added to
the Cirourt then it will be more difficult for current to flow. Bulbs will be dimmer and an ammeter will give a lower reading.
This is explained below, wnere we also give a model of current flow to help you understand what is going on.

Extra cells and components

Sia
ACTS.
CALL
MRE
a

&g
7g
4
i )
in this circuit, one cell can make a Here an extra cell has been added. Here one cell is pushing current through
curren & 0.2 A flow through one lamp. Now there is more current and the lamp two lamps. The current is only 0.15A
will lignt with extra brightness. and the lamp merely glows dimly.

This mode of current flow shows how a

second pump in the circuit increases the
flow of the ball bearings, which makes the
paddle wheel turn faster.
In an electrical circuit this means that:
* the voitage is greater;
¢ the current is greater; and
* the lamp will light with extra brightness.
294 | Science Book 2

Likewise the model shows that when a second paddle wheel is

put in the circuit, this makes it harder for the pump to move the
ball bearings. The ball bearings flow more slowly, so the paddle
bearing A
wheels turn more slowly. (Two) paddle se-
DS

In an electrical circuit this would mean that:

e the voltage is the same; OOOO
——————
7OOOO”
XOXX
e the current is less; and
A

e the lamps become dimmer.

Parallel circuits
Circuits which have junctions or branches where the electrical pathway divides are called parallel circuits. In a parallel
circuit, the current has more than one pathway that it could follow. Different currents can flow in parallel pathways and
then join up again. This type of circuit is shown below:

A circuit with two lamps

connected in parallel.

When the switch is closed,

both lamps light. The switch,
in this position, controls both
lamps.

If one of the lamps blows, the

other lamp stays on. There is
still a complete circuit through
the undamaged lamp.
 Physical processes | 295

Remember that the current in a series circuit has to pass through all of the components and an ammeter will read just
the same value wherever it is placed in the circuit. The current is the same everywhere in the circuit. As we have just
learnt, if one component isn’t working, the other components will stop working, even if they are not damaged.

The current in a parallei circuit, however, depends on the number of choices it has. An ammeter shows a different
reading depending on where it is placed in the circuit and how many of the parallel lines in the circuit are being used
at the time. If one component fails, the others will continue to work as long as they are in a different one of the parallel
lines. Parallel circuits with switches (see below) will allow you to turn different lights on and off without affecting the
others. Parallel circuits are used for house lights and power points.

Two models of parallel circuits

Model 1 Model 2
2 litres 2 litres

—-—_
<
A in out
:
> A Pump
eee <
Le>
J

-
XXX 7 2 litres 2 litres
See: ee.
EXXX XXXX in out
C
J 2 \
S &
©
Vat
&
© ©
Titre —
P<]

TX
AA
&A
vEX
> OO
~@)
~<@@)Y
f5 we y N Liquid is split between two paths, but join together
eee again. The same volume flows out as flows in.
kyhy
KJ
©
mH
eS
Flow of ball e Flow of ball
bearings H bearings
splits: some la joins
go.ene Way, oiio gees
and some go again
another
Extra paddle wheel in parallel

Ball bearings can go down two different tubes and then join
together in one tube.

The current measured

depends on where the
ammeter is placed in
the circuit.
296 | Science Book2

Working in parallel
If you look at the diagram below, you will see that in a parallel circuit each lamp is connected directly to the power
supply. The voltage (push) from the power source to the lamps is the same in each case. This means that all the lamps
will shine brightly. You can connect as many lamps as you like in parallel and they wil! always stay the same brightness.
However, when you connect more lamps in parallel, the current drawn from the battery increases. A battery will quickly
run down if it has a lot of lamps connected across it in parallel.

One lamp Two lamps in parallel

The current flows The current flows
through the lamp i| through both
and the lamp is lamps. The lamps
BRIGHT. remain BRIGHT
but twice as much
current must flow
from the power
supply.

Switches in parallel circuits

Switches can be very useful in parallel circuits because they allow you to choose how much of a circuit the current will
pass through. This illustration shows how switches can be used in this way:

—Hil
Switch A: Controls all bulbs
Switch B: Controls bulb 1
Switch C: Controls bulb 2 and 3

To light lamp 1: A and B must be closed.

To light lamps 2 and 3: A and C must be closed.

Cc To light lamps 1, 2 and 3: A, B and C must be closed.

Series or parallel
When an electrician designs an electric circuit, he or she needs to decide whether a series or a parallel circuit will be
best. Generally, a parallel circuit is better if the user needs to be able to control a number of components separately,
but this type of circuit does take a lot of current from the power supply. A series circuit is safer because the current is
smaller and is useful if you need to light several bulbs at the same time without any of them having to be particularly
bright.
 | ‘Physical processes 297

Series or parallel?
CHRISTMAS TREE lights use a series circuit.

Decorative lights on tree

HOUSEHOLD lights use a parallel circuit.

Mains

House with different rooms lit/unlit

Using the knowledge: Series or parallel?

.
Series circuit Parallel circuit

One lamp damaged, none will light. | One lamp damaged, others will still light.

One switch operates all the lamps. Each lamp can be controlled by its own switch.

Voltage from power supply is shared between Voltage across each lamp is the same as the voltage
all the lamps. | across the power supply.

Current from the power supply is low: SAFER Current from the power supply is high: MORE
and CHEAPER TO USE. | DANGEROUS and MORE EXPENSIVE.

Which type of circuit would you use if you needed the lights to be on for a long time
and if there was a chance that a toddler might be able to reach them?
 ‘Science Book2

Key words
Switch — a device that controls the flow of current in a circuit.

Symbol — a sign used for a particular electrical component.

Series circuit — an electrical circuit with all of the components joined in a single loop.

Parallel circuit — a circuit that contains junctions where the electrical pathway divides or branches.

Ammeter — an instrument for measuring electrical current.

Ampere — the unit of electrical current (often shortened to AMP).

Exercise 20.2: Series and parallel circuits

1. Match these symbols with their use. Match the letter for the symbol with the number that describes the use:

Use

(1) Uses electric power to make a sound

(2) Can break a circuit

(3) Provides power for a circuit

(4) Uses electric power to produce light

(5) Uses electric power to produce movement

2. Complete this paragraph about electric circuits. Use words from this list:

cell buzzer lead current switch components lamp _ conductor _ filament

Electricity can pass through any material thatisa......... .Acomplete circuit lets ......... flow all the way round
it. The energy can be supplied by a......... and can pass from one component to another through a ......... :
When a circuit is made up, it may include a......... , which can be opened to stop the flow of current. If the
Facets is closed, then a component such as a......... will light or a ......... will sound.

3. Complete this table to compare series and parallel circuits:

Feature Series circuit Parallel circuit

Current in different places

Number of pathways that current can take |

Effect of one damaged component

Effect of opening a switch r

4. Look at the circuit in the diagram. A current of 2.6 A flows through ammeter C when switch 1 and switch 2
are closed:

(a) What will happen to each of the lamps when switch 1 is

closed with switch 2 open?

(b) If ammeter B has a reading of 1.6 A when switch 1 and switch

2 are closed, what will be the reading of ammeter A?

(c) What will be the reading on ammeter A if switch 1 is closed

and switch 2 is open?

5. Six lamps were connected in a series circuit to a power supply. Six identical lamps were connected in a
parallel circuit to an identical power supply.

(a) In which circuit would the lamps be brighest?

(6) Which circuit would have the highest voltage across each lamp?

(c) Which circuit would be the cheapest to use (i.e. would use the least electricity)?

Extension questions
6. Find a simple electric toy or model. Try to draw a circuit diagram for your model. Don’t forget to use the
correct symbols.

The car shown in this photograph has two headlamp lamps and two rear lights connected in parallel with the
car’s battery.

(a) Draw a circuit diagram to show how the four lamps are
connected to the battery. Include in your diagram one switch
which would allow the driver to switch all the lights on or off.

(b) Use the diagram to explain why damage to one lamp will
allow the other three to continue to shine.

An electrical contractor sells lighting systems to fairgrounds. He

wants to design a system with 20 lamps: 4 red, 4 yellow, 4 green, 4 clear and 4 blue. He wants to be able
to turn all 4 lamps of the same colour on or off at the same time. If a lamp of one colour blows (stops
working), all the lamps of that colour could be off but the other colours should still be capable of being
switched on. Design a suitable circuit for this contractor.
300 | Science Book2

Problems with circuits

Don't forget
@ Acircuit has a power supply and different components joined by leads.

@ The power supply pushes the electric charge around a circuit.

What's wrong?
If a circuit doesn’t work, there may be a very simple explanation:

@ The circuit could be incomplete, which means the current can’t flow around the circuit (e.g. a broken wire, a wire
not connected to the power supply, a broken lamp filament).

iS) Polarity of cells is incorrect. If you are using more than one cell, they must all be the same way round.

Voltage, current and resistance

In a complete circuit, the current can flow because the power supply provides a voltage to ‘push’ the electric charge.
There are some rules to remember:

@ Larger voltages cause larger currents.

@ A battery or cell cannot always give the same current. The current that flows depends on what is in the circuit
connected to the battery.

G Some components allow electricity to pass easily; we say that these have a low resistance. Other components
make it hard for current to flow; we say that these have a high resistance.

Resistance reduces the flow of current

Ammeter Ammeter

When connected to a 6 V battery, this lamp allows a When two of these lamps are connected, the resistance
current of 2A is higher and so the current is about 1 A.

The wires used for connecting up circuits in the laboratory or in the home have a very low resistance. They are made
of copper which is a very good conductor of electricity. Very long wires, or very thin wires, make it difficult for current
to flow around a circuit.
 , Physical processes 301

Controlling the current

Reducing the flow of current is not always a problem. When we want to control the current, we can use a resistor. The
diagram below shows a resistor and how it can be useful in a circuit.

Controlling current with a resistor

, Ce Resistor

| #- Symbol for a resistor

Lamp

In this circuit a resistor is connected in series with the Bicicign

lamp. This protects the lamp, because extra resistance in
the circuit means that the lamp won't blow.

You can change the flow of current through a circuit by using different resistors — high, medium and low, for example
— but it is more accurate to use a variable resistor. Acommon kind of variable resistor has a very long coil of wire and
a sliding contact. The sliding contact allows you to control the length of the wire that is included in the circuit and so
control the amount of current that is able to flow.

Variable resistors can control current

A variable resistor with

a sliding contact AS,
Sliding contact
a
1

Sliding contact

Coil of wire Length of circuit wire

that the current must
pass through
Symbols for @ variable resistor

| yas
a
A dimmer switch controls room
lighting with a variable resistor.
302 | Science Book 2

Short circuits: Taking the easy route

Electricity takes the easiest route in a circuit. A short circuit occurs when the electric current is able to flow around
the circuit without going through any components (i.e. without doing any work). This sometimes means that it is taking
the shortest route (thus the name), but sometimes it will take a longer (but easier route) to avoid going through a
component (which is hard work!). The diagram shows some problems due to short circuits.

Short circuits

{1 iL
This short cut means the
—_— > current will not reach the bulb,
and the lamp will not light up.

This extra loop of wire

means the current can
flow past the switch.
The lamp will be lit even
if the switch is open.
If you make a circuit, be sure there This earth wire gives a
are no short circuits like these. short cut for mains electricity.
A good tip is to trace the path of This is important for safe use
the current with your finger. of a mains appliance.

You could be in danger if there is some faulty wiring in a mains appliance. The current might try to flow through you
instead of through the circuit. This is why plugs have an earth wire. If there is some faulty wiring which causes a short
circuit, the earth wire lets the current take a short cut to the ground instead of through your body.

Key words
Short circuit — the easiest route in an electrical circuit.

Resistance — a measure of how difficult it is for electrical current to flow through a component.

Resistor — a component with a known resistance.

 Physical processes | 303

Exercise 20.3: Problems with circuits

1. Look at these two circuits. Which part of each circuit will the current miss out?

(A) (B)

Extension questions
2. Draw a circuit diagram to show the possible faults you could find in a torch.

3. Bill and Jenny were interested in the factors that affected the resistance of a wire. They were given the
following pieces of apparatus:

Battery Switch Ammeter Roll of thick copper wire Roll of thin copper wire

Roll of thin steel wire

(a) Draw a circuit that they could use in their investigation.

(b) Explain how they could carry out a fair test to see whether the thickness or length of wire is more
important in affecting resistance.
304 : | Science Book 2

Chapter 21
More electrical components
Starting points
@ A complete electrical circuit has a power supply, a set of leads and one or more components.

e Components in an electrical circuit transform electrical energy into another useful form.

e Each electrical component can be recognised by a symbol that is used when drawing circuit diagrams.

We have already seen a number of components in electrical circuits (page 291). There are many other components
that are useful in everyday life. Some of these are shown in this table.

Component and symbol Uses Example

it ;
Fuse | Breaks a circuit if the current Fuse in |
becomes too great in the wire. plug +
Too much current can cause
damage, or even fire.
LDR (light-dependent resistor) These are components with a Lights on a Volvo
resistance that depends on light
intensity. Usually the resistance
is low in bright light and high in the
dark. They are important in systems
controlled by light intensity, such as
automatic security lights and the
driving lights on some cars.
Sail
Thermistor Has a resistance that changes Fire alarm
according to temperature, so its
resistance is usually high when
cold and lower when warm.
Used in fire alarms or in
frost-warning systems for
greenhouses.
LED (light-emitting diode) These are small lamps used in Cycle light
electronic circuits, and give a
very bright light when only a small
current flows. They are used as
indicator lamps in many electronic
devices, such as ‘on’ signals for CD
players. They are also used in 2 Zz j 5
flashing cycle lights. Neal gi ee

Transistor A transistor is a small, Motorbike

electronically-controlled —,

switch. These switches direct

small currents into different circuits.
Integrated circuits (ICs) contain
many transistors in a single
chip. These are important in
computers and in the control
systems for cars and motorbikes.
=
 | Physical | processes 305

Fuses are particularly important components in electrical circuits because they play a part in the safe use of electrical
appliances. There is a piece of wire inside a fuse. If the flow of current is too great, the wire becomes very hot and
eventually melts. A high flow of current can be very dangerous. It could lead to electric shock or to a fire, but once the
wire melts the circuit is broken and no current can flow.

How a fuse works

DANGER! Too much current could make

an appliance live and give an electric
In anormal circuit ... Normal current shock. Many house fires are started by
heated wires in appliances without the
... the fuse wire is warm correct fuse.

In a faulty circuit ... ‘

y High current

... the fuse wire becomes

hot ... and then ...

Zero current

... the fuse wire melts

and breaks the
circuit.

Key words
Fuse — a component that breaks a circuit if the current in a wire becomes too great.

Exercise 21.1: Other components

1. Why is a fuse an important part of a plug that connects an appliance to the mains?

2. Sometimes a person replaces a fuse with a piece of metal foil. Why is this dangerous?

Project
3. Find out the current values for different household fuses. Make a table to show some examples of household
appliances which should be protected by each type of fuse.
306 | Science Book 2

More about switches and control:

Truth tables and logic gates
Remember
t Electric current can pass only through a complete circuit.

8 Electric current is needed for a component of a circuit to work.

® Switches control electrica! circuits.

Electricians can be given problems to solve. Often these problems involve providing an ideal circuit for the safe and
efficient use of a machine. These circuits are likely to include switches. A set of switches connected together is called
a logic gate. These logic gates make decisions and only allow information (electric current) through if the correct
combination of switches is closed. Here are some examples of the sort of problem an electrician may have to solve:

Problem 1 : An electric grinding wheel must not be operated unless the safety screen is in position.

Solution : There are two switches arranged in series. One switch is the on/off switch for the grinding wheel. The
other switch is on when the safety screen is in the correct position. The motor will only run if switch A
and switch B are on. This arrangement is called an AND circuit, and is shown below:

se ee
AND circuit: Both switch A AND
switch B must be on before the motor
will run.

Motor

Truth tables can be used to show the action of logic gates. A The switches can only be on or off. We can
truth table shows what happens for all the possible positions represent on with a 1 and off with a O, and draw the
of the switches. This is a truth table for an AND circuit: table again.
Inputs Output Inputs Output

Switch A Switch B Motor A B ‘| Q |

Off Off Off 0 0 0

Off On Off 0 1 0

On Off Off 1 0 0

On On On 1 1 1

In this truth table, Q represents the output from the circuit (in
case, the current to the motor). An output of 0 means ‘no act
and an output of 1 means ‘action’.
 Physical processes | 307

Problem 2 ; An alarm must go off if either the newsagent’s door or the back window is opened.

Solution: To solve this problem two switches are arranged in parallel. The alarm will sound if either switch A or
switch B is on. A circuit which makes this kind of decision is called an OR circuit.

The diagram below shows the operation of an OR circuit:

OR circuit: If either switch A or

Window switch B is on the alarm will
switch switch
sound.

AND and OR circuits can either allow current to pass (1) or not (0). These circuits are often called gates, for they open
and close like gates in a field. We refer to these as an AND gate and an OR gate. Both AND and OR gates have
symbols for use when drawing circuit diagrams. These are shown below.

AND gate symbol OR gate symbol

A A
Cc Cc
B B

Electronic equipment uses integrated circuits (chips) which have many logic gates packed together into one tiny
component.

Key words
Logic gate — a set of connected switches that can make a decision about the flow of electric current.

AND gate — only allows current to flow if two switches are in the ON position.

OR gate — allows current to flow if either of two switches is in the ON position.

308 | Science Book 2

Chapter 22
Magnets and magnetic fields
Magnetic forces
We can sometimes find rocks in the ground that attract objects made from iron or steel. These naturally-occurring
magnetic rocks are called lodestones and exert a pulling force on the iron in the object. Scientists can make magnets
that work just like these magnetic rocks. These magnets are more useful than magnetic rocks because they can be
made much stronger and made into many different shapes and sizes. These modern magnets can be used for many
different jobs, e.g. fridge magnets, magnetised strips for closing doors and compasses.

Each magnet has two ends, called poles. The names of these poles come from the way in which a moving magnet
points when it is affected by the magnetic rocks in the Earth. The poles of magnets exert forces on one another. These
are shown in this diagram:

Magnets and poles

North-seeking and
South-seeking poles
ATTRACT one another.
These two unlike poles An object made of
(one is S-seeking and one is N-seeking) iron or steel is
pull towards one another. MAGNETIC, but not
= = the magnet itself!
Two South-seeking An iron nail will be
poles REPEL one attracted to either
another.
the N-seeking or
These two like poles S-seeking poles of a
(two S-seeking or two N-seeking) bar magnet.
push away from one another.

Two North-seeking
poles REPEL
one another.

An object can be magnetic but not be a magnet. For example, a piece of iron is magnetic (it is attracted to a magnet)
but does not act like a magnet itself. One piece of iron does not attract or repel another piece of iron. A magnetic object
can be magnetised — this means that it is converted into a magnet!
 Physical processes | 309

An iron nail, for example, can be placed in a magnetic field and it will become a magnet itself. Here is an explanation
of how this can happen:

A piece of unmagnetised iron.

In a magnetic field the iron

atoms line up with the field.
The iron becomes magnetised.

Ss N
The magnetised iron now
acts like a magnet.

Be carefull Make sure you can tell the difference between a magnet,
magnetic and magnetised. .

Finding the poles of a magnet

Each magnet has a North-seeking and a South-seeking pole. You can find which pole is which by hanging the magnet
up or floating it in liquid and seeing whether it points North or South. An easier way to do this is to use a compass.

Finding the poles of a magnet

If you hang a magnet USING A COMPASS TO WORK OUT

on a string, the N- THE POLES OF A MAGNET
seeking pole of the
magnet will point
to the North. NORTH

End(B)repels the N-seeking pole (red needle) of the

compass. End‘Ajattracts the N-pole-seeking
of the compass. Which of A or B is the N-seeking
pole of the magnets?

A compass works in this way because the compass needle is itself a magnet. The needle points north-south because
the Earth is also a magnet (a giant one!). The compass needle lines up with the Earth’s magnetic field. If we know
that the North-seeking pole of the compass needle always points towards the Earth’s North Pole, we can work out the
direction in which we are travelling. Hill walkers and explorers can use a compass and a map to find out where they
are and to work out in which direction to walk to find a particular place and not get lost.
 “Science Book 4 a

The Earth is just a giant magnet Compscancede

North Pole

Magnetic materials can cause problems

Most substances are not magnetic. Iron is the most important magnetic element, but nickel and cobalt are also
magnetic. Alloys — such as steel — that contain any of these elements are magnetic too. If you are trying to use a
compass to find your way, it is important to make sure that there is no magnetic material nearby. These elements are
found in rocks in the Earth’s crust, and some electrical equipment is magnetic. In some parts of Scotland the rocks are
so magnetic that a compass would just make you walk in circles!

Problems for hill-walkers

A compass needle can be

attracted to magnetic
rocks instead of being
lined up with the Earth's
magnetic field.

Magnetic fields
If you bring a metal object towards a magnet, you will feel the pull of the magnet before the object and the magnet
actually touch one another. This means that magnetism must be reaching out into the air around the magnet. Because
magnetism is able to push or pull another object, we know that magnetism is a force. We can use a compass needle
or iron filings to show the pattern of this magnetic force around a magnet:
 Physical processes 311

The magnetic field of a magnet

To see the magnetic field of a
magnet:
Card standing on top of @ Place a magnet onto some card.
bar magnet
@ Sprinkle iron filings onto card.
@ Each filing then becomes
magnetised and lines up with the
Iron filings
magnetic field of the magnet.
sprinkled onto
card @ The pattern of the filings shows us
the shape of the magnetic field.

FACT: The field is actually in three

dimensions around the magnet.

Note: look at these patterns and compare them

with the Earth's magnetic field (see page 310).

Here’s another way to see the magnetic field:

@ Use asmall compass (a plotting compass)

to trace the lines of the magnetic field.
@ The compass needle can rotate and so
will show the direction of the magnetic
field as well as its shape.

FACTS
@ The field is strongest (lines closest
together) near the poles.
—@ = The field lines run from North to South.

This pattern of magnetic force is called a magnetic field. Any object inside the magnetic field will be affected by the
magnetic force. The magnetic field is strongest where the lines of magnetic force are closest together and weakest
where the lines are far apart.

Key words
Magnet — a material that can put a pulling force on any object that contains iron.

Magnetism -— the pulling force between a magnet and a magnetic object.

Magnetic — attracted by a magnet.

Compass — an instrument that can measure the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field.

Pole — one end of a magnet.

Magnetic field — a region where there is a magnetic force.

312 | Science Book 2

Exercise 22.1: Magnets

ie Fill in the gaps to complete these sentences using words from the following list:

poles iron repel North attract

(a) Amagnet can be hung up so that it can move easily. If this happens, one end will point ......... and the
other end will point South. The two different ends of a magnet are called the ......... . Magnets exert
forces on materials that contain ......... ;

(b) Like poles of magnets ......... one another, but unlike poles ......... :

Draw a diagram to explain how a compass works. Explain how magnetic objects can make a compass
unreliable.

Make a copy of this table. Complete the table to show you understand the forces between magnets.

L Pole of first magnet Pole of second magnet Do they attract or repel? | Is this a push or a pull?

Complete this paragraph using words from the following list:

repelled North magnetised

When an unmagnetised nail is put into a magnetic field, it becomes ......... . The South-seeking pole of a
magnetised nail will be attracted to the ......... pole of a magnet, but will be ......... by the South-seeking pole
of a magnet.
 | Physical processes | 313

Electricity and magnetism

Remember
C Magnetism is a force.

® A magnet has a magnetic field that exists in three dimensions all around it.

A piece of steel that has been magnetised so that it keeps its magnetic properties is called a permanent magnet.
Scientists have discovered that an electric current also exerts a magnetic force. This means that we can use electricity
to make magnets, called electromagnets. Electromagnets can be turned on and off. Much of our modern technology
depends on this.

Linking electricity and magnetism

The circuit shown below shows that there is a magnetic field around a wire that is carrying an electric current. This link
between electric current and magnetism is called electromagnetism.

OERSTED'S EXPERIMENTS: The Danish scientist Hogs

Oersted showed the effect of an electric current on a ei epee
compass needle.

1. Switch open: There is no current flow. See how 4)

the compass needle lines up with the Earth's field.

Closed
2. Switch closed: The current flows. The compass
needle is deflected and lines up with the magnetic field
around the wire.

Current

3. Switch closed but current reversed. The compass Closed

needle is deflected in the opposite direction because a ——-
the lines of force in the magnetic field are now running
in the opposite direction.
314 | Science Book 2

The magnetic field around an ordinary electric wire is not very strong, but its shape can be shown using plotting-
compasses and the apparatus shown below:

A magnetic field around a wire

Field
A small current will not
Vial wire
move iron filings, so
sensitive plotting Card
compasses must be used.

Plotting
compass

Switch closed — current flows: The

needles deflect and show the pattern
and direction of the magnetic field.
Switch open — no current: The
needles do not deflect, showing that
the current gives only a temporary
magnetic field.
A larger current (more voltage,
thicker wire) can enable you to
make a pattern with iron filings.

Electromagnets
A coiled wire (called a solenoid) gives a stronger field than the straight wire shown above. The field becomes even
stronger if the wire is coiled around a rod of iron. The rod of iron is called the core, and the coil and core together make
up an electromagnet. The field pattern around an electromagnet is the same as that around a bar magnet, as shown:

The magnetic field around an electromagnet

The pattern and the direction of

the magnetic field around an
electromagnet are the same as the
15V
BATTERY field around a bar magnet (see
aan
Se page 311).
 Ph ysical processes 315

Making the field stronger

It is very useful to have a magnet that can be switched on and off. The pulling force of the magnet can be used to lift
a magnetic object. The current can then be switched off and the magnetic material can be dropped. An electromagnet
like this can be used for separating magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials, for example in a scrapyard.

An electromagnet can be used to sort out materials in a scrapyard

MAGNET OR MAGNETIC? ;
A magnet can attract some metals. magic OU yBGss
A metal that is magnetic is attracted up the steel cans.
to a magnet but is not a magnet itself.

Useful aluminium cans are

left behind,so that the
metal can be re-used.

Cans collected for recycling

might be aluminium (valuable)
CRAZY BUT TRUE! Each year the USA
or steel (not so valuable). throws away enough metal cans to make
32,000 Boeing 737 passenger jets.

As well as just switching an electromagnet on or off, it is also possible to control the strength of the magnetic field.
There are three ways that this can be done:

@ by increasing the electric current;

e by increasing the number of coils in the solenoid; or

e by changing the material in the core.

316 | Science Book2 i

Investigating the strength of an electromagnetic field

A current flowing through

a coiled wire acts like a magnet.

_ ee)
1. Use a bigger current. 2. Put more turns of wire 3. Use an Iron core inside
on the coil. the coil.

rn
N I
°e,

SALAM

FAIR TES*?
If you are investigating
the strength of an
electromagnet, then keep:
® the number of coils; and
® current constant.
Can you think of any
factor to keep constant?

You can then check if the core material matters.

Iron core Steel core Glass core

|
(D
a

SCC
YG
SSKASASASA
 Physical processes 317

More uses for electromagnets

So we now know that electromagnets can be switched on and off. This makes them very useful in many ways:

Magnets and medicine A relay is an electrically-controlled switch.

Electromagnets are used: This uses a small current to turn on another

circuit. The second circuit may carry a large
@ to remove metal splinters from current, needed to turn a powerful motor.
wounds;
Relay (4)
@ to look inside the body, using Contacts
(3) Soft iron
Magnetic Resonance Imaging armature
(MRI) [see photograph]. 1) Ignition switcn Uy
Starter
k--- motor
Car Electromagnet (2) Car
battery battery
An electric bell
@® The ignition switch (1) is closed and a
@ Switch (1) is closed, usually by
small (safe!) current flows to the
pushing a button.
electromagnet (2).
@® The armature (3) is pulled across to
the electromagnet.
ELECTRO-
@ A pivot in (8) means the contacts (4)
a MAGNETS are pushed together so that the
second circuit (5) is completed.
ARE USEFUL
@ A large current flows in (5) to turn the
starter motor (See p318 for circuit
diagram).

The electromagnet (2) produces a A reed switch is a small relay used in electronic
pulling force. circuits.
The armature (3) is pulled towards
(2), so the gong strikes the bell.
= no magnet:
The reed switch has thin
metal contacts inside a glass
switch open tube.
The contact breaker (4) breaks the
circuit, so the pulling force stops.
A magnet can bring the
The spring (5) pushes the armature contacts together in a
magnet nearby:
back, the circuit is complete again switch closed normally-open (NO) switch.
and the whole cycle is repeated...
RRRIININNNGGG! In a normally-closed (NC)
switch the magnet keeps the
contacts apart. Removing
the magnet makes the
electromagnet on:
Magnetic Trains switch closed contacts move together. An
NC reed switch can be used
Monorail train systems, like in a simple burglar alarm.
those at Disneyworld, use
electromagnets to ‘float’ about
15 mm above the track. This
gives a very smooth ride, and
saves wear on the wheels and
track.
| Science Book 2

Key words
Electromagnet — a magnet formed when electric current passes through a wire.

Solenoid — a coil of wire that forms part of an electromagnet.

Core — an iron bar that may be placed inside a solenoid to form a powerful electromagnet.

Exercise 22.2: Electromagnetism

1. How would the pulling force of an electromagnet be affected by:
(a) Changing the iron core for a copper core?
(6) Increasing the current through the coils?
(c) Using a coil with fewer turns?
(d) Changing the iron core for a steel core?

2. What is the main reason for using a relay to switch on an electric motor?

3. Look at the diagram of the relay on page 317.

(a) Copy out the diagram with the switch in the closed position. Use a red pencil or pen to trace the flow of
current through this circuit.
(b) Show in your diagram where the largest current would be measured.

4. Look at the circuit diagram below. Redraw it to show what happens when the driver of a car closes the ignition
switch by using a key.

Starter
button
12v Battery

Coil
CC —_—_— Starter
motor

Extension question
5. Describe how you would investigate how the number of coils in an electromagnet affects the strength of the
magnetic field. In your answer you should include:
(a) Diagrams of the apparatus set up for use.
(b) Any steps taken to make sure that this is a fair test.
(c) The results you might expect to get.
 Ph ysical processes 319

Chapter 23
More about energy
Temperature and energy

Remember
@ No action can take place without energy.

) There are different forms of energy.

© Energy can be changed from one form to another — these changes always involve internal/thermal energy.

Hot and cold: Measuring temperature

You should by now be familiar with the concept of measuring temperature. Dipping your finger in is not very reliable!

What do we mean by temperature?

Remember that internal/thermal energy is just one kind of energy. If a material has a lot of internal/thermal energy, we
say it is hot and, if it has very little heat, we say it is cold. Temperature is a scale of numbers that we use to measure
the amount of internal/thermal energy that a material has.

Look back to the section on dissolving solids (page 159). We saw that we can dissolve more sugar in hot water than
we can in cold water. Rather than just saying ‘hot’ it would be better to give an actual number. What feels like hot to
one person may not feel quite so hot to another person. For this reason, scientists measure the temperature of the
water using a thermometer when they are doing an experiment such as this. So every person who measures the
temperature of the same hot water, using a thermometer, should get exactly the same number.

Temperature scales
The Fahrenheit scale was invented in 1724. Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit decided that the zero on his scale would be
the lowest temperature he could reach; this was the temperature of the strongest salt solution he could make. He also
decided that 100 °F would be the temperature of our bodies.

In 1742 Anders Celsius, a Swiss astronomer, invented a different scale. This was the Celsius (or Centigrade) scale.
This scale was based around the freezing point and boiling point of pure water. In science, we use the Celsius scale.

There is also another scale used in science, called the Kelvin (K) scale. On this scale the zero is at minus 273 °C, the
lowest temperature possible. 0 °C is the same as 273 K (note that we don’t write in the ° sign on the Kelvin scale; we
just use a K to show that the Kelvin scale is being used).
320 | Science Book 2

Here is a comparison of the three temperature scales:

Different temperature scales

OAD wen beac Soccernet eee 100 kee 5773 Nee Pure water
Boiling Point
There are 100
degrees (or
graduations)
between O and
100. That's why
Celsius is
sometimes called
centi (hundred)
grade

Ce Oc ae 21S e eae Pure water

Freezing Point

Degrees on the Kelvin

scale are the same size
as degrees on the Celsius
scale - this makes
conversion easy.

Fahrenheit F Celsius °C

Kelvin (K)

1?This is the lowest

Ley 0 temperature possible...
BRRRRRI!
This is absolute zero.
 ae Physical processes | 321

Different thermometers
There are many different types of thermometer as well as the liquid-in-glass type you are already hopefully familiar
with. Thermocouples have two different wires twisted together. Two sets of these junctions are connected to an
instrument (a galvanometer) that measures voltage. The thermocouple produces a voltage when it is heated. One of
the junctions is put into melting ice at 0 °C to provide a reference point and the other junction is used to measure the
temperature you want to know. Thermocouples have several advantages:

@ they can work at higher temperatures than many other types of thermometer; and

@ they can be used to measure the temperature of very small objects.

Thermocouples can be built into temperature probes. These have a metal or glass casing outside the thermocouple
which means that they can be pushed into quite hard objects. Temperature probes are very useful for measuring the
temperature of foods (such as meat and fish) and soil. A cheap and convenient thermometer uses a liquid crystal
strip which changes colour according to temperature. These strips are used as aquarium thermometers and can give
a rapid indication of your skin temperature if placed against the forehead.

Different types of thermometer

ENERGY wees
Follow those simple
to TeRCN 1

i twin otf nn
2. Torn a Mi
So. Keepoi
Galvanometer 4. Switch onbein rea

t ovarnentinn
will incemaa

Thermocouple

Object with A liquid crystal strip used for measuring

unknown room temperature
temperature

Melting ice

Body temperature: How warm is warm blooded?

Humans, like other mammals, are warm blooded. This means that they can keep their body temperature constant
even when the temperature of their surroundings is changing. We can check just how warm a human is by using a
thermometer. Doctors can use a special thermometer with a very short scale that starts at the lowest possible body
temperature someone can have and goes up to the highest. Many people have a thermometer like this at home. If you
aren't feeling very weil, your mother or father can check your temperature.
322 Science Book 2

Measuring body temperature ee el

The human body temperature
can be measured with a Linear scale (35 °C to 42 °C).
thermometer, either:
¢ under the tongue; or
¢ in the armpit.
The thermometer should be
left in place for the recommended
time before reading it.
: Marker at 36.9 °C to show
If microbes infect ‘y+ normal body temperature.
our body, the
temperature may Constriction holds liquid in
go up to 39-40 °C. place whilst reading the
This is called a
FEVER. If the
temperature.
Normal human body
temperature gets temperature = 37 °C Liquid
higher than this, it
can be very dangerous. Thin wall of bulb (so therm
energy is conducted very
quickly to liquid)
In summary: Energy and temperature
e Temperature is a way of describing how hot or cold an object is. It gives a measure of how concentrated the
internal/thermal energy is in an object. The unit of temperature is the degree Celsius (°C), and temperature is
measured using a thermometer.

® Internal/thermal is one form of energy. The unit of energy is called a joule (J).

An object can contain a great deal of internal/thermal energy without having a high temperature. For example, a warm
bath contains a great deal of thermal energy, but it is not very hot. This is because the thermal energy is spread out
between the many particles of water in the bath. An object may contain a lot of other types of energy without being
warm. Foods and fuels contain a great deal of energy, but they don’t become hot until the energy is released as thermal
energy when the object burns.

Temperature and the kinetic theory

Remember that the kinetic theory explains the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases in terms of moving particles (See
page 151). When the particles are close together, there are strong forces between them and they attract one another.
When a substance is heated, the particles move more quickly. The source energy is transferred to the particles as
increased kinetic energy. At the same time the substance’s temperature goes up.

The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its particles.

Key words
Temperature — a measure of how concentrated an object’s internal/thermal energy is.

Thermometer — an instrument for measuring temperature.

Internal/thermal energy — giving an object more of this makes it hotter.

Thermocouple — two wires twisted together that can be used as a very sensitive thermometer.

Kinetic energy — energy possessed by moving particles.

 "Physical processes

Exercise 23.1: Temperature

1. Explain how a thermometer works.

2. What is the melting point of pure water using the Celsius scale? What is the boiling point of pure water using
the Celsius scale?

3. Sugar and fat contain a lot of energy. Ice cream contains a lot of sugar and fat. Why isn’t ice cream hot?

4. What is the body temperature of a normal healthy human?

5. Which is hotter, a burning sparkler or the school swimming pool? Which one has the most internal/
thermal energy?

Extension question
6. Two liquids often used in thermometers are mercury and alcohol. Some of the properties of these two liquids
are compared in this table:

| Mercury Alcohol

Boiling Point 365 °C (8:526

Freezing Point -39 °C -117 °C

_ Colour Silver Clear, but can be dyed

_——EE

Cost Expensive Cheap

"Conducts thermal energy | Well (heats up quickly) Not so well (heats up slowly)

Toxicity Poisonous Not poisonous in small amounts

Metal or not Metal Non-metal

Conducts electricity Well An insulator

Flammability Non-flammable 1 Flammable

Density High Low

Surface Tension High Not so high

Degree of expansion Average Large

when heated

(a) Which property is most important if you want a very sensitive thermometer?

(b) Why is alcohol most common in school laboratory thermometers?

(c) Which type of thermometer would be most useful for measuring the temperature of a lamb stew?

(d) Which liquid would be best-suited in a thermometer used to measure the temperature in a freezer?
py | Science |={oyo) a4

The passage of thermal energy:

Insulators and conductors
Remember
@ Temperature depends on the average kinetic energy of particles.

Before we start learning some new things, it is probably a good idea just to check that you have remembered exactly
what thermal conduction and thermal insulation mean.

What is thermal conduction?

Thermal energy can pass from one place to another. This thermal energy can take place in three ways: radiation
(e.g. thermal energy from the Sun), convection (e.g. when the liquid in a saucepan rises and begins to cook the food)
and conduction (e.g. thermal energy reaching your hand when you touch a hot plate). We are now going to learn
about all three.

Materials that allow thermal to pass through them are called thermal conductors. Some materials are better thermal
conductors than others. A good thermal conductor often feels cold because it’s so good at conducting thermal energy
away from your hand (assuming its colder than your hand in the first place).

Thermal energy will always travel from a warmer place to a cooler one. This can be a problem for many reasons:

®@ Our bodies are usually warmer than our surroundings, so we would cool down by losing thermal energy. If we
got too cold, it could easily affect our life processes (see page 8).

e Our houses are usually warmer than the surroundings, so they lose thermal energy. We can help stop this
thermal energy loss by having good insulation in our homes. This is important because the thermal energy was
produced in the first place by burning fuel. Fuel is expensive and there is only a limited amount of fuel available
on this Earth.

Freshly-cooked food and drinks can cool down once they are taken away from the place they were cooked.

Frozen food is colder than its surroundings. It will tend to gain thermal energy, warm up and melt. This means
we cannot store it for very long.

What is thermal insulation?

Some materials do not let thermal energy pass through them. These materials are called thermal insulators. Being
a thermal insulator is very useful in helping to stop thermal energy moving from one place to another. For example,
oven gloves, a wooden handle on a saucepan, a cork teapot stand, the plastic casing of a refrigerator, a tea cosy.

How does conduction happen?

We can use the idea of kinetic energy in particles to explain what happens when a hot object is placed in contact with a
cold object. Metals are good conductors of thermal energy because of the way in which their atoms are packed together
(see page 151). If one end of a bar of metal is heated, the atoms at that end will start to vibrate because of the thermal
energy. These atoms will pass on their vibration to other atoms near them.
 Physical processes 325

In this way thermal energy is passed along the metal, as shown below:

Thermal energy transfer by conduction

Good Poor conductors

conductors (insulators)

Glass
METALS
especially: Water

Silver Plastic

Copper Wood
Aluminum Materials Wool
Higher average Lower average’ Fibrewool
kinetic energy = kinetic energy = with air
higher temperature trapped Plastic foam
lower temperature
in them Fur
Feathers
Air
Thermal energy moves
from higher temperature
to lower temperature.

Fat is an excellent insulator:

SS N =~ = — =

Hotter © ) oO 6 69060 96 @ Cooler

end . a8 _ —===> ar end

paces @ GF 6 @2@@O6 @
, SO ee Gr Grn F- y
(particles
vibrating
Yi Y ~~ N ~ ~\ x
more) "“, @, @, (©) oO oO (@) less)
Sea mammals, like whales and
dolphins, have a thick layer of
Thermal energy blubber (fat) beneath the skin.
moves this way This reduces the loss of thermal
energy from the body to the
cold water

Insulators such as those shown in the diagram on page 275 do not have this kind of structure. The particles in glass,
plastic, rubber and wood cannot pass on this kinetic energy from one to another. Air is an excellent insulator because
the particles are so far apart that they cannot easily pass on energy.

Convection
Although air is an excellent insulator, it can pass on thermal energy /f it is free to circulate. When air is heated, it
expands because the air particles gain energy and move further apart. As it expands, it becomes less dense (see page
151), and it floats upwards because cooler, denser air sinks and pushes it out of the way. This circulating flow of air is
called a convection current:
K y4.) Science Book 2 |

Thermal energy transfer by convection EP

Air cools

Convection current

Convection currents can

ventilate mines. Air is
Hot air expands, Cool at heated at the bottom of
becomes less dense is dso | one shaft and rises up the
a nd rises. and so shaft. This draws cold
it Sinks. fresh air down another
shaft and along the
tunnels.

Cool air moves into the

space left by warm air. Heater

Central heating radiators are badly named, They do not radiate

very much thermal energy but they warm the air around them.

Winds are caused by convection currents. During the day the land warms up more quickly than the sea. The warm air
over the land rises and cold air from the sea moves in to replace it. So, during the day, breezes blow from the sea
towards the land. At night the land cools down faster than the sea. The warm air over the sea rises and cold air from
the land moves in to replace it. So, during the night, breezes tend to blow from the land out towards the sea.

Convection currents cause winds

Air
cools

Large birds of prey

use thermals.
These are spiral
columns of warm air Warm Cold dense
caused by the less-dense air sinks
uneven heating of air rises
the land beneath
them, e.g. an eagle.

Air movement = wind

and warms up
more quickly
than the sea
 | Physical processes | 327

Hard work on a summer's day!

Cycling to the beach in the morning — against Cycling home in the evening against the
the onshore winds! This is because the land offshore winds! This is because the land cools
warms more quickly than the sea. more quickly than the sea.

Convection also transfers thermal energy in liquids

Here’s an experiment which shows how convection also transfers thermal energy in liquids. If you drop a crystal of
potassium manganate (VII) into a beaker of water, a purple colour begins to spread out into the water as the crystal
dissolves. If the water is gently heated, the colour rises through the water. This happens because the thermal energy
transferred to the water raises the kinetic energy of the water and the potassium manganate (VII) particles. The
particles move further apart and the water expands. The warmer water is now less dense than the colder water at the
top of the beaker, so the warmer water rises upwards, carrying the coloured potassium manganate (VII).

Convection in liquids

| GET IT RIGHT!
People say ‘heat rises’, but that's not quite right.
Particles rise and they carry thermal energy with them!

Molecules of water and

potassium manganate (VII)
move up.

Thermal energy
 | Science Book 2

Key words
Thermal conduction — movement of thermal energy through a medium.

Thermal insulation — prevention of the movement of thermal energy.

Convection — movement of thermal energy as a flow of a liquid or gas.

Exercise 23.2: Conduction and convection

1. Why do a knife and fork feel colder than the table they are lying on?

2. Why does glass in a window feel cooler than the wooden window frame around it?

3. Put these materials into order of thermal conduction with the best conductor first and the worst one last.

steel plastic glass air wood cloth

4. Explain each of the following:

(a) In most saucepans the base is made of metal but the handle is plastic.

(b) The best sleeping bags have pockets filled with feathers and air.

5. In this diagram thermal energy is flowing through a metal bar. Which end of the bar has:

(a) The higher temperature?

(b) The faster-moving particles?

 Physical processes YAS)

More methods of thermal energy transfer

Starting point
@ Thermal energy can be transferred to the particles that make up all substances.

As we have learnt, thermal energy can be transferred by conduction and convection. These two processes transfer
thermal energy to the particles of substances. Another way of transferring thermal energy is evaporation. To
understand how this works, we must make sure we know how particles behave and understand kinetic theory (see
page 152). In a liquid the molecules vibrate and move around, but they are still close enough for the forces of attraction
to hold them together. Not all the molecules move at the same speed (i.e. they don’t all have the same kinetic energy).
Some molecules move more quickly than average and some move more slowly. A molecule can gain enough energy
to overcome the forces of attraction and that’s when a molecule can escape from other molecules. This is what
happens during evaporation:

Thermal energy transfer by evaporation

As your hands dry, they

Escaping’ molecules have feel colder. This is
more than average kinetic because energy is
energy. needed to turn liquid
water into vapour. The
vapour takes energy from
your hands, so they cool
down. Overall, energy is
Liquid is cooler because transferred from your
average energy of hands to the air.
molecules is lower.

When a liquid evaporates, it takes in thermal energy from its surroundings and makes the
surroundings colder. This cooling effect is used in a refrigerator. The refrigerator's pipes contain freon,
a substance which evaporates and condenses easily.

The liquid freon When the pressure

is pushed drops, the liquid freon
through a narrow evaporates to a gas.
valve and the iE Thermal energy is taken
pressure drops. in from the fridge and
the fridge cools down.
The pump puts pressure Freezer
on the freon gas. The compartments
gas condenses toa |
liquid and thermal
energy is given out. Pump

Freon liquid | hoe =

The pump keeps the Oe
=—=——= Freon gas ae a
freon moving. ——
ees The freon moves Rear view of a refrigerator. You can
in this direction see the pump and the tubes
The working parts of a refrigerator through which warm freon flows.
Only the fastest molecules (the ones with the most energy) can break free from the liquid. This means that the average
energy of the molecules left behind is lower, and so the temperature of the liquid falls slightly. In other words,
evaporation of a liquid causes cooling.

The Earth obtains an enormous amount of thermal energy from the Sun. The Sun’s energy travels to all parts of the
solar system as electromagnetic radiation. This includes:

light rays (that we can see); and

infrared rays (which are invisible).

All rays cause heating.

The Sun and radiation

Thermal radiation Clouds absorb and reflect

NOT TO SCALE!
The Sun is much, travels in straight some of the thermal
much bigger than lines. radiation from the Sun.
the Earth

_ a
=
= ——

pe eae ——
—— aa oe
ae een i.
-— ae Maco
-— id
at ae -— aon a ———
--" — a
-_--" —-——-"---
-_--" ap
fe ee

poems age, rm
-—-L a a gly
ee — ee
ee es —— ee ee
eae ee —
ae eesee
ae ea
sere
Se a
ae _—
ip aad

2. Space is almost a vacuum. The Sun's

energy cannot reach us by conduction or
convection because each of these
processes depends on the movements
of tiny particles. 3. The Earth is warmed by the
thermal radiation it absorbs.

The radiation we absorb can heat us up and so is called thermal radiation. All warm or hot objects give off thermal
radiation. Some examples are shown on the next page:
 Physical processes 331

The grill’s heating element gives off thermal radiation in all directions

Some of the
When cooking with a grill,
thermal
the heating element does not
radiation
touch the food (so this isn't
travels
conduction) and is above the
downwards
food (so it's not convection
to the bread
because hot air moves
and toasts it!
upwards). It must be radiation.

RADIATION AND
| TRANSFER OF | |
THERMAL ENERGY

SPACE BLANKET KEE ELECTRIC IFIRE

The inside of a kettle is shiny to
Reflective space blankets reduce reflect thermal radiation back
inwards, and the outward is shiny
thermal energy loss by radiation.
to reduce thermal energy loss
by radiation.

Shiny back to the

fire reflects thermal
off thermal radiation towards
radiation the user.

Black surfaces are the best at giving off thermal radiation. A black surface looks black because it absorbs most of
the light that falls on it (see page 417). A lot of this light energy is radiated as thermal radiation which cannot be
seen. A good radiating surface also absorbs thermal radiation well; if you paint part of your hand black and hold it in
front of a fire, the black part will feel hotter than the rest.

White or silvery surfaces are poor at absorbing radiation but good at reflecting radiation. In hot, sunny countries
buildings are often painted white and light-coloured clothes are worn so that they absorb as little of the Sun’s radiation
as possible. These surfaces are also bad at releasing energy by radiation.
332 | Science Book2

These rules of absorption and reflection are shown below:

Giving off Best Worst

radiation

White Silvery

Reflecting Wore Best

radiation

Absorbing Worst
radiation

Radiation travels in straight lines. When you stand looking at a fire, the thermal radiation will warm your face but your
back will feel cold. Radiation is not a good way of heating a room because it only heats the parts of the room that the
radiation can reach in straight lines. An area behind your favourite armchair could be quite cold. Convection is a much
better way of heating a space such as a room.

Reducing thermal energy flow: The vacuum flask

A vacuum flask is made of two containers inside one another and separated by a vacuum. The surfaces of both containers
are silvery and so reduce energy transfer by radiation. The vacuum between the containers prevents thermal energy loss
by conduction and convection. A vacuum flask can keep a hot liquid hot or a cold liquid cold (though not at the same time!).

The stopper prevents

convection and
reduces conduction

Glass or steel Part-vacuum (space

with some air remove
reduces conduction
Outside — plastic for
appearance, or and convection.
polished stainless
steel to reduce Silvery surfaces
radiation even reduce radiation.
more!
 Ph ysical processes

Key words
Evaporation — transfer of thermal energy as a liquid changes to a vapour.

Radiation — transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves.

Vacuum — a space that contains no particles.

Exercise 23.3: Radiation

1. If these cars are left standing in a sunny car park, which
one would you expect to get hotter inside? Explain your
answer.

2. An electric oven has heating elements in its walls. These walls release thermal energy as electricity flows
through them.

Door is
double glazed

Air in gap

(a) Name the process that transfers thermal energy through the walls of the oven.

(b) The inside surfaces of the oven are usually painted black. Give a good reason for this.

(c) If you are cooking a pizza (which needs a high temperature), you are recommended to put it on the top
shelf of the oven. Why should you do this?

(d) An oven door is double-glazed. Explain how the double-glazing cuts down the amount of thermal energy
which is lost from the oven.
334 ij Science Book2

Extension question
3. Philip and Natasha wanted a cup of tea. They decide to investigate how quickly the tea cooled. They filled
two mugs, made from different materials, with hot tea. The temperature of the tea was measured every five
minutes for twenty minutes. Their results are shown in the table below:

me in minutes Temperature in mug A in °C Temperature in mug B in °C

90

69

46
35

27

(a) Plot the results on a line graph (you should have one line for each mug).

(6) What was the temperature in mug A after 4 minutes?

(c) How long did it take the tea in mug B to reach 30 °C?

(d) What was the difference in temperature between the tea in the two mugs after 15 minutes?

(e) Which mug was made from the better insulating material?

(f) If the two mugs were made from the same plastic material, but one was dark blue and the other was
yellow, which colour was mug A and which was mug B? Explain your answer.
 : Physical processes 335

Chapter 24
Conservation of energy
Remember
@ All energy chains end up as internal/thermal energy.

& Energy is not lost during an energy transfer.

e Energy can be changed from one form to another.

Power stations generate electricity by using some sort of fuel. Power stations are not 100% efficient. In fact, about half
of the energy in the fuel does not end up as electricity that we can use. This energy is wasted as far as we are
concerned, but it has not disappeared. We say that this energy has been dissipated.

This can be used to

carry out work that is
useful to humans.

This energy is
and sound dissipated.

EFficiencye Useful energy OUTPUT x 100

Energy INPUT

lf we measure how much energy we put into a device and how much energy we get out of the device, we can work
out how efficient the device is. Efficiency of a device or machine compares the energy used by the device with the
useful energy given out by the device.
336 Yel
[=slor= =fele) @r4

This diagram shows the efficiency of a common power tool, an electric drill:

Kinetic

58%

Kinetic
Wasted The law of conservation
vibration of the | 8% 100% of energy:
drill
Total energy output =
Therma Energy input
Wasted thermal 20%
energy

Electric energy
input 100%

We can use a special type of diagram to look at the energy transformations and losses when using a machine. This is
called a Sankey diagram. A Sankey diagram for the electric drill is shown below:

i(=Youdd(om=)a\=1
00)\Vam 0)07-3

100%

Thermal 20%

Sound 14%

Vibration 8%

An important example of energy transformation occurs in the engine of a car. We use cars a great deal in the U.K. and
it is important to realise how much of the stored energy in a fossil fuel (petrol) is wasted.

Useful
progress
pe /
ees
Sound 5%

Thermal
energy
65%
What a waste!
 Physical processes

The Law of Conservation of Energy

Here is a reminder about the Law of Conservation of Energy. When energy is dissipated we can’t use it any more but,
as we have just learnt, it has not been lost. What in fact has happened is that the energy has been changed into some
other form.

Energy can never be created nor destroyed — this is the Law of Conservation of Energy.

A final point to remember is that the conservation of energy is not the same as saving energy (see page 274).

Key words
Dissipated — spread out from the place of production.

Efficiency — a way of comparing the energy given out by a device with the energy it uses — high efficiency
means very little energy is wasted.

Sankey diagram — a picture which shows what happens to the energy input to a machine.

Law of Conservation of Energy — energy can never be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one
form into another.

Exercise 24.1: Energy conservation

1. What forms of energy does a TV set produce?

2. Give one reason why you should never put a piece of paper over a lamp to cut down the light it gives out.

3. Look at this diagram of a power station. Fill in the missing words in (a) — (e) to show how energy is lost as
waste forms of energy.

Thermal energy losses at a power station

Chae loss to air (DB) orescence. loss to air through
cooling tower

_ (d)sae. energy i/
losses t
(op Niscree energy |1
losses
Generator
—Steam— | # F generates
| thal Bee ; ee Steam pel — electricity
Power station turns Turbine Generator
turbine
338 | Science Book 2

Now look at the Sankey diagram for the power station.

Coal in power station 200 J

: °
7%o
toh Les|
%

%
e thermal energy in power lines

(f) What percentage of energy is wasted as thermal energy from light bulbs?

(g) What percentage of energy is lost as waste thermal energy in the power lines?

(h) How many joules of energy put into the power station end up as waste thermal enrgy from the power
station itself?

(i) What is the overall efficiency of the power station in converting energy to light in light bulbs?
 ~~ Physical processes

Energy and living things

e e e

You can tell that something is a living organism because it carries out certain life processes (see page 8). One of these
life processes is respiration. Respiration releases the energy needed to carry out the other life processes
(see page 46).

We obtain the energy needed to carry out these life processes from the stored chemical energy in food. Respiration
releases the energy from food in small packets that can then be used to carry out the processes that keep a living
organism alive. The link between food and life processes is shown here:

Energy is needed for work

ey
ts
é
é
Growth

RESPIRATION ) Safe packets wb

of energy Keeping warm

Reproduction

VC

Excretion

FOOD is a store
of chemical energy. Neat

internal actions

Work: The processes that keep

the body alive.
340 | Science Book2
ics

Where did the food energy come from?

Energy is transferred from one organism to another through food chains (see page 99). Plants are able to trap light
energy and store it as food molecules. Different types of food molecules have different amounts of energy. It is
important to balance the amount of food energy taken in with the amount of energy needed for keeping the body in
good working order.

The energy balance

Some energy from the Sun The energy we need is released

becomes stored in chemicals from these foods during respiration.
made during photosynthesis.

There can be
problems if you get
Plants are eaten and the balance wrong
digested by animals. Some (see page 58).
of the energy becomes
stored in animal tissue.
Molecules in plant and
animal tissue contain
chemical energy.

Energy intake from food ... ... energy needed for work.

... must be balanced with ... Energy released by

Activity the body every ten
} A minutes

7 Lying in bed 60 000 J (60 kJ)

1300 kJ

Walking slowly 135 000 J (135 kJ)

Walking quickly 210 000 J (210 kJ)

Keeping warm on
cold days increases
ee”
the amount of
a
Chapatti Cream cake
1500 kJ 1250 kJ energy you need.
 Physical processes | 341

Remember that energy is measured in joules (J) and that one thousand joules is called a kilojoule (kJ). You can find
out the energy content of different foods by reading the information on the packet. It is a legal requirement to show
how much energy is contained in a food.

Energy in foods

NUTRITION INFORMATION
NUTRITION INFORMATION 100g of uncookedpasta weighs approximately
. per 100gm of |per 45gm with 190g when cooked
Typical values | Nestle 125ml Semi- TYPICAL VALUES ( dry weight)
Shreddies skimmed milk

Energy
1485kJ 922kJ per 100g

350kcal | 218kcal 1559 kJ

367 k cal
Protein 9.9g 8.8g D
11.59
Carbohydrate 2g | 79.19
SELF-RAISING LOUR Carbohydrate 73.4g 39.2g
of whichsugars : 2.09
of which: sugars q 5.59 13.8g of whichstarch ; 77.19
INGREDIENTS Farer Se | BS Fat 0.59
Wheattlour, raising agents: sodium hydrogen which: saturated 0.4g 1.3g Fibre : 2.09
carbonate, disodium diphosphate, Fibre 9.89 4.4g Sodium lessthan0.1g | lessthan0.1g
monocalcium phosphate, made with
unbleached wheatflour. Sodium 0.49 0.2g
GUIDELINE DAILY AMOUNTS
NUTRITION INFORMATION Cereal
EACH DAY WOMEN MEN
CALORIES 2000 | 2500
100g typically gives you:
= ” NUTRITI -ApMATION —t—‘(itié‘ 709 959
Energy |1495kJ | 352 kcal | NUTRITION INFORMATION OFFICIAL GOVERMENT FIGURES FOR AVERAGE ADULTS
Protein | 9.8g [Typical values | Per 100g — jPerserving(2079)
eat voul ate | i569 308kJ/72kcal |633Ki/149kcal |
Fat

Basinati
ee 2g
: Carbohydrate
| (of which sugars)

ce
~ Fat (of which
- saturated)

5 010142 008685 > Suudium NUTRITION INFORMATION

Healthy living, a low fat food
_ Salt equivalent A 75g serving of rice weighs approx. 195g when cooked
Best before end: see back of pack
= TYPICAL Uncooked
[A 759 (2.502) | 100g (3.5 07)|
Self-raising flour Baked beans COMPOSITION ie Sue ie Sy

| 260kcal 346kcal
Protein — 6.3g 8.4g
Carbohydrate 0.7g 0.9g
[of which sugars| 0.29 0.29
Fatof which 57.19 76.19
saturates trace 0.1g
i.
Fibre ie trace 0.1g |
Sodium trace trace
eee)
a

1 kg@
The King of rices with fragrant flavour and aroma
: v

See bottom of pack for best by date:

Rice
342 [Yo [=1plor= Bl ={ele) a4

One joule is a very small amount of energy compared with the amount of energy that we use. You use up 1 joule 0
energy by lifting a mass of 100 g (such as an average-sized apple) through 1 metre. If you lift 1 kg through 1 metre,
then you use up 10 J of energy. Don’t forget that we use energy from food for many things and not just for movement.
|
A famous scientist called John Tyndall did not realise this and assumed that all the energy from his food could be use
in moving. He calculated that he could climb to the top of the Matterhorn (a mountain in Switzerland) using just the
energy from a ham sandwich. He tried to do this, and only took a ham sandwich to eat — he became very tired and did
not complete the climb!

Key words
Respiration — the release of energy from food molecules.

Food chain — the transfer of energy from one organism to another.

Joule — the unit of energy. One kilojoule equals one thousand joules.

Exercise 24.2: Food and energy

1. Look at the food labels on page 341. Make a table with these headings for the different foods.

Food type

(a) Putin the correct units. Think carefully about this. The food label will give energy values per serving and
per 100 g. Which one should you use if this is going to be a fair test?

(b) Make a bar chart to show the energy values for the different foods.

(c) Which food would be most useful if you were going on a long bike ride? Explain your answer.

(d) Running uses up about 250 kJ in ten minutes. How long would you need to run for to burn off the energy
in a bar of chocolate?

2. Let us assume that if you lift 1 kg through 1 m, you will use 10 J of energy.

(a) Freddie weighs 100 kg, and has to climb steps to a total height of 12 m as he moves around the school
one morning. How many kilojoules of energy will he use?

(b) Gena weighs 50 kg. She has to climb steps to a total height of 12 m as she moves around the school. How
many kilojoules of energy of energy will she use.

(c) What advantage does Gena have over Freddie? What are the likely future health implications for Freddie?
 ~ Physical processes | 343

Extension question
3. You can find out how much energy a food contains by burning it to release the stored energy. The thermal
energy given off is then used to raise the temperature of a certain volume of water, as shown in the diagram.

Measuring the energy content of food

A thermometer is used to measure

temperature:
¢ measure the starting temperature
Aclamp is used to and highest temperature reached; and
¢ use the thermometer to stir the water.
hold the boiling
test tube, so that
there are no
burned fingers!

A mounted needle nana A certain volume of water

to hold the burning raya should be measured
sample of food. Lie carefully and kept the same
each time.

A table to show the results

Starting temp Final temp Temperature

in°C in°C change in °C
The food sample is
set on fire by a
Bunsen burner.
Different samples THERMAL
can be used — try to Y
keep the same mass ENERS Volume of water used
of food.

(a) What is the input (independent) variable in this experiment?

(b) What is the outcome (dependent) variable in this experiment?

(c) Which factors are kept constant to keep this a fair test?

(d) Scientists know that it takes 4.2 J to raise the temperature of 1 cm° of water by 1 °C. In an experiment
like this one, Freddie found that his food sample raised the temperature of 20 cm® of water by 60 °C.
Work out how much energy the food sample gave io the water.
344 Fl ‘Science |
=fole) a4

Chapter 25
The Earth and the Solar System
We live on the Earth but we can see the Sun and the Moon quite clearly. We can see the Sun because it is the source
of all our light in the Solar System — we call the Sun a luminous source. We can see the Moon because it’s quite
close to us and reflects light from the Sun.

The Sun is an enormous, very hot ball of glowing gas called a star. It produces all the thermal energy and light
necessary for life on Earth. The Earth is much smaller and cooler, and is one of the planets that move around the
Sun. The Sun and the planets that move around it make up most of our Solar System. There are also moons
(large bodies that orbit some of the planets) and thousands of large lumps of rock called asteroids in a belt between
the fourth and fifth planets.

You may be rather surprised to see that Pluto is now labelled as a ‘dwarf planet’. This is because on 24 August
2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) redefined the term ‘planet’ and Pluto failed to meet one of the
conditions of the redefinition. Two other celestial bodies have been granted dwarf planet status on the basis of the
reclassification and these are 2003 UBsis (‘Xena’) and Ceres. This means that we now consider the Solar System to
be made up of eight planets and three dwarf planets.

Features of the planets:

Average
Orbit
distance Diameter Fra Surface Number
from Sun in km in years temperature
; | 4¢ moons
in million km

Pluto 5900 2300 247.00

Dwarf planet

tne 4490 4000 164.80

|vonus ee rene: ol
=

ye)wo

—o
=

as ;

@° oO
(oe) ihe)
ine)cea)
(ee)

Remember:
Water boils at
100°C and
|freezes at 0 °C.
c. Solar System is too big for sizes and distances to be shown on some diagrams. In |
this diagram, sizes are approximately to scale but distances from the Sun are not.

ALO Ke) The path taken by each

planet around the Sun is
t
called the orbit. The
planets keep in their orbits
Pluto has a funny orbit. It Neptune by the force of gravity (see
is very egg-shaped so page 347).
= sometimes Pluto is a lot
| further away from the Sun

a
= and sometimes it's a lot The outer planets: Apart
closer. from Pluto, these are large,
low density, with deep
atmospheres and no solid
surface. Saturn's rings are
millions of bits of rock and ice
in orbit. Pluto is probably
made of rock and Ice.

Saturn

INS Cielics

The asteroids are thousands

of minor planets. The largest
is only 1000 km across.

The inner planets are

small and dense, and are
mainly made of rock and
iron.

The Sun is about 110 times bigger than the

| Earth, the difference between a grapefruit
and a grain of sugar.

[ Remembering names can be difficult! Make up a silly story to help you remember the order of the
eight planets and the dwarf planet Pluto.
My Very Eccentric Mother Just Shot Uncle Norman's Pig
346 | Science Book 2
When we look at the Sun, it appears circular. It doesn’t matter where we look from, or what time of the year it is, the!
Sun always looks round. This tells us that the Sun is a sphere. Astronauts travelling around the Earth have been able|
to take pictures that show us that the Earth and the Moon are also spheres.

Before we move on to learn some new things, it is worth just checking that you have remembered how we get night and |
day and how shadows are formed. Both of these can be explained by the way in which the Earth moves in relation to the|
Sun (see Science Book 1 page 210). |

Day and night

The way in which the Earth moves in space gives us day and night. The reasons for this are as follows:

@ The Earth slowly spins around the axis of the Earth (the line running fron the North pole to the South pole).

e It takes one day (24 hours) for the Earth to go through one complete turn.

@ The side of the Earth facing the Sun is lit up and it’s daytime on this side.

@ The side of the Earth away from the Sun is in the dark and therefore it’s nighttime on this side.

® The Earth is always travelling around the Sun in an elliptical path called an orbit.

® It takes 3651/4 days (one year) for the Earth to go through one complete orbit.

Sun and shadow

The Sun always stays in the same place which is at the centre of our Solar System. The Sun appears to move across
the sky as the day goes on because the Earth is moving. Any objects in the way of the Sun cast a shadow. The size
and direction of the shadow depends on where the Sun is when it shines on an object.

Key words
Star — a large, hot ball of glowing gas.

Moon — a large body orbiting a planet.

Asteroid — a large lump of rock out in the solar system.

Axis — an imaginary line between the North and South poles of the Earth.

Exercise 25.1: The Sun and the Earth

1. Use a diagram to explain why it is midday in London at the same time that it’s midnight in Australia.

2. Complete this paragraph:

MhevEanih:tS.a t..s that moves around the ......... . The Sun is at the centre of the ......... and is a very hot
ball of glowing gas called a.......... BAH Oey steerer travels around the Earth and we can see it because of light
Seorare from the Sun.

3. What shape is the Sun? How do we know?

Extension question
4. Scientists are very interested in the possibility of life on other planets. Give two reasons why you think that
it is very unlikely that we will find organisms similar to those on Earth on any other planet.
 ~ Physical Processes | 3

Keeping the planets in orbit:

The force of gravity
Remember
@ The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System.

8 The planets move in orbit around the Sun.

Everyone knows that objects fall when they are dropped. If you throw a cricket ball or a rounders ball into the air, it will
fall back towards the centre of the Earth. The force that pulls the object back towards the Earth is called gravity (see
page 372). Sir Isaac Newton made some observations and concluded that:

ic] There are forces of gravity between all objects (not just between objects and the Earth).

® The size of the gravitational force depends on the mass of the objects pulling on each other. This means the
bigger the masses, the greater the attraction due to gravity.

e@ The size of the gravitational force depends also on the distance between the two objects. As the distance
increases, the force of gravity gets less (but gravity can work over enormous distances)).

Gravity and orbits

Most of the objects that we see are too small to create very large gravitational forces. Planets, however, are huge!
They can create gravitational forces that hold objects close to the planet’s surface — that’s why we don’t fall off the
Earth! The Sun contains about 99% of all the matter in the Solar System. This huge mass creates a gravitational force
that is enough to hold the planets in orbit. Each planet’s orbit is a balance between the tendency of the planet to fly off
into space and the pull on the planet due to the Sun’s gravity.

The reason why planets orbit the Sun

Planets orbit the Sun because of a balance between
movement and the force of gravity

Without movement gravity would pull

Without gravity a planet would speed
a planet into the Sun.
off into space.
ms . a ne oT tn aa ASEAN

348 Science Book 2

It's a bit like throwing a hammer!

The heavy ball

tends to move
away.

The wire acts

like gravity and
keeps the ball
in orbit.

There are some important points to note:

eo) The orbits are not quite circular. They are elliptical, with the Sun very close to the centre.

@ The planets all travel around the Sun in the same direction.

=) The dwarf planet Pluto has a very elliptical orbit and sometimes cuts inside the orbit of Neptune.

The planets’ orbits are shown below:

If you were the first

human to land on Neptune,
would you have a birthday
Neptune 165 years every 165 Earth years?
Uranus 84 years
Saturn 29.5 years
: Jupiter 11.9 years
Mars 1.9 years

The Earth and

the Sun pull each
other with the
same force ...

~ ~

i Mercury 0.24 year

... but the Earth orbits the Sun Venus 0.6 year
because the Earth has a much :
. smaller mass. ; Earth 1 year
The rules of gravity mean that:

e An inner planet will be pulled towards the Sun more strongly than an outer planet.

e A massive planet, such as Saturn, will be pulled towards the Sun more strongly than a small planet such
as Neptune.

You can see that the time taken for a planet to orbit the Sun depends on its distance from the Sun. The bigger the orbit,
the longer the planet takes to complete the orbit. One complete orbit by Neptune takes 165 Earth years!

Remember that gravity works both ways. The Earth attracts the Sun with exactly the same size of force as the Sun
attracts the Earth. The Earth goes around the Sun (rather than the Sun around the Earth) because the Sun is so much
more massive than the Earth.

Any object that completes an orbit around another one is called a satellite. For example, the Moon is a satellite of the
Earth, and the Earth is a satellite of the Sun.

Comets are bodies of rock and ice that move in orbit around the Sun. The orbits of comets are not all in the same
plane, so the comets don’t keep a fixed distance from the Earth. The famous Halley’s Comet comes close to the Earth
and Sun every 76 years. It speeds up when it approaches the Sun and slows down as it moves away again.

Coma of ice

Tail of vapour
(Tail always faces Nucleus of ice and dust
away from the Sun.)

Orbit — the path followed by one object as it travels around another one in Space.

Satellite — any object completing an orbit around another object.

Comet — lumps or rock and ice in orbit around the Sun.

350 | Science Book 2

Exercise 25.2: Gravity and orbits

al Complete these sentences, using words from the list below:
orbit less smaller moving larger same gravity

Planets stay in orbit because they are ......... and because of the force of ......... . The force of gravity between
two objects is exactly the ......... on both objects, but the ......... object orbits the ......... one. A satellite has
Sees mass than a planet, so the satellite is in ......... around the planet.

2 Halley’s Comet was last seen in 1986. When will be able to see it again?

3. Why is a Neptunian year much longer than a year on Earth?

Extension question
4. Use the tabie on page 344 (features of the planets) to draw a graph of surface temperature against distance
from the Sun.

(a) What pattern does the graph show?

(b) If the temperature of the Earth’s surface were 40 °C higher, then life could not survive. How far away
from the Sun would the Earth have to be to have a temperature 40 °C higher than it is at present?

(c) Imagine that another planet had been discovered, 2000 million kilometres from the Sun. What do you
think its surface temperature would be?
 Ph ysical Processes 351

Artificial satellites help us to

understand the solar system
Starting points
6 A satellite is an object that moves in an orbit around a larger body in the Solar System.

© Movement in an orbit depends on a balance between the movement of the satellite and the gravity exerted by
the larger body.

Some orbiting bodies are natural satellites which means they have not been put in orbit by humans. The Earth is a natural
satellite of the Sun, and the Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth (see page 356). There are also hundreds of artificial
satellites. These are man-made objects that have been put into orbit by rockets or by the American space shuttle.

Orbits for satellites

Satellites are held in orbit by the gravitational force of the Earth. The speed of the satellite depends on its height above
the Earth. Satellites in low orbits travel faster than those in high orbits. These different orbits are described below:

POLAR ORBITS
e Study weather and help to
predict storms.
HIGH ELLIPTICAL ORBITS e Provide navigation signals.
¢ Move in and out as they e Are not much use for
orbit the Earth. communication as they go out of
e Provide communications for sight very quickly.
people at the North Pole
(signals from geostationary
satellites over the Equator do
not reach the poles). LOW EARTH ORBITS
* Have very short orbit times — 30
minutes or so.
Used mainly for reconnaissance,
they are close to the Earth's
surface and so can provide very
detailed photographs. They are
widely used by the military to
follow troop movements.
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE
The body of the
satellite contains
measuring
GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT
equipment.
} * Move at a speed and height
Solar panels are which makes them appear
used to provide stationary above the Earth.
energy. Fuel ¢ Widely used in communications
would be very and for navigation and weather
heavy. forecasting.
352 Yo) (Tiley =fole), a4

Geostationary satellites
A satellite that is exactly 36 000 km above the Earth takes exactly 24 hours to complete one orbit. This is exactly the
same time that the Earth takes to turn once on its axis and as a result, the satellite is always above the same place
on the Earth’s surface. This type of satellite behaves as though it is not moving, so it is very useful for sending
information from one place to another. A satellite dish can be aimed at the satellite to receive signals and once it is
correctly aimed, the dish never needs to be moved.

Communications are helped by geostationary satellites

Geostationary satellite

A satellite television receiver

 Physical Processes | 353

Satellites and the Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses 24 satellites orbiting the Earth in six different orbits. A receiver on the
ground can receive signals from at least four of the satellites at any one time. A small computer then allows the receiver
to work out exactly where it is, to within 10 square metres. GPS is very valuable to the military, to mountaineers, hill
walkers and to drivers. Cars use the system to tell them the best route to take, as well as where they are.

GPS uses 24 satellites in 6 orbits

around the Earth.

Satellite navigation system (SATNAV)

in a modern car

Satellites and exploration of the Solar System

Satellites can also help us to look at other planets. Telescopes placed on satellites can give a much clearer view of
stars than can be obtained from telescopes on Earth because the images are not spoiled by dust and dirt in the Earth’s
atmosphere. The Hubble telescope is an example of this kind of instrument. The Hubble telescope can allow us to see
seven times as far as we could from the Earth’s surface.

Deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope from the

space shuttle Discovery on 24th April 1990.

Rockets can also take satellites up to orbit other planets in the Solar System. These satellites can send back
information about Mars and Venus, for example. These satellites can even be used to launch small vehicles or space
stations that can land on the planets and give information about conditions on their surfaces.
354 Science Book 2.

Key words
Satellite — an object that moves around a larger mass in the Solar System.

Geostationary — an orbit that keeps a satellite in a fixed position above the Earth.

Elliptical — shaped like an oval.

Exercise 25.3: Satellites

1. Which type of satellite would be used by a satellite television network?

2. Give two uses for low Earth orbit satellites.

3. Why do you think that so many satellites are solar-powered?

Extension question
4. Use the Internet or textbooks to find out how satellites directly affect your life.
 “ Physical Processes | 355

The year and the seasons

Remember
® The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System.
® The Earth is one of the planets that move around the Sun.
@ The Earth rotates around a line called its axis.

What is a year?
The Earth moves around the Sun in an orbit. The Earth is kept in this orbit by the pull of the Sun’s gravity. One year
(actually 365'/, days) is the time taken for the Earth to complete one orbit.

The Earth rotates around its axis to give day and night (see page 346). The axis of the Earth is not exactly upright; it
actually leans to one side, so that the North Pole and the South Pole don’t get exactly the same amount of sunlight.

During the course of a year the North Pole is sometimes closer to the Sun and sometimes further away from the Sun.
When the Earth is rotating with the North Pole nearer the Sun, it is summer in Britain and winter at the opposite end
of the Earth. It is winter in Britain when the Earth is rotating with the North Pole away from the Sun.

The tilting of the Earth gives us the seasons The Earth takes 365'/s days to make
one complete orbit of the Sun. We
save up the quarters until we have
At the Equator there is very little
enough (4!) to make up an extra day.
difference between summer and winter,
We have 3 years with 365 days thena
so the seasons are not so clear-cut as
leap year with 366 days.
they are at the two poles.

SPRING IN BRITAIN:
The North Pole begins to tilt
towards the Sun. On one day, the
Spring Equinox, night and day
are of equal length. After that the
number of daylight hours begins
to increase.

SUMMER IN BRITAIN: WINTER IN BRITAIN:

The North Pole is tilted The North Pole is tilted
towards the Sun and the away from the Sun. The
day is longer than the night is longer than the
night. day.

AUTUMN IN BRITAIN:
The North Pole begins to tilt away
from the Sun. On one day, the
Autumn Equinox, night and day are
of equal length. After that the
number of daylight hours begins
to decrease.
356 | Science Book 2

The height of the Sun varies from season to season

The Sun is highest in the sky at midday (12 noon) on any given day. The Sun appears in Britain to be at its greatest
height in the sky when the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, i.e. in the summer.

Remember that the height of the Sun affects the length of shadows. The Sun is lowest during the winter, so the
shadows on sunny days in winter are longer than those on sunny days in summer.

When the Sun is lower in the sky, it does not heat up the surface of the Earth as well as it does when it is high in the
sky. Winter is colder because:

e the wintery part of the Earth is further from the Sun; and
@ the Sun is lower in the sky.

What about the Moon?

The Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. It orbits the Earth just as the Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun.
It takes about 28 days for the Moon to complete one orbit of the Earth. This length of time is called a lunar month (the
word ‘lunar’ means ‘to do with the Moon’). The Moon is kept in this orbit by the pull of the Earth’s gravity.

The Moon is our nearest neighbour in the Solar System and is close enough to have been visited by humans and to
have been studied enough to let us produce a Moon map!

The Moon is the Earth’s natural satellite

Gravity on the Moon

The Moon rotates is only 1/6th of that
once during one
on Earth. A human
complete orbit of
the Earth, so the could pole-vault 30
same side always metres on the Moon!
faces the Earth.
The dark side of
the Moon can only The Moon’s surface
be seen from space. is dry and covered in
dust.

Craters are caused

by collision with
meteorites.

Moon days and nights Lunar surface, the Hadley-Apennine

last for 14 Earth days! region of the Moon. Photographed Moon has no
during the Apollo 15 mission of 1971 atmosphere to
Moon day: temperature
= 120°C support life -
Moon night: astronauts need a
temperature = —150 °C space suit with
oxygen cylinders.
The Moon is not luminous, which means it does not give out its own light but it does reflect light from the Sun. We
see different amounts of reflected light at different times in the Moon’s orbit around the Earth. The different views we
get at different times of the month are called the phases of the Moon.

The Moon and its phases

| Gravity on the Moon is less than on |

the Earth, because the Moon is
smaller. Astronauts can jump higher |
\

The Moon's orbit around The HALF MOON gets

the Earth takes 28 days. smaller every night.
This is called a
WANING MOON.

One side of the Moon appears to —

be in darkness. This side
does reflect sunlight, for
example at the New
Moon, but it reflects it
away from the Earth.

The DARK side of the Half of the LIGHT side of the All the LIGHT side of the Moon
Moon is facing the Earth. Moon is facing the Earth. can be seen; it : facing
We cannot see the Moon | We see the HALF a i ee ie fslecting
(except for a tiny amount MOON, getting the light of the Sun.
i This is called a FULL
of light). Thisis is
i called bigger
gg every y night.
nig MOON.
the NEW MOON. This is called a
WAXING MOON.
 Science l={efe) a4

The Moon and eclipses

Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse or eclipse of the Moon happens when the Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun. As a lunar
eclipse takes place, we can usually see the shadow of the Earth slowly moving across the face of the Moon.

A total lunar eclipse:

@ is quite rare;
@ can last for 2 hours because the Earth
casts a bigger shadow than the Moon; and
® can upset the singing and hunting pattern of birds.

Solar eclipse
A solar eclipse, otherwise known as an eclipse of the Sun, happens when the Moon comes between the Earth and
the Sun. Light from the Sun is hidden from us on Earth and the Moon looks like a black disc surrounded by a bright
ring (the corona) of the Sun.

A total solar eclipse does

not block out the Sun from
all over the world, because
the Moon is smaller than
the Earth.
 | Physical Processes | 359

The Moon starts to The start of totality The end of totality The eclipse finishes.
cover the Sun. where the Moon first where the Moon stops
covers the Sun. covering the Sun.

TAKE CARE!
You must never look directly at the Sun! This
could damage the retina and blind you, so special
filters are needed to view an eclipse.

Total solar eclipse of 11th

July 1991, California, USA

Key words
Year — the time taken for the Earth to complete one orbit of the Sun.

Lunar month — the time taken for the Moon to complete one orbit of the Earth.

Phases of the moon - different views of the Moon at different times of the month.

Eclipse — when either the Moon or the Sun is hidden from viewers on the Earth.

One day and one night (24 hours) — the time taken for the Earth to spin once around its axis.
Exercise 25.4: Sun, Earth and Moon
1. How long does it take for:
(a) The Earth to orbit the Sun?

(b) The Moon to orbit the Earth?

(c) The Earth to turn once on its axis?

2. Give two reasons why it is colder in winter than in summer.

3. Look at this diagram (not drawn to scale):

Britain

LTT]
(a) Copy it and shade in the part of the Earth that is in shadow.
(6) Is it summer or winter in Britain?
(c) Is it daytime or nighttime in Britain?

4. How does a solar eclipse give us evidence that light travels in straight lines?
5. Draw a diagram showing how a lunar eclipse happens.

Extension questions
6. Find out what is meant by ‘midnight Sun’. Use a diagram to explain how it can happen.

7. How many times does the Moon orbit the Earth while the Earth completes one orbit of the Sun? Give a
reason for your answer.
 The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System.

Q We currently know of eight planets and three dwarf planets which orbit at great distances around the Sun.

@ The Sun is luminous and provides light and thermal energy for the Earth.

The Universe contains everything that exists. The Solar System is just one part of the Universe; it is part of a galaxy
called the Milky Way.

The Universe

EARTH which is ... THE SOLAR SYSTEM ... THE MILKY WAY — which is one of many galaxies in the UNIVERSE.
part of ... which is. part of ... :

Milky Way galaxy seen in the night

sky above a desert, Calfornia, USA.

The universe contains many galaxies and each galaxy contains millions of stars together with clouds of dust and gas.
The stars can be very different from one another:

3) Their size can vary, from supergiants that are very much bigger than the Sun, to neutron stars that are only the
same size as the Earth.

© Their brightness can vary from 100 000 times brighter than the Sun to 100 000 times less bright than the Sun.

© The distances between them can vary, but in every case the distance is very large indeed.
Remember that stars can be seen because they are /uminous (i.e. they give out their own light). Size, brightness and
distance from the Earth all affect how easily we can see a star. This is different to planets and moons that are only
seen because they reflect light from the Sun.

How we see stars and planets

xk Paige
Ges oe <3
Stars can be seen
at night because
they are luminous. * 1
1
1
1
f
'
1
1
'
‘
!
s

Clue: If it twinkles, it's

a star, if it doesn't, because they reflect light
it's a planet. from the Sun.
\
\

Se ee y Ul « ou wert a L

Because the Universe is so large and the stars are so far away, it is not easy to measure distances in normal units,
such as kilometres. It is easier to use a unit called a light year. A light year is the distance travelled by light in one
year. Light moves very quickly and in one year it covers 9 461 000 000 000 km.

Light moving at 300 000 000 m/s

will travel around 9 461 000 000 000 km in a year
ER ee i/
-—
i TS IS |
|

|It takes light only 0.125 s | |A LIGHT YEAR IS A UNIT

| to travel all the way around | OF DISTANCE IN
| | 1 Light Year
| the Earth L ASTRONOMY.
| } é se | \ &

Vea 2 J

The closest star to the Earth, other than the Sun, is 4.2 light years away and astronomers have discovered some stars
that are 10 000 000 light years away. These distances are very much greater than the distances between the planets
in the Solar System.

The stars in the Milky Way form patterns, called constellations. People have studied these constellations for
thousands of years and have given them names according to their appearance from the Earth.

@feyatsic=)ifeuile)
ats

ls}e mel] e)
el-1)
((sy=t-19)
 ‘Physical Processes | 363

The nearest large galaxy to the Milky Way is called Andromeda and is 2 million light years away. When we see light
from Andromeda we are actually looking at something that happened 2 million years ago, around the time when the
first ape-like humans were appearing on the Earth.

The Sun is a star

Stars appear to us as tiny pinpricks of light because they are so far away. The exception is the Sun. The Sun looks
very large to us because:

e It is more than a thousand times bigger than the Earth.

eS It is very close — only 149 million kilometres away!

The Sun was formed from gas and dust over 5000 million years ago. The gases became squashed together and
hydrogen atoms combined to form helium atoms. This is a nuclear fusion reaction, and releases enormous amounts
of thermal and light energy. Scientists think that the temperature at the centre of the Sun is as high as 14 000 000 °C,
with the surface being much cooler at only 6000 °C!

Only a very small amount of the energy released from the Sun ever reaches the Earth but it is enough to provide the
energy for all of our food chains (see page 99). Scientists believe that the Sun has already used up about half of its
hydrogen fuel. When the hydrogen runs out, the Sun will first collapse, then swell to form a huge red giant. The red
giant will swallow up and burn Mercury and the Earth, then it will collapse again to end up as a tiny white dwarf star.

Death of the Sun

Don't worry - it will be

5000 million years
Light is given out as before this happens!
hydrogen atoms
fuse to form helium.

——— «©

When the s ... It will become ... and then

Sun stops 7 a huge star a tiny star
shining as it called a red called a
i does now ... giant ... white dwarf.

Key words
Milky Way — the galaxy that includes our Solar System.

Light year — a unit of distance in the Universe — the distance travelled by light in one year.

Galaxy — a collection of millions of stars.

Exercise 25.5: Sun and the stars
1. Choose words from this list to fill in the gaps in the following paragraphs.

luminous sun star light-years reflection

constellations galaxy universe kilometres

(a) We can see stars because they are ......... . The Moon and some planets are visible because of the
sees of light from the .......... Many stars seem to be arranged in patterns called ........., and there
may be several of these in a single ......... ;

(6) Distances in space are so great that we need to measure them in ......... . All the planets, stars, gases
and dust together make up the ......... ‘

2. Why are large telescopes for observing stars usually built on hills well away from large cities?

3. Light travels at 300 000 km per second. The Sun is 149 million kilometres from the Earth. How long does
light take to reach the Earth from the Sun?

Extension question
4. Using the internet, write a small paragraph explaining what major reclassification was agreed by the IAU
on 24 August 2006.
 Physical processes : 365

Chapter 26
Forces and linear motion
What is a force?
A force is either a push or a pull. You can’t see a force, but you can see what a force does. Forces can:

@ Change the speed of things. They can make things speed up or slow down.
® Change the direction that something is moving in.
e@ Change the shape of things.

Forces act in one direction

We need to know two things about a force to understand what it is doing. We need to know:

The size of the force.

® The direction in which the force is acting in.

We use arrows to show the size and the direction of forces:

This arrow shows the force driving the motorbike forwards:

e the arrow is BIG because the force is big;
e the arrow is pointing in the direction in which the
engine is pushing the motorbike.

This arrow shows the force of air

through which the motorbike is
being driven:
e the arrow is SMALL
because the force is small;
e the arrow is pointing at the
motorbike because the force is
AGAINST THE MOVEMENT
of the motorbike.

This arrow shows the RESULTANT

force. This force is the difference
between the bigger force and the
smaller one. The size of the arrow
tells you how big the force is and
the direction tells you that the
motorbike is moving forward.
WHICH ONE WINS?
When two different forces work on the same
object, the BIGGER ONE WINS.
366 | Science Book 2

Forces-and motion
Things are moving all around us:

® On a very small scale, the particles that make up atoms and molecules are always moving (we say that they
are in motion).

© Movement (motion) is more obvious in animals (including humans) and machines than the movement of
particles.

@ On an enormous scale, the Earth is in motion around the Sun, and the stars move around in the different
galaxies.

Sir lsaac Newton studied many of these moving objects and noticed certain patterns about the way in which they move.
From these patterns, he formulated the Laws of Motion — there are three of them. These laws are used in many ways.
For example:

@ Car designers use them to improve the efficiency of new models.

e Aerospace engineers use them to improve the design of aircraft and to work out how to get rockets to carry
satellites into orbit.

@ Sports coaches use them to analyse the performance of all types of athletes.

Speed and movement

Speed tells us how fast an object is moving. The speed of any moving object is the distance it moves in a certain
amount of time. The units we use for speed have to include distance and time. For example, we can describe speed
in kilometres per hour (km/h), or in metres per second (m/s). The way that these units are written (i.e. a unit of distance
divided by a unit of time) helps us with a definition of speed.

Speed = Distance
Time
We can write out this useful equation in symbols.

SF
dS where: s=speed
Ti d=distance
t=time taken

Measuring speed
lf we are going to make an accurate measurement of speed, we need to know:

e the exact distance travelled (including the correct units); and

@ the exact length of time taken (including the correct units).

 - Physical processes

An example of a speed measurement that can be made in a school laboratory is shown below:

Measuring speed in a laboratory

An ELECTRONIC TIMER
measures the time taken for the
car to pass between the signals
Gietcendan from GATE 1 and GATE 2.
signal to the timer as
the car starts its run. }] ACOMPUTER can:
) |° display results;
¢ calculate speed; and
e store sets of results.

GATE 2 sends a
signal to the timer
as car ends its run.

The TRACK has rails (sides), to

keep the car travelling straight,
and distance markings. The start
gate and stop gate are one metre
apart.

Exactly the same idea is used when measuring the speed of drag-racing cars or human
athletes running a 100 m race.

Key words
Force — a push or a pull — it has both size and direction.

Speed — how fast an object is moving — distance travelled divided by time taken.

Exercise 26.1: Forces

1. Choose words from this list to complete this paragraph about forces:

speed size direction forces direction shape

Aer are pushes or pulls, exerted by one thing on another. Forces can change the ......... of things, change
then irae and the ......... of things. They have two important features: ......... ZVNOt cmeconcne . These two features
of a force can be shown by drawing an arrow.
368 | Science Book 2

(a) -Name three things that a force can do.

(b) Give an example of each of these things.

In the National Swimming Championships, the swimmers are timed electronically. A very accurate electronic
clock is started as the starter’s signal is given and stopped as the swimmers touch a pressure pad at the end
of the pool. Work out the average speed for these race winners. Choose the correct units for your answers.

Event Distance in m Time taken in seconds Speed in m/s

Freestyle 50 28
Al
Backstroke 60

Butterfly

Breaststroke

Individual medley

4. Anne wanted to investigate the speed of different model cars. She set up the same kind of apparatus as
shown on page 367 and obtained the following results:

Car number Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 | Average time

in seconds in seconds in seconds in seconds

[ 2.40 2.50 2.60

2830) PIES 2.78

3 2.35 PAS) 4.90

(a) Which one of the results seems to be unreliable?

(b) Leaving out this result, work out the average speeds of the three cars.

(c) What is the input variable in this experiment?

(d) What is the outcome variable in this experiment?

(e) How could Anne be sure that this was a fair test?

Extension question
5; Use the Internet or a textbook to find:

(a) The fastest living organism.

(b) The fastest mammal on land.

(c) The world land speed record.

(d) The world water speed record.

In each case make sure that you include the correct units in your answer.

(e) The fastest human has run at about 10.5 m/s. How many times faster than this does the fastest mammal
move on land?
 Physical processes 369

Distance and time

Remember
e Speed is the distance travelled in a certain amount of time.

Formula One racing teams need to travel around the world to take part in different Grand Prix. Many of these teams
are based in England and need to take ferries to reach the European mainland. One team needed to be on a ferry by
10 o’clock in the morning and had to decide the best time to leave the factory base in Oxfordshire. Of course, a racing
team would be well aware of the relationships between time, speed and distance. They could calculate how long their
trip to the ferry terminal would take. This is how they worked things out:

Calculation of journey time

Distance to ferry 5 240 km

Average speed of car

transporter : 50 km/h

Time for journey

©
Ferry boarding
O

O
So transport must leave by 5.12 am.
‘Make it 5 o'clock,’ says the boss.

Remember that there is an equation that relates speed, distance and time. If you know two of the things in the
equation, you can always work the other one out. There is a speed triangle that can help you with this type of
calculation:

Speed triangle
Distance travelled Caught on camera
= Average speed x Time taken

Average
speed
_ Distance
Time taken ~ Time taken
_ __ Distance
Average speed
A yellow speed camera on the side
of the road can take a photo like
this. It shows how long a car took to
travel a measured distance. A
computer can quickly calculate the [
car's speed from:
Speed = Distance
Time taken
370 Science Book 2°

Distance/time graphs
A distance/time graph is obtained if we plot how much distance is covered during a certain part of a journey. Here’s an
example. Measure how far a boy travels in each minute during a cycle ride to school:

A distance/time graph

ErGoesett Hm eel
Ee Manic
iD S -) |

SiS a ee

DISTANCE
in
TRAVELLED,
metres

(0) 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 9 10
TIME, in minutes

Exercise 26.2: Distance and time

1. How far would you travel:

(a) In 90 minutes if you cycled at an average speed of 30 km/h?

(b) In 20 seconds if you ran at 5 m/s?

(c) In 50 seconds if you were in an aeroplane travelling at 50 m/s?

2. How long will the following journeys take:

(a) A400 m walk at 2 m/s?

(6) A2km run at 4 m/s?

3. Find the speed of:

(a) Adog that runs 300 m in 12 s.

(6) Amotorcycle that moves 1000 m in 45 s.

 “Ph ysical processes 371

4. Look carefully at this graph:

DISTANCE
km
in
TRAVELLED,

TIME TAKEN, in minutes

(a) How long did the total journey take?

(6) When did the boy stop to tie his shoe lace?

(c) Which part of the graph shows where he was walking up a steep hill?

(d) Which part of the graph shows where he was walking downhill?

(e) What was his average speed over the whole journey?

Extension question
ae David and Hannah were asked to observe a car moving along a marked track. They had an electronic timer
and they were able to see exactly how far the car had travelled by looking at the markings on the track. They
obtained these results:

Time in seconds

(a) Plot a line graph of these results.

(b) What is the car’s speed in m/s?

(c) From the graph, work out how far the car would have travelled after 3.5 s.

(d) How far did the car travel between 4.0 s and 7.0 s?

(e) If the car continues at this speed, how far will it travel in 25 s?

(f) How long would it take for the car to cover 400 m?

(g) Was the car moving uphill, downhill, or along the level? Give a reason for your answer.
372 | Science Book 2

The force of gravity

Remember
e A force can be a push or a pull.

6 Any object that is not changing speed is being acted on by balanced forces.

Gravity and the Earth

Let’s just remind ourselves about gravity and the way it behaves:

Gravity is a force of attraction, in other words, a pull between any two objects.

S The size of the force depends on the mass of the objects. The more massive the object, the bigger the
gravitational force of attraction between them.

8 The size of the force depends also on how close to each other the objects are. The closer the objects, the
bigger the force of gravity between them.

The Earth is a large object, so puts a pull force on other objects that are near it. The force of gravity has a direction,
and this direction is towards the centre of the Earth.

The Earth and gravity

GRAVITY EXISTS BETWEEN ALL OBJECTS

Gravity is a force
that pulls objects Even very small objects,
like two tomatoes, are pulled
towards each other.
The force is very small, so it
would be really difficult
to measure it.
The force of gravity only
becomes noticeable when
one (or both) of the objects
has a huge mass.

The Earth's mass is about

6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg
so it has an enormous gravitational pull.
Objects pull on each other
equally. A bird in the air pulls as much
on the Earth as the Earth

)
= pulls on the ie
bird. But this force \
won't move something
as massive as the Earth!

\
 Physical processes

There are two important things to remember about gravity:

e@ Gravity will pull an object towards the centre of the Earth, whether the object is in the air, standing on the ground
or in water.

i) Most places on the surface of the Earth are approximately the same distance from the centre of the Earth.
Because of this, the force of gravity is almost exactly the same all over the Earth. You need to get a long way
away from the Earth before you notice any real reduction in the force of gravity.

Measuring gravity
The force of gravity acting on objects can make them feel very heavy. This heaviness as a result of gravity is the
weight of an object. Because weight is a force, we can measure it using a forcemeter. The weight of an object should
be measured in newtons (N).

Gravity is different on other planets!

A bag of sugar has a mass of 1 kg, but a
weight of 10 N on Earth.
On the Moon the force of gravity is only 5
of that of Earth, so the sugar's mass is still
1 kg but its weight is now 6 x 10 = 1.67 N.

Using a forcemeter to measure weight

We use a forcemeter (Sometimes called a newtonmeter) to measure the size of a force. A forcemeter has a spring
inside it and the larger the force, the more the spring will be stretched. The stretching of the spring changes the reading
on the forcemeter. You can hang a weight on the hook at the bottom of a forcemeter. When the spring inside the
forcemeter is stretched, it tries to pull back towards its normal length. The weight hangs in one position because this
pull of the spring equals the downward pull of gravity on the weight. The two forces are balanced.

Measuring gravity with a forcemeter

The reading with a 1 kg
mass would tell us the The stretched spring
is pulling the weight
FORCE OF GRAVITY upwards.
IN NEWTONS.

The MASS of this object depends on:

@ how many particles it contains; and
When these forces
@ what type of particles are present. are balanced,you
can read the weight
(in newtons) on the
scale.

Gravity is pulling the

The WEIGHT of this object depends on: weight downwards.
@ its mass; and
@ the pull of gravity.
 ~ Science Book 2

Weight and mass

The two words weight and mass are often confused with one another. Weight is the force of gravity pulling an
object towards the centre of the Earth (or some other body) and is measured in newtons (N). The mass of an object
is a measure of how much matter it contains and is measured in grams or kilograms.

A kilogram mass is pulled towards the Earth by a force of 10 newtons; we say that the strength of gravity (on Earth) is
10 newtons per kilogram. If you know the mass of an object, you can calculate its weight by multiplying its mass in
kilograms by the force of gravity. A two kilogram bag of flour has a weight of 2 x 10 = 20 N.

Stretching the limits

The spring in a forcemeter will stretch, depending on the mass added. The amount of stretch is proportional to the mass
added. Usually the spring will stretch the same amount if identical masses are added, and will go back to its original position
if the mass is taken off it. We say that the spring is elastic (the material we call elastic is called this because it returns to it
original length after it has been stretched). Something unusual can happen if you keep on and on adding mass. The spring
will suddenly stretch much more than expected and it won’t go back to its original length once the mass is removed.
Scientists say that we have exceeded the elastic limits of the material. This is shown below:

A spring has an elastic limit

At 5 N the spring goes

On this side of the graph:
beyond its ELASTIC * The extension of the spring is
° The extension of the spring is PROPORTIONAL LIMIT and the graph is now not proportional to the
to the added weight. beyond the LIMIT OF added weight.
* Removing the weight will see the spring returning PROPORTIONALITY. ° The spring will not return to its
to its original position. original position.

10cm | No weight = Hee

& 120m ON _—_—_ _- —
14cm |— a 3 ne a te
16cm an1N
arrier
Spe 3N
Ps 2 a =
4N Bg

Added weight, in newtons

I
I
!

|
i

| |
0 1 2 3 4 5
Added weight, in newtons
 Ph ysical processes | 375

When they are using materials, engineers must be very careful that they don’t exceed the elastic limits for the materials
they are using. It might have disastrous consequences.

Beating the force of gravity

The Earth is very tightly packed with materials such as rocks, so gravity can’t pull us through to the centre of the Earth.
Gravity does tend to pull us until we reach the Earth’s surface, though. We can beat gravity in three ways:

1. By Exerting a force in the opposite 2. Using an upward force

direction. to support you.
This could involve using a rocket motor This is an example of a
which burns fuel to push it against the reaction force. This could
force of gravity. involve something as simple
as standing on a chair.

U Bg U
Beating
‘ 3. Using the upthrust of water.
AGA gravity Water pushes up against objects that are
jaf“ floating in it. This cancels out some of the force
iS of gravity pulling the object to the centre of the
Earth. An object will float when the force of
gravity is balanced by the upthrust of the water.
376 | Science Book 2

Key words
Mass — how much matter an object contains.

Gravity — a force of attraction between any two masses.

Weight — the force of gravity that pulls an object towards another object (usually towards the Earth).

Reaction force — an upward force that supports a body.

Upthrust — a push of water against an object floating in it.

Elastic — being able to return to its original length after it has been stretched.

Exercise 26.3: Gravity

1. Complete these sentences using words from the following list:

grams or kg newtons _ size mass gravity

Weight is a force and is measured in ......... . It is caused by ......... acting on an object. ......... is not a force;
it depends on the number and ......... of particles in an object. Mass is measured in ......... :

2. On Earth, the force of gravity is about 10 newtons per kg. Use this information to complete this table:

os
Mass in kg | Weight in newtons

2.0 abies

15

3. Why is there less force of gravity between two apples than between the Earth and one apple?

Extension questions
4. Two students hung a spring from a strong support alongside a long ruler. They measured where the bottom
of the spring was when there was no metal disc added to the spring; this was the starting point. They then
added different discs to the spring and measured where the bottom of the spring reached on the scale. They
worked out the stretch of the spring by taking away the starting point from the finishing point each time.
 Physical processes 377

Here are their results.

Mass of added discs in grams Position of spring in Amount of stretch in millimetres

| millimetres (extension)

0 12 0
oak
22

(a) Complete the table by working out the amount of stretch (extension) for each added disc.

(b) Plot a graph of the added mass against the stretch of the spring.

(c) What is the pattern in these results?

(d) What do you think would happen if the two students kept adding discs to the spring? Draw a simple
diagram of the graph they might get if they added a 1000g (1 kg) disc. Explain this result.

The American space shuttle can be used to put satellites and measuring equipment into orbit. An empty
shuttle vehicle has a mass of 70 tonnes and can carry a cargo of 28 tonnes.

(a) What is the total mass of the full shuttle, in kilograms?

(b) What is the weight of the shuttle as it sits on the launch pad?

(c) How much force (thrust) would the rockets have to produce just to balance this weight at take-off?
 Science Book 2

Balanced and unbalanced forces

Remember
@ A force is a push or a pull.

cL) A force has both size and direction.

How to measure forces

As you learnt in the previous section (page 373), we use a forcemeter (sometimes called a newtonmeter) to measure
the size of a force. Remember, if an object isn’t moving, then the forces on it must be balanced. An object that is moving
at a constant speed also has balanced forces acting on it.

Keeping still
Here is a jaguar lying on a branch.

The jaguar has mass, so there is a force acting

downwards towards the centre of the Earth. The jaguar
isn’t moving, so the branch must be pushing back against
the jaguar with a reaction force. This force must be equal
in size to the jaguar’s weight, but is acting in the opposite
direction.

Moving at a constant speed

Balanced forces can still be acting on an object even if it is not still. A moving object with balanced forces acting on it
will keep moving at exactly the same speed all the time. A sports car travelling along a straight road will move at a
constant speed, so long as the force provided by the engine balances the air resistance and the friction from the road
(see page 382).

FORCE PRODUCED AIR

BY ENGINE es RESISTANCE
= = guununsesnny

CTE FRICTION

We can investigate the speed of an object moving with almost no friction with an air track. This is a metal tube which
can act as a track for a trolley.

@ Air is pushed up through the track to make a cushion for the trolley.

e Light gates are used to check the speed of the vehicle as it moves along the track.
 - Physical processes

Using an air track

00000: O.000D.: A COMPUTER can use input
information from the light gates to
calculate the speed of the trolley.

The SPEED GATES are light

gates. The light beam is:
¢ broken when the trolley A TROLLEY can
enters the gate; and be gently pushed
* completed again when the to start it moving.
trolley leaves the gate.
The AIR HOLES let enough
air out to form a cushion for
the trolley.

Will there be any difference in

Even with no friction the trolley would the speed measured at the two
eventually stop due to air resistance - gates?
but the track would need to be very Explain your answer.
long!

Engineers use air cushions like this to reduce the forces that slow down the movement of some machines, for example
a hovercraft.

Changing speed and direction

Sometimes the forces acting on an object are unbalanced. Unbalanced forces can change the speed or direction of
motion of an object. Let’s think about what would happen to a spaceship travelling so far out into space that there is
no longer any gravitational force (see page 375) acting on it. The spaceship has no engine to push it and no gravity
or friction to slow it down. The space ship will just travel on and on at the same speed and in the same direction.

Spaceship in orbit:
¢ no friction; and
¢ no gravity.

! Small motors can change:

° speed; and
e direction of spaceship.
 Science Book 2

The spaceship’s speed or direction could be altered by firing little rockets fixed to it. If the rockets provide an extra force
in the same direction as the spaceship is travelling, the spaceship’s speed will change. Acceleration tells us how fast
the speed of something is changing. A great acceleration requires a large, unbalanced force to be acting on an object.
These rockets could also be used to manoeuvre a spaceship or satellite into the correct position for it to carry out its
job. The rockets would now be providing an unbalanced force in a different direction from the travel of the spaceship.
Unbalanced forces can change the speed or the direction of an object, or even both at the same time.

Many of you will probably already have carried out your own experiments on unbalanced forces. For example, when
your Mum or Dad tries to push a supermarket trolley, you can change its direction by pushing from the side.

A simple supermarket
experiment.

Original path You give a push

of trolley from the side.

Path of trolley when ~

you push from the side

‘9
The risk of dangerously
Mum pushes
unbalanced forces!
the trolley.

How does mass affect acceleration?

The acceleration of an object depends on the size of the force acting on it and on the mass of the object. The best
acceleration is obtained by either reducing the mass of the object or by increasing the force used to move it. Designers
of racing cars and motorbikes understand this and they try to get the lightest vehicle and the most powerful engine.

Drag racers, for example, have:

@ large powerful engines;

@ very light bodies; and

@ very light alloy wheels.

All these factors combine to enable drag-racing cars to accelerate to 60 m/s in 5 seconds.
 Physical processes

Key words
Acceleration — how fast the speed of something is changing.

Forcemeter (newtonmeter) — an instrument used to measure the size of a force.

Exercise 26.4: Balanced and unbalanced forces

1. Make a drawing of a car accelerating away from traffic lights. Draw the force arrows to show the forces acting
on the car.

2. A large lorry may have a more powerful engine than a racing car but cannot accelerate as quickly. Explain
why this is the case.

Extension question
3. This equation can be used to calculate the rate of change of speed (acceleration).

Change in speed
Acceleration =
time taken
This table shows how the speed of a motorcycle changes over a 5-second period.

Time in seconds

(a) What is the acceleration of the motorbike?

(b) If the motorbike keeps on accelerating at this rate, how fast will it be going after:

(i) 9seconds?

(ii) _20seconds?

(c) Why would it be difficult to predict how fast the motorbike would be going after 50 seconds?
Chapter 27
Friction and motion
Remember
@ Moving objects often slow down because there is a force acting on them.

@ The force is acting in the opposite direction to the way the objects are moving. This force is called friction.

Friction is a force that tends to stop two things from sliding over each other. Sometimes friction is useful:

@ Car tyres can push against the surface of the road, so the car can move forward.

@ Brake blocks can squeeze against a bicycle wheel rim, so that the bike slows down.

@ Shoes can grip the floor, so that you don’t slip when you try to walk.

However, sometimes it is a nuisance:

® It slows moving things down, and extra force is needed to keep them moving.

e It can heat things up and can damage the moving surfaces.

FRICTION CAN BEA FRICTION CAN BE

NUISANCE! USEFUL!

ENGINE: Friction STEERING WHEEL

generates thermal
AND DRIVING
energy and wears
GLOVES: These make it
engine parts out.
easier to hold on and
steer the car.

BRAKE PADS AND

DISCS: Friction
between them will slow
the car down.

TYRES AND GROUND:

Friction means:
e the engine can push car
forward;
* grip means the car will stick
to the ground and will stop
the car when braking; and
e the car can be made to
change direction.
 ‘Physical processes

Brakes, tyres, roads and friction

Driving a motor car or motorbike safely would be impossible without friction. Especially important is the friction between
the tyres and the road. When the driver or rider puts on the brakes, the wheels stop turning and the vehicle will slow
down as long as the tyres can grip the road. The grip between the tyre and the road depends on friction. This friction
can be affected by:

@ The type of road surface. Some surfaces are specially roughened to provide good friction and safe braking.

8 Whether the road is wet or not. Water acts as a lubricant between the tyre and the road and makes braking
more difficult.

® The state of the tyres. Worn tyres are smooth and so friction with the road is reduced, especially in wet
conditions.

This diagram shows how braking is affected by the condition of the road

Assume a driver of a car travelling at 80 km per hour (50 mph) wants to stop his car.

The car travels this distance while

he thinks about braking.

On dry roads:
TOTAL STOPPING DISTANCE
= 51 metres

The car travels this

distance with the
brakes on before it stops.

On wet roads:
TOTAL STOPPING DISTANCE
= 86 metres

Speed and braking

Even when a car has perfect tyres and brakes and the road is dry, stopping a car can be very difficult. The faster a car
is travelling, the longer it will take for it to stop. This is because the car will travel further while the driver reacts to the
situation and also because the friction must act for longer to stop the car moving forward. The Highway Code shows
the distances required for braking at different speeds. At 60 mph under perfect conditions, stopping the car still takes
nearly twenty times the length of the car.
384 | Science Book 2

Speed affects braking distance

20 mph
12 m (40 ft) 3 car lengths

30 mph E

23m (75 ft) 6 car lengths

40 mph ||}
= 36 m (120 ft) 9 car lengths

50 mph
= Sshinn (7s ft) 13 car lengths

= 73 m (240 ft) 18 car lengths

96 m (315 ft) 24 car lengths

Standard car length = 4m

Thinking time Braking distance

How to reduce friction and stop damage to surfaces

Friction is caused by tiny bumps between surfaces. These bumps are just like tiny pieces of sandpaper and stop the
surfaces from moving. They also damage the surface by scraping pieces of material away and by heating up the
surfaces. The heating effect is caused by the particles in the surface being forced to vibrate. As they vibrate, they will
have more kinetic energy (see page 252) and will get hotter. The heat can be enough to melt one or both of the
surfaces and can stop the materials from carrying out their job properly.

Space shuttle re-entry. The space shuttle is covered in

thermal-resistant tiles made of silica. These protect it from
the thermal energy generated by friction as it enters the
atmosphere at high speed. The glow is due to the tiles
being heated until they are white hot (see at the nose at
upper right). Vibrating particles generate thermal energy.
The friction, and the damage it can cause, can be reduced by:

@ Smoothing off the surfaces. A smooth surface has less friction than a rough one.

. Adding a substance that keeps the surfaces slightly apart. This kind of substance is called a lubricant. Good
examples are grease or oil. (See Science Book 1 page 183.)

Air resistance is a kind of friction

Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a kind of friction between a moving object and the air. This kind of drag acts
on you as you cycle along the road. The amount of drag can be reduced by making the object more streamlined.
Streamlining will allow an object to travel faster through the air.

These motorbikes would

meet a lot of air
resistance.

This motorbike is
streamlined to reduce wind
resistance. The same
amount of force will make
this one go faster than the
ones in the first
photograph.

Streamlining works in other situations too

The streamlined shape that helps to reduce air resistance also helps in movement through water. The evolution of
living organisms that live in water has provided many excellent examples of streamlining. Some of these are so
effective that humans have copied them.

SE

BH) SHARK: Streamlinin ~

reduces drag in water. [a
&

Humans copy uR@)>)7J-10/e) |

nature.
386 | Science Book 2

Air resistance and thermal energy

When an object moves through the air, it will make the particles of the air move about. This can be very serious. The
space shuttle, for example, generates an enormous amount of thermal energy when it re-enters the Earth’s
atmosphere. Some of this thermal energy is transferred back to the spacecraft which makes it glow ‘white hot’. The
shuttle would be severely damaged by this massive amount of thermal energy if it did not have protection from the
special tiles that cover it. This heating effect, together with damage to the tile covering (that happened on take-off),
caused the disastrous break-up of the space shuttle Columbia in 2003.

Measuring friction
Because friction is a force, it too can be measured using a forcemeter. The way that this is done is shown in the
diagram. Measurements of friction between different kinds of surface must be done as a fair test.

Measuring friction

Mass can be added: This means Wooden trolley: A hook means it

the trolley and the test material can be pulled by the forcemeter.
don't slide so easily with the result that the
forcemeter can not measure the pull.
Forcemeter: As you pull on the forcemeter,
the trolley will begin to slide. You can read
the force needed to make the trolley move.
The force on the scale will be measured
Test material: This can ;
in newtons (N).
be wrapped around the
trolley. Good materials
to test are carpet,
nylon and sandpaper.

Surface: This can be a smooth piece of NOW REMEMBER! IF YOU WANT

wood or metal. Formica (like a kitchen RELIABLE RESULTS:
work surface) is also suitable, as is * make it a FAIR TEST- only
glass.
change one factor at a time;
* repeat the experiment - and
take an average of your results.

Key words
Friction — a force that tries to stop two things sliding over one another.

Lubricant — a substance that reduces friction between two objects.

Air resistance — friction between the air and a moving object (sometimes called drag).
 “Physical processes

Exercise 27.1: Friction

1. Write down two friction forces that would slow down a bicycle.

2. This diagram shows two of the forces acting on a remote-controlled model car when it is moving.

Forward
Friction force

in
Distance,
metres

Time, in seconds

(a) When the motor was switched off, the car slowed down and then stopped. While the car was slowing
down, which of these statements (i) — (iv) was true?
(i) Forward force and friction were both greater than zero.
(ii) Friction was zero and the forward force was zero.
(iii) The forward force was zero and the friction was greater than zero.
(iv) Friction was zero and the forward force was zero.

(6) Look at the distance time graph. What was the time when the car started to slow down?

3. Give two things that always happen when friction takes place.

4. What is air resistance?

Extension questions
5. Look at the diagram on page 386 showing how to measure friction. Imagine that you are a scientist studying
friction between wood and other materials. Describe:

(a) What you would be changing.

(b) What you would be measuring.

(c) What you would need to keep constant.

6. A motorcyclist is travelling at 25 m/s (nearly 60 mph) on a dual carriageway when he notices that there has
been an accident 70 metres in front of him. He takes 0.5 s to react before squeezing the brakes. The brakes
take 3 s to stop the motorbike.

(a) Draw a speed-time graph from the time he notices the accident to the time the motorbike stops.

(b) What was his total stopping distance? (Hint: to find the stopping distance you will need to calculate the
area under the speed-time graph.)

(c) What do you think happened?

388 | Science Book2

Forces and rotation

e A force can cause an object to change its speed or direction of movement.

t This change could include making a stationary object move.

Forces can also have a turning effect; for example, a spanner can be used to turn a bolt, or a lever can be used to lift a
load. These tools create a turning effect around a pivot. Spanners and levers can be used to increase turning effects.

A lever is any rigid body that is able to turn about a pivot.

Forces can have a turning effect

Mh SU Effort: Helps to
make the nut rotate.

Load Effort
The weight that must be moved. The force needed to move the load.

Pivot
The point of rotation
(sometimes called the fulcrum)

The strength of a turning effect is called a moment. The moment depends on the amount of effort used and on the
distance between the effort and the pivot.
 Physical processes | 389

The size of the turning effect

Easy peasy

0.3m 0.4m

Moment = 10 x 0.3 Moment = 10 x 0.4

greater turning effect.

ee EEG pein) Pivot (turning point)

REMEMBER THE UNITS:

force (N) x distance (m) = moment (Nm)

The units for moments (turning forces) are called newton-metres (Nm).

Everyday levers
Humans use this lever effect in many ways. Some everyday levers are shown here:

LEVERS
HAVE
EVERYDAY USES

Hammer
The largest
cutting force
A small effort force at will be
the end of a hammer provided very
handle can overcome close to the
the big load force pivot. It would
holding the nail in the Large cutting be very hard
wood. force to cut
cardboard
with the tip of
the scissors.
390 | Science Book 2

Here are some more everyday levers:

Crowbar
A small effort on the
long crowbar can lift | Asmall effort on
the heavy weight | the handles can
(load) of the produce a very
manhole cover. | large gripping
! force on the nail.

Balancing and moments

Sometimes it is important that turning forces are balanced. For example, two people sitting on a see-saw might want
to make it possible for both of them to move equally easily. This will only be possible if the moment in one direction is
balanced by the moment in the other direction, as explained below:

Balancing and moments

anti-clockwise moments = clockwise moments

i
ie 2m I!
| 3m ee:
‘ |
| '
‘ |
| H

| |
H
||
Turning point (pivot)

Clockwise

ANTI-CLOCKWISE: CLOCKWISE:
= force x distance BALANCED! = force x distance
=60Nx2m ==) NINEXGSati
= 120 Nm = 120" Nm

THE LAW OF There's a balance when:

MOMENTS the sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments

You can see from this example that one weight has a turning effect to the left and one has a turning effect to the right.
If the two turning effects are equal, the ruler will be balanced. This is an example of the Law of Moments:

moment turning to the left = moment turning to the right

 Physical processes | 391

Centre of gravity and stability

A ruler will balance without any additional weights if it is supported at its mid-point. This is because the weights of all
the particles on one side of the pivot are balanced by the weights of all the particles on the other side of the pivot. It
seems as if all of the weight of the ruler is acting through just one point. This point is called the centre of gravity (or
the centre of mass). :

Centre of gravity

All these forces

act like one
Centre weight.
of
gravity

All these forces All these forces

Act like one force acting through

the centre of gravity. Weight

Some objects fall over very easily when they are pushed. This is because they are unstable. A stable object is much
more difficult to topple. How stable an object is depends on how far we can tip it before its centre of gravity is moved
outside its base.

Centre of gravity and stability

The force of the ground on the box.

With a small push the With a larger push the

weight will tip the box weight (and centre of
back to its original gravity) is outside the
position. The weight is base and so tips the
still inside the base. box over.

Diver
is ee aS
stable.
A RACING CAR’S weight
is well inside the base,
so the car is stable.
The diver's
weight acts
outside the
base (i.e. feet).

Base (board)
392 Yel
(=)gler=Md=fele)/ qr

Key words
Pivot — the point around which something turns.

Moment - the strength of a turning effect of a force — it equals the force x the distance to the pivot.

Law of moments — a situation where moments are balanced.

Centre of gravity — the point that the weight of an object seems to pass through.

Exercise 27.2: Forces and rotation

le Look at this diagram: 0.3m 0.2m

Force X = 20 N

Force Y = 40 N

(a) Which of the forces, X or Y, has the greater turning effect? Explain your answer.

(6) How could you increase the turning effect of Y?

Make a drawing to explain the meaning of each of these words.

(i) Lever (ii) Load (iii) Moment

(iv) Effort (v) Load distance (vi) Effort distance

Write down the formula for calculating a moment. Show how the formula can be extended to describe the
Law of Moments.

Extension questions
4. Look at the diagram of a skeleton (page 27). Show where the levers are in this diagram.

By The diagram below shows a crane. The crane has a movable counter-balance.

(a) Why does the crane need a ee 6m i ai ald 2

counterbalance?

(6) Why must the counterbalance be Counter-

balance
movable?

(c) What is the moment of the 4000 N force

(about point O)?
10 000 N
(d) If the crane is balanced when the 4000 N
load is being lifted, what moment must
the 10 000 N force have? 4000 N

(e) How far from O should the X<b<b<p<pepe

PSX
counterbalance be placed?

(f) What is the maximum load (in N) the crane should lift?
 ‘Physical processes | 393

Force and pressure

You will have heard the word pressure earlier in connection with the force exerted by gas particles on the walls of a
container (see page 150). Pressure can also be used to describe the force exerted by a solid or by a liquid.

Pressure is a way of describing how concentrated a force is. Pressure therefore depends on two things:

how big the force is; and

how large an area the force is working on.

The diagram below shows a drawing pin being pushed into a noticeboard. Although the pushing force generated by
the muscles in the thumb does not change, there are other pressures that exist:

The pressure on the head of the drawing pin and on the tip of the thumb. This pressure is ow because the force
is spread out over a large area.

The pressure on the tip of the pin and on the noticeboard. This pressure is high. This is because the force has
been concentrated over a small area.

The force is spread out

over a large area, so the
Notice board pressure is low.
Here the force is
concentrated over a small
area, so the pressure is
high and big enough to
push the pin into the
notice board.

THE FORCE CAN

PUSH DRAWING PIN

DON'T GET IT WRONG

If you press onto the sharp end of
the drawing pin, the high pressure
will push the point into your thumb.

Tf we use the same amount of force; the force concentrated on a small area gives a higher pressure
than the force spread out over a large area, which gives a lower pressure.
394 Science Book 4

Pressure in everyday situations

There are many occasions when an understanding of force, area and pressure can be useful. Some of these are
shown below:

Spreading the force over a large Concentrating the force on a small

area gives ... LOW PRESSURE area gives ... HIGH PRESSURE

The player's weight (force) acts over the

The fat tyre small area of the stud. The stud sinks
means that the into the ground to give good grip.
weight is spread
over a large area, Weight
so the tyre
doesn't press very
hard on the
ground. The
wheelbarrow
doesn't sink.

When the nut is EVERYDAY USES A skate has a small

tightened, the OF PRESSURE area, so the
washer spreads pressure on the ice
the force overa is high. This melts
large area, so enough ice to make
that the nut does sliding easier.
not sink into the
wood.

Acamel's foot is large

so that it does not sink into the sand.
A sharp knife blade concentrates the
force from your hand over a small area,
This ski spreads the so that cutting is easy.
skier's weight, the
force over a large
area, so that the Snowboards work the
foot does not sink same way!
into the soft snow.
 Physical processes 395

Calculating pressure
The pressure caused by a force is calculated using the formula:

force
pressure =
area
Force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in square metres (m2); so the units for pressure will be
newtons per square metre (N/m?). However, this unit is given the name pascal (Pa), so when 1 newton acts on an
area of 1 square metre, the pressure is 1 pascal or 1 Pa.

Here are some examples of calculating pressure:

The air presses down

with a force of 10
N/cm?. This is like
having a 1 kg mass
sitting on each cm2 of
your skin!

Force = 300 N

Force = 100 N
Force = 100 N

Area = 2m? Area = 1 m@

100N
Pressure = es ay N/m? Pressure = = 100 N/m? Pressure = =
eaeeO N/m?
2m (or 50 Pa) 1m? (or 100 Pa) 2m (or 150 Pa)

This block exerts a pressure of 50 Pa. The pressure is now 100 Pa because The pressure here is 150 Pa. The
the same force is pressing ona force is three times bigger than just
smaller area. one block.

Small areas can cause problems. An elephant weighs

Many calculations involve areas much 60,000 N and each
less than 1m?. Units are sometimes foot has an area of
given as N/cm?. Watch out for this. 0.25 m@. How much
pressure in total
does it apply?

Calculating force or area

Sometimes you might need to calculate the force or the area when you are given a value for the pressure. You can
rearrange the formula above to give these two formulae:

force
force = pressure xX area and area
pressure
 Science Book 2

You might. find it easier to use a pressure triangle in

calculations like this. One of these is shown here: Some people find it easierto
remember the equations by
remembering this triangle.

To use it, cover up the letter you need

to calculate and you will see the
formula. So if you need to calculate the
force causing a pressure, cover up the
F like this, and you can see:

P x A, so
force = pressure x area.

Key words
Pressure — force divided by the area that the force is acting on.

Pascal — unit of pressure — when one newton acts on an area of one square metre.

Exercise 27.3: Pressure

1. What are the units for pressure? Write down a simple formula that will let you calculate a pressure.

2. A woman is wearing stiletto heels. If she stands on one heel, she puts a pressure of 1200 N/cm? on the
ground and each heel has a surface area of 0.5 cm?. What is her weight in newtons?

3. Use your ideas about pressure to explain why:

(a) Itis easier to walk on soft snow if you have snow shoes rather than ice skates.

(b) It is easier to pick up food with the prongs of a fork than with the handle.

4. The block in this diagram weighs 18 000 N.

(a) What is the area under the block? 18000N ~—

4

(b) What is the pressure under the block?

(c) If the block is tipped onto its side, what will the new pressure be? 3m

AL|

Extension
:
question em
os
5. (a) What pressure do you put onto the surface of the Earth? You can calculate this by firstly working out the
area of your feet by standing on some squared graph paper. You then draw around the outline of your
feet and count the number of centimetre squares you cover. Then work out your weight in newtons by
measuring your mass (in kg) and multiplying by 10. You should now be able to calculate ithe pressure
you exert in N/cm?.

(b) There are 10 000 cm? in 1 m?. Calculate the pressure you exert in pascals.
 Physical processes | 397

Pressure in liquids: Hydraulics

Starting points
6 Pressure is a force pushing on a certain area.

@ Pressure is high when the force presses onto a small area and low when the force presses onto a large area.

If you pour a liquid into a container, such as a bottle or jug, the weight of the liquid pushes down on the container’s
base. The pressure on the base can be calculated from knowing the force (weight) and the area it is acting on:

force
pressure =
area
There are three important points to remember about pressure in liquids:

e@ Pressure in a liquid increases with depth.

@ Pressure at any point in a liquid acts equally in all directions.

2 The shape of the container does not affect the pressure in a liquid.

These concepts are explained below:

Liquid Liquid reaches the same

Pressure added height in each vessel.
here

Holes drilled
mcomanes Jets of liquid
from container
Pressure is not affected by the shape
of the container.

sure increases by 10 000 pascals

_- with each metre under water.

IS
bh 5
Jet is slow and doesn't Jets go out further
Pressure acts go so far because the because pressure
equally in all pressure is lower. is higher.
directions.
Pressure increases with depth.
398 | Science Book2

Hydraulics
Liquids are very difficult to compress (squeeze). This is because their particles are very close together and there is no
space between them for them to move around. This means that if you apply a force to the surface of a liquid in a
container, the force will be transmitted through the liquid, as this diagram explains:

Pressure is transmitted through a liquid

>
.. 80a a\ =
pressure here ... rU oy Ay me nnn

Becatce there is
little or no space . will cause a
between the particles movement here.
in a liquid, it cannot
be compressed ...

Humans use some of these rules about pressure in liquids to build machines which use hydraulic pressure. The
hydraulic pressure is used to move pistons inside cylinders. The engineers who design the machines can use pistons
of different sizes to change forces in hydraulic systems, as explained below.

15 N gives
larger forces It's not all
on a larger area. good news
6 N smaller force A The larger piston
onasmaller area will move a shorter
Pressure is the same distance!
in all sections of

rn ee
the system.

Pressure Pressure
= 6/2 N/cm? = 3 N/cm?
= 3 N/cm?
Eee
Eee
=8

If you know the pressure and area at C, you can calculate the force at C,
by using the equation for pressure, that you have just learned:
At C we know that: P=3N/cm? andA=5cm2

Ls
A
Then Fa exeA
=3N/cm? x5cm?
=15N

So we can say that a force of 6 N at A causes a force of 15 N at C.

 Physical processes

Hydraulics and braking

Hydraulic forces are used to operate the braking systems of cars and motorbikes. A small piston is pressed with a small
force at one end of a tube, either by the brake pedal of a car or the brake lever of a motorbike. The tube which has
thick, strong walls, that won’t bulge under pressure, is filled with a special hydraulic fluid. The pressure in the fluid is
transmitted to a larger piston which forces brake pads onto the disc. The wheel is slowed down by the friction of the
brake pads on the disc (see page 382).

Hydraulic braking system

Spring: Pulls Master cylinder:

pedal back so Small piston puts
pressure on the To other wheels ————+
that the brake
can be used hydraulic fluid.

colli!
Cross section
of brake ends
and disc

Slave cylinder: Receives

Brake pedal: Brake pad: Can pressure transmitted
= Can be pushed push against through the hydraulic
down using brake disc with a fluid.
only a small high pressure. r]
force. [Piston: Moves a short
distance.
Brake disc
(attached to wheel)

Some braking systems

have 2 or 3 sets of pistons
for each wheel.

Key words
Hydraulic pressure — pressure transmitted through a liquid.
400 | Science Book 2

Chapter 28
Light and light sources
Light is a sort of energy that your eyes can detect. If there is no light, in other words, when it is completely dark, you
cannot see at all. The light we need in order to see objects comes from light sources including the Sun, stars, light
bulbs and burning objects. These objects or light sources are able to produce light energy, for example by burning, or
by the conversion of electrical energy. Anything which can produce and give off its own light energy is called a
luminous source.

Luminous sources give out light

Car headlamps

Some other objects look as though they are light sources because they are so bright. These objects look bright to us
because they reflect light into our eyes from another light source. These reflectors include the Moon, mirrors and
even this page.

These objects are not luminous even

though we can see them The Moon
reflects light
from the Sun.

THIS WRITING
You can read this
because light is
reflected off the
paper.

Properties of light
Let us just for a moment check we know the very important properties of light:

€ Light is made of rays that always travel in straight lines. This means that we can’t see an object if there is
anything in the way of these straight lines. When we try to draw the way light is travelling, we always use straight
lines.
 Physical processes

Light travels in straight lines

= _The rider on the motorcycle can see things in this area .

Lights from the

front of the car but he can't
: see this car!

We always show a path of light like this

— = ——

Straight line ~ Arrow to show

(use a ruler!) where the light
is coming from.

the beam of light ifthe holes inthe cards are exactly lined ‘up,
because IGHT TRAVERS THRgUGH THE AIR IN STRAIGHT LINES!

e If something gets in the way of light, a shadow is formed.

Light rays can pass through Light rays cannot pass Light cannot get around an
a transparent material through an opaque object, so it produces a shadow.
without being distorted. material.

Light —
source

~
~

Shadow
 Science Book2 —

® Light travels very fast. It is very difficult to measure the speed of light, but scientists have found that light
travels at 300 000 000 m per second (300 000 km per second). This is about a million times faster than the
speed of an aeroplane.

At this speed light crosses

The jet plane travels at about a room in less than 1
400 m per second.
millionth of a second.

This Formula 1 racing car travels

at around 1/15th km per second.

Using our eyes - how we see things

Remember, we see things when light enters our eyes. The light can come:

@ directly from the source to our eyes, for example light from a burning match;

© when light from a source is reflected from (in other words, bounces off) an object.

How we see things Ser

Light travels in straight lines
from the source into the eye.

This light ray misses

the eye, SO we can't
see it!

Mirror

Light can bounce from Lamp

an object into the eye.
 ~ Physical processes | 403

No matter where the light comes from, we just won’t see an object unless:

e the light can reach the eye in a straight line from the object;

@ the light rays can actually enter the eye.

The pinhole camera

A pinhole camera is a very simple device that can show how light travels in straight lines and can form an image on
a screen. The image that is formed is inverted (upside down). This is how an image is formed on the back of a human
eye. Our brain has learned that the image needs to be corrected, so that we actually see things the right way up.

Pinhole camera

In your eye this screen is called the retina. Your brain turns the
image back up to the way that we recognise.

This image is upside down

because the light from the
object travels in straight lines.

Key words
Luminous — a light source that produces and gives off its own light.

Reflector — an object that is bright because light from another source can bounce off it.

Shadow -— an area formed when an object gets in the way of rays of light.
 | Science f=Yeo) 44

Exercise 28.1: Light

1. Complete this paragraph using the words from the list below:

light shadows reflect energy light source energy straight lines

You can’t see an object unless there is some ......... . The objects you can see are either ......... (give out light)
Oa light into your eyes. Light is made up of ........... and always travels in .......... ... Ae: is formed
because light cannot pass through solid objects.

2. Which of these objects is a light source?

Moon Sun a torch burning candle

the silver paper wrapper from a chocolate bar the chrome radiator grille on a sports car

3. Draw an accurate diagram to show how a shadow forms behind a house on a sunny day. Use a ruler to draw
the straight lines.

4. During a power cut, electric lights go off. Write down three different things you could use to provide you with
light during a power cut.

Extension questions
5. Draw a diagram to explain why you can see your watch by moonlight. It isn’t a luminous watch!

6. Use straight lines to explain why you can still see a cat in the shadow behind a house. This is definitely not
a luminous cat!

7. Use the Internet or your library to find out how scientists are able to measure the speed of light.
 | Physical processes | 405

Mirrors and the reflection of light

Remember
e Some objects are luminous — we can see them because they give out their own light.

8 We can see other objects because they reflect the light that shines on them.

a Light rays travel in straight lines.

Mirrors reflect light

You should already know quite a lot about mirrors, but here is a little revision before we look at them in more detail.
When light hits a shiny surface, the light rays bounce off the surface. We say that the light rays are reflected. If the
reflection gives a perfect image, the surface is acting as a mirror.

We can use almost any shiny surface to act like a mirror. Dull or rough surfaces are no use as mirrors because they
don’t let the light bounce back without mixing up the light rays. There are many other surfaces that do reflect light but
don't act as mirrors. Paper is a very good example of this kind of material.

Reflection from different surfaces

Light bounces off the smooth

surface — it is reflected.
A smooth, shiny surface reflects
all the light falling on it.

A mirror is drawn
with the shaded
side at the back.

A smooth sea looks bright and the colour of the sky. The
FES a ee ee small waves act like moving mirrors and the Sun's
reflections seem to sparkle. Bigger broken waves make
MIRROR the sea look darker and duller.

Light rays get so

mixed up that we
don't get a clear
reflection from a
very rough surface.

Very small bumps ie / We can see ‘ts 5 4 4

mean the light rays Nir / | words on the \ Kee he |
are reflected in many \ | paper from
different directions. ok anywhere
This means we can Ko xe over here.
see what's written on :
the paper from more
than one direction. |
406 | Science Book2

Looking in a mirror
A mirror that is flat is called a plane mirror. When you look into a plane mirror, you see that:

8 the image you see is the same size as the object that is reflected;

® the image is the right way up (upright);

@ the image seems to be behind the mirror; and

© the images are back-to-front (laterally inverted).

How do mirrors reflect light

We can study reflection using this apparatus:

Rules of reflection
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
Mirror
Protractor
Incident Reflected
ray : ray
Results from
many trials

This line at 90° to the mirror

is called the normal.
Reflected ray can be
traced with a pencil.

angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)

The rays of light that hit the mirror from the ray box are called incident rays. These rays hit the mirror at an angle
called the angle of incidence. If we trace the reflected rays of light from a plane mirror, we can measure the angle
of reflection. No matter where we move the ray box to, the angle of reflection and the angle of incidence are always
the same, so remember:

angle of incidence = angle of reflection

 Physical processes

Virtual images
When you look at an image in a mirror, the image seems to be the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in
front of it. This image is called a virtual image because, even though it appears to be behind the mirror, there is really
nothing there! The formation of a virtual image can be explained by drawing a ray diagram, as shown:

Forming a virtual image

a If | look behind
Plane mirror the mirror, | It looks as Image
can't see her! though the |
rays of light
right becomes have come
from here. :
This is a
virtual image.

SO9OURISIP
BSOUL
OM}

Rays of light
coming from
the object

Tricks of a magician’s trade

Image of
flame

Clear glass If you put

(acts like a mirror) your finger
on the unlit
Bunsen
burner, your
finger
; seems to be
Lit on fire.
Bunsen
burner

Light ray
Using a periscope from
The direction of light rays can be changed more than once by using a hidden
object
more than one mirror. A periscope uses two mirrors to let you see
round or over an object. Periscopes were first used by soldiers in Reflected_ Obstacle, such
the First World War. They let the soldiers see out of their trenches light ray as a wall or
hedge
without taking the risk of being shot. They also let the commander of
a submarine see what is going on up on the surface of the water, or
allow the driver of a school bus to see what’s going on upstairs.
Viewer<i
 Science l=Yofe) 4

Seeing around awkward corners: Optical fibres

Optical fibres are made from materials which let light pass along them. They work because light is reflected inside them
until it reaches the other end. Optical fibres have many uses:

Reflection in an optical fibre

Light is repeatedly reflected
along the fibre because it hits
the side walls at an angle
greater than the critical angle
(see page 410).
The optical fibre can bring light into
awkward places:
* a surgeon examining the inside
of your intestine;
¢ a soldier looking for hidden
explosives;
* acar mechanic looking under
a Car.

Key words
Angle of incidence — the angle between the normal and the incident ray.

Angle of reflection — the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

Reflection — the bouncing of light from a surface.

Plane mirror — a reflecting surface that is flat.

Virtual image — an image that appears to be behind a mirror.

Exercise 28.2: Reflection

1. What does each of these words mean?

(i) image (ii) virtual (iii) inverted (iv) plane (v) incidence

2. Draw a diagram to show how a shopkeeper could use a periscope to keep watch on the goods in another
aisle.

3. (a) Look at this clock. It is viewed in a mirror. What time is it?

(b) Write out the same time as it would appear on a digital watch viewed in a
mirror.

4. Write your name and address (include the postcode) on a piece of paper so that it will be the right way round
when viewed in a mirror.

Extension questions
5. Make a list of five reflecting surfaces in your home. Choose one surface that is normally transparent but can
sometimes be reflecting (think carefully).

6. Use the Internet or your library to find out how optical cables are used in communications. Try to find out the
advantages of using optical cables compared with copper cables.
 Physical processes | 409

Refraction of light
Refraction occurs whenever light passes from one substance to another. It happens because of the different speeds
Light passes easily through gases, such as the air, but
at which light is able to pass through different substances.
travels more slowly through materials, such as glass, perspex or water. It is rather like a car moving at different speeds
on different surfaces. The process of refraction is explained below:

Light and refraction

Refraction is like the movement of a racing car from tarmac through gravel back to tarmac.

TAKE NOTE! The refracted

ray is exactly parallel to the
incident ray.
Tarmac racetrack This wheel
—~ speeds up first
as it leaves the
gravel and so
pushes the car The
to the left side. refracted
ray bends
away from
normal. Air A substance
that light passes
Glass through is called
a medium.
The car Car travels Ray:
changes more slowly ¢ changes direction
direction | on the gravel (bends towards
|and becomes | than on the normal);
|more straight | tarmac. ¢ slows down.
on.
Glass Glass is more
Air dense than air.
This wheel slows
down first as the Normal
car hits the gravel. (right angles Incident ray
The wheel on the to
left is not slowed boundary)
down and pushes
the car to the right
\ side.
Tarmac racetrack

There are two important rules to remember:

e@ Light rays passing from a less dense medium to a more dense medium always bend towards the normal.
The normal is at right angles to the boundary between the two media.

e Light rays passing from a more dense to a less dense medium always bend away from the normal.
410 hYod
[=] [el- i=fole), a4

Straight on
If both wheels of a racing car hit a sand trap at exactly the same time, they slow down together. The car then continues
to go through the sand trap without turning, but it now travels more slowly than it did on the tarmac. Light rays do
exactly the same if they pass from one medium to another at right angles.

Light can travel straight through a boundary

Both wheels speed

up at the same time.

Tarmac There is no
refraction.

Car travels more

slowly but goes
straight on. Ray travels more
slowly but goes
straight on.

Tarmac
Both wheels slow
down at the same
time. The incident ray is
at 90° (right angles)
to the boundary.

Reflection and refraction

Some reflection occurs during the refraction process! When light reaches a boundary between the more dense and
the less dense material, some of the light is reflected back into the denser medium. The amount that is reflected
compared with the amount that passes through depends on the angle at which the light meets the boundary. The larger
this angle, the more light is reflected and the less light passes through. Eventually an angle is reached where ail/ the
light is reflected back into the denser medium. This is called the critical angle and is important in understanding how
optical fibres work (See page 408).
 Physical processes | 411

Critical angle and total internal reflection

More Less More Me Less

dense dense dense dense
Some light Some light NK

is reflected passes through N

Alllight is‘. |No light

reflected passes
through

Critical This is called total

angle internal
reflection
and is very
important in
optical fibres
(see page 408).

Effects of refraction Light rays from the water (more dense) to air (less
dense) bend away from the normal.
Refraction can explain some strange effects that you may
well have noticed. If you stand in shallow water, your feet Apparent
seem closer to the surface than they actually are. In the depth
same way, a fish swimming in a stream always seems to of fish
be closer to the surface than it actually is. This can make
it hard to catch tiddlers with a net.

Real and apparent depth

THE MAGIC OF
REFRACTION

The Archer fish has two parts to its eye — the top sees in air ... Here's an experiment.
... and the bottom part sees in water. yy) ¢ Putacoin in acup.
This lets the Archer fish catch — e Add some water to level A.
insects from above the surface
¢ You can't see the coin.
without worrying about Jet of water
¢ Tell your audience that you'll
refraction!
make the coin appear.
Add more water to
level B and HEY
PRESTO.
412 Yo
(=) [es =iele), a4 :

Using refraction
We sometimes need to change the direction of light without using mirrors. The lenses in spectacles, for example, must
change the direction of light (So that it is properly focused in the eye) but must still let the light pass through them.
Lenses are pieces of plastic or glass that have been ground into shape so that they will bend light in a particular way.
Spectacle lenses are usually plastic, because this material is lighter than glass and less likely to shatter in a dangerous
way. The lenses in microscopes and telescopes are usually glass because this material is less likely to be scratched
than plastic.

Lenses and refraction

Refraction makes these

light rays converge which
means come together. j
: Which lenses you need depends on
i what's wrong with your eyes.

Refraction makes these

light rays diverge which
means they spread out.

Key words
Refraction — the bending of light when it moves from one medium to another of different density.

Angle of refraction — angle between the normal and the refracted ray.

Lens — an object that can bend light in a particular way.

 Ph ysical processes nk}

Exercise 28.3: Refraction

1. Complete this paragraph, using words from the list below:

less away from medium _ refracted

LIQMt AS: sakes. when it reaches a boundary between two different substances. Each of the substances that
light can pass through is called a ........ . Light passing from a more dense to a........ dense medium always
bends ........ the normal.

2. Use your knowledge of refraction to explain:

(a) Why it is difficult to pick up a coin from the bottom of a swimming pool.

(b) Why it is hard to spear a fish if you are standing on the seashore.

Use diagrams to help your explanation.

Extension question
3. Use a textbook or the Internet to find a diagram of a microscope. Make a simple copy of the diagram to show
how lenses direct a beam of light through the instrument.
414 | Science Book 2

Light and colour

Seeing the point
e Light travels, as light rays, in straight lines.

) We can see objects because light from the objects enters our eyes.

Sound waves can only travel through a definite medium (see page 425) but there is a group of waves that can travel
through a vacuum. These are called electromagnetic waves and are produced when molecules, atoms or electrons
vibrate when they absorb energy. There are different types of electromagnetic wave. The type of wave depends on the
frequency and on the wavelength. All types of wave travel at the same speed, about 300 000 km per second. This is
usually called the speed of light because light is a type of electromagnetic wave. The complete range of
electromagnetic waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum, and an example is shown here.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Short wavelength:
The peaks of the
Long wavelength: There's a big distance waves are very
between the peaks of the wave. close together. When
wavelengths
get shorter,
Radio waves Micro- | Infra-red Visible Ultra | X-rays Gamma
| light -violet | frequency gets
|
! Red Violet higher:
scientists say
t
}
|t
I

|I that frequency
||
and wavelength
are inversely
High frequency: proportional
Many complete to each other.
Frequency/Hz waves pass in one
second.

W A Nuclear
l \radiation

“my
UfGF In large doses these rays can
Everything we see be DANGEROUS to human
~. depends on light rays health, and we must be
WZ
CCUM SS these. protected from them.

The light that we see is only a small part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It is called visible light because it
can be detected by our eyes (see page 403). It is also called white light because it looks white to our eyes. White light
is made up of several different colours. This range of colours is called the visible spectrum. We see the visible
spectrum when white light from the Sun hits drops of water. The colours are separated out to produce a rainbow.
 Physical processes | 415

Colours of the rainbow

Each drop of water splits the white sunlight into

a set of different colours.

Colours

ie rainbow
Water of the

Newton's prism
Sir Isaac Newton created a spectrum in his laboratory by using a triangular glass prism. The angle of the glass in a
prism is ideal for splitting white light into its seven different colours:

Newton’s prism
Red
Orange
Yellow
This splitting of the
Green white light is called
Blue DISPERSION...
Indigo
Violet

Red (less refraction)

Peat
depends
‘One.

A mixture
of red and
... each colour
blue light (wavelength) of
light being
PRISM REFRACTED toa
Blue (more refraction)
different amount.

You can make up a rhyme to help you remember the seven colours of the rainbow:
Richard of York gave battle in vain
416 | Science Book 2

The eye and colour vision

Although light is split up into seven different colours by a prism, the eye actually only has three different types of sensor
for colour. One type responds to red, one to blue and one to green. These are called the primary colours; if our eyes
receive the three colours at the same time we see white light. This can be shown by shining three coloured lights onto
a screen and where they overlap white is seen.

Primary colours
These are PRIMARY
COLOURS:
RED, GREEN and BLUE.
They cannot be made by
mixing any other colours
together.

These are SECONDARY

COLOURS and they are
made by adding primary
colours together. WHITE is a mixture of three
PRIMARY COLOURS
RED + GREEN + BLUE = WHITE
RED + GREEN = YELLOW

RED + BLUE =

GREEN + BLUE = CYAN

HOW A COLOUR T.V. WORKS

Beams from
_| Shadow
three
_|mask keeps
coloured
the beam
electron
| narrow.
guns

aa

Red, green, blue, phosphors

on screen: These illuminate
depending on which guns send
electrons into them. For example,
R and G give a yellow spot.
 | Physical processes

Colours can be combined using a spinning coloured disc.

Newton’s disc

When a Newton's disc is

spun very quickly, the
disc appears to be white.
This is because your eye
and brain can't work
quickly enough to
Violet separate the different
colours.

Looking at coloured objects

Why do objects look coloured? They are coloured because the materials they are made of absorb some of the visible
spectrum and reflect the rest. We only see the reflected light.

Reflection causes colour

BLACK leather jacket:

No colours are
reflected, all are
absorbed.

WHITE T-shirt: All colours are reflected.

BLUE JEANS: Only Ze

blue is reflected, all Be
other colours are
absorbed.

Chemicals that absorb some colours and reflect others are called pigments. An important pigment is chlorophyll. This
is the green colour in plant chloroplasts (see page 68) and appears green because it absorbs red and blue light and
reflects green light.
418 | Science Book2

There are three important rules for understanding the colour of objects:
8 Coloured objects reflect some of the light that shines on them. These objects are the colour of the reflected
light.

@ White objects reflect all the light that shines on them.

® Black objects reflect none of the light that shines on them; they absorb all the colours.

Coloured light and changing colours

Coloured objects only reflect some of the light that falls on them. They reflect the colour that they are, but only if the
light falling on them included that colour. White light contains all the colours, so coloured objects will look the right
colour in white light. If the light falling on an object doesn’t include the light that the object reflects, the object will appear
to be the wrong colour. This principle is described below:

Change of colour

In white light In red light In green light

Boots: Red because they reflect Boots: Red because they reflect Boots: Black because there is no RED
RED from WHITE LIGHT. RED from RED LIGHT. to reflect from GREEN LIGHT.

Laces: Green because they reflect Laces: Black because there is no Laces: GREEN because there is
GREEN from WHITE LIGHT. GREEN to reflect from RED LIGHT. GREEN to reflect from GREEN
LIGHT.

IT'S MAGIC: THE DISAPPEARING MAN

'FLASH'
to distract

audience
Shine a red
spotlight
Change to blue
spotlight

Red figure against ‘DISAPPEARED’

a BLACK background (actually BLACK against
BLACK background)

Some of you will have experienced this if you have been to a disco or to a party with coloured lights. Some clothes
can look very strange under coloured lighting.
 Physical processes 419

Coloured filters work by letting only some light through

Filters are transparent pieces of glass, plastic or celluloid. The colour of the filter is the same as the colour of the light
that passes through it, but only if the light arriving at the filter contained this colour in the first place. White light contains
all the colours. A filter does not add colour to white light, but takes colours away. A blue filter looks blue because it
absorbs all the colours except blue.

Colour filters absorb light

— BLACK Red
=}
3 No light ; ae le
& : seen as ween
ae Now this there's aS
Band no RED F ah =
et is BLUE is ms - =
g ; be
could
eue as
= zo) tricky! light to
TRANSMITTED). ee let L . sai
is) through. 7 eee
= ¢ Violet
8

All other colours are

ABSORBED.

Water acts like a filter, and absorbs most of the red and some of the yellow and green light passing through it. Because
of this, deep water looks blue. The water acts like a blue filter.

Underwater
Colours as seen underwater Actual colours

. J/TTI\\\\
W)
In
l
| - if
Amammalreflects E
itelate
Blueish_
IL
background

l
G
In] These can now
reflect colours

V
may be very difficult from white light.
to: see deep in the sea.
 Science Book 2 __

Key words
Spectrum — a range of colours of light.

Prism — a glass triangle that can split white light into its seven different colours.

Electromagnetic spectrum — the complete range of electromagnetic waves.

Primary colours — three colours that combine to give all other colours seen by the human eye.

Pigment — a substance that absorbs some colours and reflects others.

Filter — a transparent object that only allows some colours to pass through it.

Exercise 28.4: Colour

1. Make up your own rhyme to help you remember the order of colours in the visible spectrum — make this
different from the one on page 415.
2. Snooker is played on a green table with red, blue, brown, green, yellow, black and white balls. Explain why
it would be very difficult to play snooker under a blue light.

3. Adancer wears a red jacket. What colour would it appear to the audience if she were lit by a:

(a) red spotlight? (b) green spotlight? (c) magenta spotlight?

4. Why is it a good idea for scuba divers to have white markings on their equipment, and not to wear red wetsuits?

5. Misha has a pair of special glasses with coloured filters in place of normal lenses.

(a) Misha closes her left eye and looks at a lamp. The lamp gives
out white light but Misha sees it as green. Explain how this is
possible.

(b) Misha looks at a red lamp. Red

filter
(i) What colour will the lamp appear if she closes her right
eye? Explain your answer.

(ii) What colour will the lamp appear if she closes her left
eye? Explain your answer.
 Physical processes 421

Chapter 29
Vibration and sound
Making sound
There are many different sounds but, as you know, they all have one thing in common. Sounds only happen when
something vibrates. When something vibrates to make a sound, it moves backwards and forwards. Sometimes it is
really easy to see a vibration, but at other times we can heara sound without seeing a vibration. Even if we can’t see
a vibration, one must be happening if we hear a sound. We can sometimes demonstrate a vibration even if we can’t
see one.

Sound depends on vibrations

BIKER BOY'S BAND

needs to tune up. You
can show the
invisible vibrations
of a tuning fork by
tapping it and then
pushing it into a
beaker of water.
Tap the
tuning fork
The fork makes the water
vibrate enough for us to see it!

Some vibrations are

invisible. The sound (noise)
from a drum comes from the
vibration of the drum skin.

Some vibrations are obvious. You can see the

movement of the guitar string as the music is played.

Many of the sounds we hear every day come from radios, minidisk players or television sets. These work by making
a loudspeaker vibrate.

|Sound waves |

DEMONSTRATION: You Stretches

can see flour or talcum
powder moving about on an
old loudspeaker cone when
it is switched on. DON'T
The cone vibrates
TRY THIS ON YOUR
backwards and Energy from these vibrations is
PARENTS’ NEW STEREO!
forwards when it passed onto molecules in the air.
Squashes
makes a sound.
422 Yel (Tiler =Lolo),4

How sounds reach our ears

When the cone of a loudspeaker is vibrating, it makes the air next to it vibrate as well. The air is squashed and
stretched to make sound waves. These sound waves travel through the air until they reach our ears. When the
vibrations reach our ears, they make our eardrums vibrate. These tiny pieces of skin pass on their vibrations
through a series of bones to a structure called the cochlea. This structure can change vibrations into electrical
messages. These messages are then sent to the brain. When these messages reach the brain, we finally hear a
sound.

The ear and hearing

EAR! EAR!
Some animals can
move this part (called STRANGE BUT
the pinna) so they ——————«. TRUE!
collect very weak You don't actually
sound waves from all hear a sound until
directions. the electrical
messages reach the
brain.

Ear canal

3 small
bones
Eardrum

Cochlea Nerve to
brain

Vibration in engine and Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibrations in Electrica!

in air inside in in in liquid of messages in
exhaust air eardrum | bones cochlea nerve
 Physical processes 423

Sound travels as waves

Sound energy travels because it is passed on from molecule to molecule in the air, between the source of sound and
our ears. The molecules move backwards and forwards in a pattern we call a sound wave. The pattern looks as if
some molecules are pushed together: these parts of the wave are called compressions; others are more spread out:
these parts are rarefactions. Here is a diagram showing this pattern:

A sound wave involves movement of air particles

Direction of sound wave

Displacement of air molecules

—- —-_ —_§ —- —_| =—- —_| =—- —_ —->-_ —

ONE WAVELENGTH: COMPRESSION: RAREFACTION:

The distance between Air particles are Air particles are
two compressions. squashed together. stretched apart.

QUIETER SOUNDS!
Energy is lost, so
particles vibrate less.
A slinky spring can be used to demonstrate a wave The sound is quieter the
further away you are
from the source.
This is why we call
this a
LONGITUDINAL WAVE.
To-and-fro
vibration of the
, coils as the

NAN
Direction of wave = a ac passes

Compression Rarefaction Wavelength

The vibrations that make up a sound wave travel along in the same direction as the wave is travelling. This is why we
call it a longitudinal wave. All sound waves are longitudinal waves.
424 | Science Book2

Sound and echoes

Sound waves can be reflected in the same way as light rays. Sound travels much more slowly than light, so it takes
some time to travel through the air. If you make a sound such as a shout or a bang near a cliff or a big building, you
may hear an echo. This is caused by the sound waves bouncing back to you.

Echoes
The second sound is heard
The second sound, the after the first sound because of
(ECHO), is reflected the time required for the sound
back from the building to travel to and from the
(wall). building (wall).

The first sound

goes directly
to the ear.

Sound waves and echoes can be used to locate underwater objects. A ship on the surface sends out a sound wave
and then picks up the echo from anything beneath the ship. This technique, shown below, is called echo-sounding or
sonar. Echo sounding can be used:

@ to locate sunken ships;

t to detect submarines;

@ to search for shoals of fish;

@ to check that the water is deep enough for a ship to move safely in shallow water.

Uses of echo-sounding

ECHO RECEIVED: An engineer

can work out if there are any Sound emitted
solid objects beneath the ship.

Submarine
 Physical processes | 425

Sound needs a material to travel through

Sound waves must have something to pass through, or they can’t travel from one place to another. Most of the sounds
we hear travel through the air, but sound can also travel through other materials. These materials include liquids, such
as water, and solids, such as brick, wood and glass.

Sounds are transmitted through solid, liquid and gas

Never tap on an aquarium! The vibrations are passed

onto the inhabitants (fish), and can be very painfull

Sound travels through

the Earth ...
An earthquake in one
part of the world sends
vibrations to other parts
of the Earth. Scientists
can use special
instruments to listen to
these vibrations.

GLASS is a solid that WATER is a liquid

can transmit (pass that can transmit
on) vibrations. vibrations.

.. but not through Space!

Sound travels at different
speeds in different materials
on
2 4 a
= =i
© 3000 vie Si
n ZS
i Q Sz
wi jp =
7 oO z
There are no particles in Space,
so vibrations cannot be passed. MATERIAL
Spacemen need mobile phones to When particles are closer together, they
speak to each other. can pass on the vibrations more efficiently!

Sound waves travel much more efficiently through solids and liquids than through the air. You can check this by
listening to a gentle tap on a laboratory bench — try it. You can hear it if your ear is pressed close to the bench but you
may not hear it at all if you rely on it travelling through the air. Anything that the sound energy can travel through is
called a medium.

Sound cannot travel through a vacuum. A vacuum is an empty space where there is no air, water or other molecules
to be compressed and rarified. Light can travel through a vacuum because light rays do not need particles to pass on
their energy.
426 i
Yod[-]g[oy- Mm=fole), ard

Switch 1
The need for a medium can be shown using a vacuum bell:

As air is drawn out, the

ringing sound becomes
Electric bell
quieter and quieter - but
you can still see the
clanger moving! Glass jar

The pump can

suck the air out
of the bell jar to
produce a vaccum.

Problems with hearing Sete :

Different people can hear different sounds. The audible range for a person tells us the upper and lower frequencies
of sound that the person can detect (see page 423). The audible range depends on how well the vibrations in the
eardrum are passed on through the tiny bones. As we get older, these bones wear out and we find it especially difficult
to hear high-frequency (high-pitched — see page 430) sounds. The audible range is reduced as our ears get older!

The ears can suffer more serious damage than this general wear-and-tear and we can become deaf. This deafness can
be temporary or permanent, depending on what causes it. These are some of the problems associated with hearing:

Causes of deafness
Sometimes this nerve is
Very loud noises can damage the cochlea and
cause PERMANENT DEAFNESS. missing or damaged, so no
messages can reach the
brain. This causes
Cochlea PERMANENT (or STONE)
DEAFNESS.

The eardrum can ; oe SAY / Nerve to brain

be perforated by ie
very loud bangs le If this tube gets
or high pressure ZY blocked, for
(e.g. deep under Zé \/ example when
the sea). This Sound you have a cold,
Satay, 3 small the eardrum
Eardrum bones cannot vibrate
DEAFNESS and properly. This
the eardrum will can make your
eventually repair hearing very dull,
itself. like listening
underwater.

The three small bones can become worn, so that

they cannot pass on all vibrations. This reduces
AUDIBLE RANGE:
the audible range. This can happen more quickly A young person has a range from 20 Hz
if you listen to too much loud music. (20 cycles per second) to 20 000 Hz.
This range is reduced to about 30 - 16 000 Hz as
you get older.
 Physical processes 427

The speed of sound

Sound travels much more slowly than light. This makes it much easier to measure the speed of sound than the speed
of light. These measurements can be made outdoors using echo timing, or indoors using time switches and an
electronic timer.

Measuring the speed of sound

Outside

* Bang a stick and listen for the echo. The sound has travelled 100 m.
* Bang stick in a rhythm, so the next bang exactly coincides with the echo.
¢ Another person uses a stop watch to time one hundred bangs.

So speed of sound = Distance = 100x100.

Time Time taken

: 50m |

The speed of sound is 330 metres per second.

In the laboratory Light travels at 300 million metres per second.

> d metres

This responds to the clap This picks up the

and sends a signal to the sound after it has
stopclock timer. travelled 'd' metres.
Start. Stop
microphone micro-phone
/

Clap here Sound-operated

switches
The timer shows the time 't'
taken for the sound to
travel between the two
d
So Speed = oF m/s microphones.

Because light travels so much more quickly than sound, we can see an event happen before we hear it. A well-known
example of this difference concerns thunder and lightning. During a thunderstorm you usually see the lightning before
you hear the thunder. In fact, the light travels so quickly that you see the lightning almost as soon as it happens. The
differences between the speed of sound and light means that you can work out how far away the thunderstorm actually
is.
428 | Science |=fole) @4

Light travels faster than sound

Thunder (sound) travels 1 km in 3 seconds

Lightning (light) travels 1 000 000 times faster (we see it instantly!)

Distance from storm = Time between lightning and thunder

3
For example, if you hear thunder 9 seconds after you see lightning, the storm
is 9/3 = 3 kilometres away.

Another example which illustrates the difference between the speeds of sound and light is when you see the smoke
from an explosion before you hear the bang.

Key words
Vibration — a pattern of movement, up-and-down or side-to-side.

Sound wave — a pattern of vibrations carrying sound energy through the air.

Medium — the material that a sound wave travels through.

Vacuum — a space containing no air particles.

Eardrum — a membrane that vibrates when sound waves reach it.

Exercise 29.1: Sound

1. Complete these sentences.

Sounds are made when something ......... . Vibrations then travel through the ......... to our ears. Vibrations
can also travel through ......... (such as water) and......... (such as brick). Animals such as ......... are very good
at hearing sounds underwater.

2. Look at the diagram of the vacuum bell (page 426). Say what you would hear when switch 1 is closed.
What would you hear when the pump is switched on? Give reasons for your answers.

3. (a) Jack throws a stone into a pond. He hears the plop sound and watches ripples spreading out across the
surface of the pond. Which travels fastest — sound, ripples on water or light?

(ob) Which of these sentences about sound is correct?

(i) |Sound cannot travel through air. (iv) Sound cannot travel through water.
(ii) Sound only travels through air. (v) Sound travels well through space.
(iii) Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Extension questions
4. Design an experiment to find out who has the most sensitive hearing in your group.

Say exactly what you would measure and explain how you would make certain that your experiment was a
fair test.

5. Use a library book or the Internet to explain how a hearing-aid works.

 Physical processes 429

Different sounds
Remember
@ Sounds can only happen if an object vibrates.

6 We can only hear sounds if the vibration reaches our ears.

e Sound travels as waves.

Not all sounds are the same. Some sounds are louder than others, and some sounds are higher (squeakier) than
others. It would be useful to be able to look at the pattern of vibrations in a particular sound to try to understand why
sounds are so different.

Looking at sound
A microphone is able to change the vibrations in the air into electrical signals. These signals can be seen as a wave
pattern if the microphone is connected to an oscilloscope. This wave pattern is called a trace. The trace shows the
changes in pressure of the air as it hits the microphone.

Looking at sound waves

A MICROPHONE
Converts vibrations
in the air into
electrical signals.
A trace on an oscilloscope

PEAK: This is the

result of the high
pressure part of
é the wave (the
sed ket ee compression).

TROUGH: This
corresponds to
the low pressure
part of the wave
An OSCILLOSCOPE (the rarefaction).
Wavelength
converts electrical
signals into pictures of
the sound wave, called
a trace.

Amplitude and the loudness of sounds

All sounds are caused by vibrations. Sometimes these vibrations are too small to see (see page 421), but sometimes
they can be seen quite easily. If you started to play a guitar, you would be able to see the string vibrate as it makes a
sound. You could make the sound louder if the string were plucked so hard that the vibrations were very large. The
sound would be quieter (softer) if the string were plucked gently and the vibrations were quite small.
430 | Yod[-}p[ey- My=fofe), a4

Large vibrations in an object make bigger sound waves. A big sound wave has more energy than a small one and this
is why its sounds louder. In other words, the harder you hit or pluck something, the more energy there will be in a
vibration from this object, and the louder the sound will be.

Loudness will depend on energy

This is the AMPLITUDE of the wave. More

energy (a louder sound) spreads and
compresses particles more. Because of
this, PEAKS get HIGHER and TROUGHS
get LOWER.

A quiet noise means there are small vibrations, a small amplitude and very little energy.

® A loud noise creates big vibrations, big amplitude and a lot of energy.

The size of the vibrations is called the amplitude of the wave. The more energy a wave has, the greater the amplitude.

Pitch is another difference between sounds

Remember that the pitch of a sound is how high or low the sound is. There are several things that affect the pitch of
a sound:

@ The size of the object that is vibrating:

— long and thick gives a low-pitched sound; and

— short and thin gives a high-pitched sound.

@ The tightness of the object that is vibrating:

— a tight string vibrates and makes a high note; and

— a loose string vibrates and makes a low note.

The pitch of the sound depends on how many vibrations (how many compressions and rarefactions) are fitted into the same
amount of time. Scientists can measure how many vibrations take place in a time as short as one second. This is called
the frequency of the sound. If there is a high frequency, i.e. many vibrations per second, the sound will be very high
(squeaky) and if there is a low frequency, i.e only a few vibrations per second, the sound will be very low (deep).
 . Physical processes 431

Pitch and frequency

HIGH FREQUENCY = 499 Hz note

The frequency of a sound is
Many vibrations
measured in Hertz (Hz).
in a short time:
HIGH-PITCHED
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.
sound.

Baby Loudspeaker

LOW FREQUENCY BO He noice

Few vibrations
in a short time:
LOW-PITCHED
sound.

A teenager can hear up to

a frequency of about
NOTE : As the frequency is 18000 Hz.
doubled, the wavelength is Girls’ voices usually
halved. A scientist would say have a higher pitch than
that they are inversely boys’.
proportional to each other.

0 SQUEAKY McSQUEAK!
eae oo The squeaky voice of Donald Duck could be due to breathing helium!
Helium gas is much less dense than air. If you have breathed helium,
your voice travels more quickly (with a higher frequency). The sound
travels normally as it passes through the air, but the higher
frequencies are heard more than normal.
The result is a squeaky voice!

Key words
Pitch — how high or low a sound is — affected by the frequency of the sound.

Amplitude — the size of a vibration, determines how loud or soft a sound will be.

Frequency — the number of vibrations in a certain time determines the pitch of a sound.

Wavelength — the distance between two successive peaks of a wave.

Hertz — the units of frequency — number of cycles per second.

432 | Science Book 2

Exercise 29.2: Pitch and loudness

i Complete the following paragraph, using the words in the list below.
hertz frequency wavelength pitch

The distance between the tops of the waves on an oscilloscope trace is called the .......... . The number of
these that pass per second is called the ......... of the sound — it is measured in units called ......... and
directly affects the ......... of a sound.

Imagine you were playing a guitar. How could you alter the instrument so that it made lower-pitched
sounds?

Freddie can change the ring-tone on his mobile phone. These diagrams show the patterns made by four
sound waves on an oscilloscope screen.

Which trace matches each of these descriptions:

(a) Aloud sound with a high pitch.

(b) Aloud sound with a low pitch.

(c) A quiet sound with a high pitch.

(d) Two sounds with the same frequency.

(e) Two sounds with the same amplitude.

Extension questions
4. Describe a fair test you could carry out to check if the length of a string affects the pitch of the sound that
is made when the string is plucked. Describe how you could use an oscilloscope to check your results.

Freddie wanted to check something about the loudness of sounds. He dropped a number of weights onto
the floor, and used a sound-meter to find out the loudness of the sound. Here are the results of his
experiment.

Number of weights

Loudness of sound
(units on sound-meter)
 Physical processes 433

(a) Plot a graph of his results.

(b) What is the pattern of his results?

(c) Use the graph to work out the loudness of dropping 12 weights.

(d) Draw the oscilloscope traces he would have seen if he had compared the effects of five weights and ten
weights.

(e) Give two things he had to do if this were a fair test.

(f) Give one way in which he could have improved the experiment.

Life cannot continue without energy. Now that you have completed this section of your science course, you will
have a good idea of where we obtain our energy from. You will be able to explain how one kind of energy is
converted into another (often more useful) form and how humans need to be careful in the way in which we release
energy from fuels and use it.

You will also be able to explain how forces are able to bring about movements and be able to describe the force
of gravity. This section will also have described our Solar System and explained how planets and other bodies
move within the Solar System.

We hope that you will be able to see how quite simple physical processes can help to explain everything that is
happening in our environment. You should certainly see that these three sections of your course — Life and living
processes, Materials and their properties and Physical processes are all closely linked to one another.

Now you are a scientist!

Appendix 1
Revisions made to So you really want to learn Science Book 2 to reflect the 2008 Common Entrance syllabus.

2003 Syllabus 2008 Syllabus Amendments to SYRWTL Science Book 2

Mae
Cells and cell function

(d)...that fertilisation in humans occurs that fertilisation in humans occurs when the None necessary
when the head of a sperm (a male cell) head of a sperm (a male cell) enters the
enters the egg (a female cell)... egg (a female cell) and the nuclei fuse
together.

...that fertilisation in flowering plants occurs ..that fertilisation in flowering plants occurs None necessary
when a nucleus in a pollen tube fuses with when a male nucleus in a pollen tube fuses
a nucleus in a female egg cell (ovule). with a nucleus in a female egg cell (ovum)
in an ovule.

Green plants as organisms

(c) ...that nitrates are needed by plants to Knowledge of mineral nutrients will not be p74 reference to nitrates will now not be
make proteins for growth and that if a plant examined. examined at CE.
is deprived of nitrates, poor growth results.

Respiration

(e)...that animals and plants respire and ..that animals and plants respire and plants p74 reference to nitrates and the nitrogen
plants photosynthesise; how the carbon photosynthesise; how the carbon cycle cycle will now not be examined at CE.
cycle maintains a balance between maintains a balance between respiration p75 the nitrogen cycle will now not be
respiration and photosynthesis and the and photosynthesis and the effect of this on examined at CE.
effect of this on the atmosphere; the role of the atmosphere. p76 Key words Nitrate and Decomposer will
decomposers in the cycling of matter. now not be examined at CE.

Variation, classification and inheritance

(a) ...how to detect and describe variation ..how to detect and describe variation None necessary
within and between species and suggest within and between species and suggest
possible causes; that genes are passed possible causes.
from parent to offspring and are a cause of
inherited variation.

Feeding relationships

(e) Pyramids of biomass and energy are not Pyramids of number, biomass and energy p102-3 “Energy flow in a habitat: Pyramid
required. are not required. of numbers” will not be examined at CE.

“ses a
Acids and bases

(h) ...potassium manganate (VII)...

E
...potassium permanganate
atl mast
Change of nomenclature p226 potassium
manganate (VII) changed to potassium
permanganate
2003 Syllabus 2008 Syllabus Amendments to SYRWTL Science Book 2

Circuits
=
nolan
2 SRE sl
(a) ...about parallel and series circuits, ..about parallel and series circuits, p290 SPDT switch diagram and circuit
involving cells, lamps, switches (SPST, involving cells, lamps, switches (push symbol reference on p291 will not now be
SPDT, read switches).... button SPST, read switches)... examined at CE.
Logic gates, SPDT switches and the use of
the voltmeter will not be examined.

Magnetic fields

(d)...that Earth has a magnetic field, and that Earth has a magnetic field, and that a No change required
that a freely-suspended bar magnet will freely-suspended bar magnet will align itself
align itself north and south; the terms north-south; the terms north-seeking and
north-seeking and south-seeking poles; south-seeking poles; that lines showing the
that repulsion by a known magnet is the direction of the field should have arrows
only true test for another magnet. pointing away from the north-seeking pole;
that repulsion by a known magnet is the
only true test for another magnet.

Force and linear motion

a
(c)...that forces can act in different | .. that forcescan act in different directions; p374 the section “Stretching the limits” and
directions; about experiments and about experiments and calculations with reference to elastic limits and limit of
calculations with springs; elastic limit and springs and combinations of springs. proportionality will not now be examined
limit of proportionality Knowledge of elastic limit and limit of at CE.
proportionality will not be examined.

Conservation of energy

(d)...that thermal energy will flow from a (d) This will not be examined. 0324-34 covering “The passage of heat:
body at one temperature to a body ata Insulators and conductors” and “More
lower temperature methods of heat transfer” will not now be
examined at CE.

(e)...that work is a process involving energy (e)...that work is a process involving energy p252-3, “Potential energy (gravitational)” is
transfer; about different forms of energy: transfer; about different forms of energy: now referred to as “Gravitational (potential)
kinetic, gravitational potential energy, strain chemical, electrical, gravitational, kinetic, energy” and “Potential energy (mechanical)
(spring potential), chemical potential, light, sound, strain/elastic and internal is now referred to as “Strain/elastic
electrical light, sound and thermal. thermal (potential) energy”.
Thermal energy is now known as “internal/
thermal energy”. See note to teachers
on p iii.

(f)...the basic principles and simple (f) This will not be examined. p324-34 Conduction, convection and
examples of conduction, convection and radiation are no longer examined at CE.
radiation

Energy changes in evaporation will not be

examined.
Index
Absorption 20, 22-3, 25 Appliance 283 Calcium carbonate 226
Acceleration 380-1 Arteries 11 Camel 96
Acid rain 186, 211-12, 218-20 Arthritis 28, 30 Camouflage 95, 98
Acid, sulphuric 174-5, 185 Arthropod 88 Cancer 12, 55-6
hydrochloric 175, 185 Assimilation 20, 24-5 lung 55, 61
nitric 175 Asteroid 344-6 Capillaries 24
Acids 173, 176-8, 180, 183, Atom, inagas 151 Carbohydrate 17, 46
laboratory 174 inaliquid 151 Carbon, cycle 75-6
natural 173 inasolid 151 emissions 219
properties of 187 structure of 149, 191, 285 Carbon dioxide 49, 51, 68-9, 75, 210
reaction with carbonates 185 Atomic number 191, 193 test 135
with metals 187 Audible range 426 Carbon monoxide 55, 216
Adaptation 95-6, 98 Backbone 27 Carbonates 185-186,
188
Addiction 55-6, 59 Bacteria 61-2, 64, 85 Carnivore 99-101
Adolescence 32 Balance 4, 390 Cartilage 28
Aerosols, as drugs 59 Ball and socket, joint 29 Cell division 12-13
Afterbirth 41 Bar chart 5 electrical 287, 289
Aim of experiment 2 Barrier method 242 living 9-12,15
Air 165, 197 Bases 176-7, 182, 237 specialisation 12-13,15
flow 141 Battery 283, 286-7 Cellulose cell wall 9, 68
resistance 385 Beaker 125, 127 Celsius scale 319-20
Air sac 50-1, 55, 57 Biceps 29 Centre of gravity 391-2
Air track 379 Biodiversity 116, 119 Cervix 34, 42
Alcohol 21, 41, 59, 209 Biomass 68, 71, 257-8, 267-9 Change of state 154-5
Alimentary canal 20, 25 Bird 87 Characteristics of life 7-8
Alkalis 176-8, 180, 183 Birth 42 canal 34, 42 Chemical, bond 200
Alloy 195 Bladder 33-4 change 207, 212, 223, 285
Aluminium 249 Blast furnace 248 energy 251-253
Ammeter 291-2, 298 Blood, clotting 62-3 reaction, not useful 211
Amniotic sac 41-2 pressure 55 reaction, useful 208
Ampere 291, 298 vessel 11 Chlorophyll 68, 71, 74
Amphibian 87 Boiling 138-9, 152 Chloroplast 9, 71
Amplitude, of sound 429-31 Boiling point 139-40, 156, 195 Chromatography 170-1
AND circuit 306 gate 307 tube 125 Chromosome _ 80, 83
Angle, of incidence 406, 408 Bonds, chemical 165, 200 Cigarette 54-5, 59
of reflection 406, 408 Bone 27-8 Cilia 55
Animal 85 kingdom 86 Breathing 13, 49-52 Ciliated cell 10
Antagonistic, muscles 29-30 Bronchi 50, 55 Circuit diagram 291
Antibiotic 62, 65 Bronchial tree 50 Circuit, electrical 286-8
Antibody 63-5 Bronchitis 55 series 292-3, 297-8
Antiseptic 62 Bunsen burner 125, 131-3 parallel 294-5, 297
Anus 20, 23 Burning 214 short 302
Apparatus 124-5, 129 Cactus 96 symbols 291
Appendix 21 Calcium 17, 27 Classification 78, 85, 90
Clone 83, 93 Decay 212 Electrolysis 225, 227, 249-50
Coal 257, 260, 263, 269 Decibel 431 Electromagnet 314-318
Cobalt chloride paper 137 Decomposer and decomposition Electromagnetic, spectrum 414
Cochlea 422 74-6, 99-100; 212, 237, 250 waves 414
Combustion 201, 208-9, 214, 220, Decomposition, thermal 225-6, Electromagnetism 313
PL 237, 248 Electron 191, 285, 289
Comet 349 electrical 225, 249 microscope 14
Compass 309-11 Defaecation 20 Electroplating 242
Competition 109, 112, 117 Deforestation 114,119 Element 191-2, 194,
Compounds 200-2, 227 Density 145-6, 150 and compounds 200
naming of 203 Development 40, 42 symbols for 192
Compressibility 150 Diaphragm 50-2 Embryo 31, 38-41, 81
Conception 37, 39 Diet, balanced 17,58 Energy chains 254, 281
Conclusions, of experiments 6 Diffusion 51, 145, 150 Energy 8, 46, 102, 251, 255-6, 260
Condensation 138, 167, 171 Digestion 20, 22, 25 and sound 430
Condenser 168 Digestive system 21 Energy, conservation of 264, 273-
Condensing 152 Disease 61, 66-7,
112 5) SS
Conduction, electrical 283 Disease, heart 61 crisis 256
Conduction, of thermal energy 144, Disinfectant 62 electrical 267, 277, 280
150, 324-5, 328 Dislocation 28 forms of 251-3
Conductors 282, 286 Dispersion, of light 415 kinetic 252-3, 322
Conical flask 124 Displacement 232-3, 237 resources 256-8
Conifer 89 Dissipation of energy 335, 337 thermal 322, 324
Conservation of Energy 254-5, Distance 369 units of 253
273-5, 335-7 Distance/time graphs 370 Environment 78-9, 82
Law of 254-5, 337 Distillation, fractional 169 Enzyme 22-3, 25, 210
Conservation of Mass 154, 158, 223 simple 168, 171 Equation, word 206-207
Conservation, wildlife 114-9 Division of labour 11 Ethanol 70, 169, 210
Constellation 362 DNA 9 Evaporating dish 125
Consumer 99, 104 Drugs 59 Evaporation 138-139, 141-2,
Convection 324, 326-8 Ear 62, 422 166-7, 171
Cooling curve 153 Eardrum 422, 428 Excretion 8
Copper carbonate 226, 235 Earth 344-8 Exercise 58
Copper sulphate 136, 225 Echo 424 Expansion 144-5, 150
Copulation 37, 39 echo-sounding 424 Experiment 2, 70
Core 314, 316, 318 Eclipse, solar 358-9 Extraction of metals 246-7
Corrosion 211-12, 227, 238-40, 243 lunar 358 Faeces 20-1, 23
Covalent bond 200 Effervescence 185, 205 Fahrenheit scale 319-20
Critical angle 410 Efficiency 335, 337 Falmtest) 2-6,.715 62 1438271
Crystallisation 166 Effort 388 Fallopian tubes 34
Current, electric 286, 289, 300 Egestion 8, 23 Fat 17-8
Current, units of 291-2 Egg 34, 38 Fermentation 208-10
Cycle, carbon 75-6 Ejaculation 37 Fern 89
Cycle, nitrogen 75 Elastic 374, 376 Fertilisation 31, 35, 37-9, 80
Cytoplasm 9, 34 Electrical, circuits 285-298 Fertiliser 74, 76, 105, 107, 182
DDT 106-7 energy 251 Fetus 31, 40
Deafness 426 Electricity 285 static 285 Fibre, dietary 18
Decanting 166, 171 Electricity, supply of 282 Filter funnel 124
 ience Book

Filters, and colour 419-20 Group (in Periodic Table) 193 Larynx 50
Filtration 166-7, 171 Growth 8, 40, 42 Laws of Motion 366
Fish 87 Gut 20-1 LDR 304
Flask, conical 124 Habitat 97, 112, 118 LED 304
Flow 147, 150 Haematite 248 Levers 389-90
Food 17, 20, 23, 46, 211 Haemoglobin 11 Life processes 8, 46
Food chain 99-100, 102, 104-6, Hazard symbols 128 Ligament 28
340, 342 Health and fitness 54, 58-9 Light energy 70, 82, 252
Food web 100-1, 104 Hearing 422 problems with 426 Light year 362-3
Forcemeter 4, 373, 378, 381 Heart 11 disease 55, 61 Light 400-20
Forces, and linear motion 365-7 Heating curve 153 properties of 401-2
balanced / unbalanced 378-80 Hedgerow 97 Light, speed of 362, 402
Forces, and rotation 388-9 Herbivore 99-102 Linear motion 365
Formula 194, 202 Hertz 431 Lime 187-8
Fossil fuel 215-6, 256-8, 260-4 Hibernation 95, 97-8 Limestone 186-7
formation of 261-2 Hubble telescope 353 Limewater 45, 1385, 159, 214
Freezing 138-9, 152 Hydraulics 397-9 Liquid 138-9, 144, 147, 151
Freezing point 139 and braking 399 Litmus 178
Frequency 414, 430-1 Hydroelectric power 256-7, 267-9 Liver 21, 24
Friction 382-6 Hydrogen carbonate indicator 69 Load 388
and braking 383-4 Hydrogen test 135, 188 Locomotion 27, 30
and thermal energy 384, 386 Immunisation 64 Lodestones 308
measurement of 386 Immunity 63-5 Logic gate 306-7
Fuel 215, 277-8 Indicator 178 Lungs 49, 50-1, 54-5, 57
Fungi 74, 85, 89 Ingestion 20, 22, 25 Lymphocyte 63
Fuse 304-5 Input variable 3-5 Machine 255
Galaxy 361, 363 Insect 88 Magnet 195, 308-11
Galvanising 242-3 Insulation, electrical 282-83 Magnetic field 309-11, 314
Gametes 31, 35, 37, 80 thermal 196, 275, 324, 328 Magnetism 311
Gas exchange 49-51 Intercostal muscles 50-2 and electricity 313
Gas jar 124 Intercourse 37 Malnutrition 19
Gas 138-139, 144, 147, 151 Intestine 21-4 Mammal 87
natural 257, 260, 263, 269 Invertebrate 86, 88, 90 Mass 217, 372-4, 376
Gene 78-83 Investigation 2 Measuring cylinder 4, 124, 127
Generator 266, 271, 277-8 lodine solution 18-9, 70 Medium 425-6, 428
Genetic engineering 94 lonic bond 200 Melting point 138-40, 152, 156
Geothermal power 267, 270 Iron 17, 248 corrosion 238-40 Membrane 9
Gestation period 41, 42 Jenner, Edward 64 Meniscus 127
Global Positioning System (GPS) Joint 27-9 Menstrual cycle 36
3158) Joule 46, 253, 255, 341-2 Menstruation 36, 39
Global warming 217-8, 220 Kelvin scale 319-20 Mercury 195
Glucose 17, 45-6, 210 Kinetic energy 252-3, 322 Metal 193, 195-6, 198
Graph 5-6 Key 85 carbonates 185-6
Graphite 282 Kilojoule 253, 341-2 Metal oxide 228-9, 243
Gravity 347, 372-6 beating 375 Kingdom 85-90 Metal reactions, displacement 232-3
Gravity, centre of 391-392 Labour 42 with acid 230
Greenhouse 71 Lactic acid 173 with oxygen 228
effect 211-12, 217, 220 Large intestine 21 with water 229
Methylene blue 14 OR circuit 307 gate 307 Pressure 393-6 calculating 395
Microbes 61-4 Orbit 345-9 triangle 396
Microorganisms 61 Ore 232, 246, 250 units of 396
Microscope 14-15, 61 Organ 11,15 in liquids 397
Migration 97-8 Oscilloscope 429 Prey 103
Milky Way 361, 363 Outcome variable 3-5 Primary colours 416-7, 420
Mineral 17, 73, 74, 82 Ova/ Ovum 31, 34, 36-8, 80-1 Producer 99, 101-2, 104
Mirror 405-7 Ovary 34, 38 Product 205, 207-8, 211-2
Mixtures 156, 158, 165, 167, 171, Ovulation 36-7 Progesterone 34
202, 227 Oxidation 49, 201, 211, 237, 243 Proportionality, Law of 374
Molecule 151, 191, 200 Oxides 199, 237, 243 Protein 17
in gas, liquid and solid 151 Oxygen 45-6, 49-51, 68, 71, 201 Protist 85
Moments 388-90, 392 Oxygen test 135 Proton 191
units of 389 Palisade cell 10, 14 Puberty 31-2, 35
Law of 390 Particle 149, 161, 223 Purity 156
Month 359 Particle theory 149-52 Pyramid of numbers 102-4
Moon 346, 356-9 phases of 357 Particle theory and metals 195 Quadrat 110, 112
eclipse of 358 Pascal 395-6 Radiation, of thermal energy 324,
Moss 89 Penis 38, 37 330-3
Motion 365-7 Period (in Periodic Table) 193 from Sun 217
Mouth 20 Period (in menstrual cycle) 36 Rainbow 415
Movement 8, 27, 96 Periodic Table 193-4 Reactant 205, 207-8, 211, 212
Mucus 50, 55 Periscope 407 Reaction, chemical 205-8, 212,
Muscle 27-30 cell 10-1 Pesticide 105-7 225
system 13 pH scale 179-81, 183 exothermic 205
Nerve cells 10-1 Phagocyte 63, 65 endothermic 205
Nervous system 13 Photosynthesis 68-9, 71, 75, 208-10 Reactivity series 228, 232, 234,
Neutralisation 180,-3, 208-9 checking for 70 236-7
Neutron 191 factors affecting 69 Rectum 21
Newton 366, 373-4 Physical change 154, 207 Reduction 248, 250
newton’s prism 415, 420 Pinhole camera 403 Reed switch 317
disc 417 Pipette 125 Reflection 405-7, 410
newtonmeter 373, 378 Pitch, of sound 480-1 angle of 406
Nicotine 41, 55-6 Pivot 388, 392 of colour 417-8
Nitrate 73-6, 82, 97, 105 Placenta 38, 40-2 rules of 406
Nitrogen cycle 75 Planet 344-5, 347, 362 Refraction 409-411
Nocturnal 98 Plant 85, 89 and the spectrum 415
Non-metal 193, 195-6, 198 Platelets 11,63 and lenses 412
Non-renewable energy 216, 260, 264 Pole, magnetic 308-9, 311 Relay 317
Nuclear energy 252, 256-8, 270 Poles 289, 308-9 Renewable energy 256-8, 266-71
Nucleus 9, 34, 80, 85 Pollution 105, 107, 211, 215-6 Reproduction 8,31 asexual 93
Nutrition 8, 17-8, 20 air 219, 264 sexual 35
Obesity 58-9 Population 109-10, 112, curve 112 Reproductive system 13,
Observations 4 Potential energy 252-3 male 33
Oestrogen 34 Precipitate 205 female 34
Oil 257, 260, 263, 269 Predator 103-4, 112 Reptile 87
Omnivore 100 Prediction 5-6 Resistance 300-2
Optical fibre 408 Pregnancy 40-1 Resistor 301-2 variable 301
Respiration 8, 45-6, 49, 52, 68-9, speed of 427-8 Time 127
75, 208-10, 339, 342 Spatula 125 Tissue 11,15
test for 45 Species 90 Tobacco 41, 54-5
Respiratory surface 49, 51 Spectrum, electromagnetic 414, 420 Toxins 62, 106
Root hair cell 10, 73 visible 414, 420 Trachea 50
Root 73 Speed of light 362 Transformation of energy 281
Rusting 211, 238-41, 243 Speed 365-7, 369 Transistor 304
prevention 241-2 measurement of 367 Triceps 29
Sacrificial protection 242 triangle 369 Truth table 306
Salt(s) 180-1, 183, 230, 237 Speed, and braking 384 Turbine 266, 271, 277-8
Sampling 110, 117 Sperm 10, 31, 33, 37, 55, 80 Twins 81
Sankey diagram 336-7 Sphincter 23 Umbilical cord 41, 42
Satellite 349, 351, 354 Spider 88 Universal Indicator 54, 179
geostationary 351-2, 354 Squirrel 115, 117-8 Upthrust 376
Scientific theory 149 Star 344, 346, 361-3 Uterus 34, 41
Scrotum 33. scrotalsac 33 Starch 9, 17-9, 70 Vaccination 64
Seasons 97, 355-6 States of matter 138-9, 152, 155 Vacuole 9
Seawater 165-6, 197 Steel 238 Vacuum 382-3,
Sediment 159 Stem 73 and sound transmission 425, 428
Selective breeding 92-3 Stings 182 Variable 2, 129
Semen 33, 37 Stomach 21 Variation 78,-9, 83
Sensitivity 8 Stopwatch 4 Vertebrate 86, 87, 90
Separation of mixtures 165 Streamlining 385 Vibration 421, 423, 428
Series circuits 292, 296-8 Sun 68, 345-7, 361 and hearing 422
Sex hormones 32, 35 death of 363 Villi 24
Sexual intercourse 37-8 eclipse of 358-9 Vinegar 174
Shadow 346, 403 Superglue 208, 210 Virtual image 407
Skeleton 27-8 Suspension 159, 162 Virus 61
Skin 62 Sustainable development 114-6, 119 Vitamin 17,173
Small intestine 21, 24 Switch 290, 298, 306, 317 Volt 287
Small pox 64, 66 Synovial joint 28 Voltage 287, 300
Smelting 208-9 System 11, 15 Watch glass 124
Smoking 41, 54-5 Table of results 4 Water cycle 141
Soap 176 Teeth 22 Water test 135
Solar power 256-7, 267-70 Temperature 69, 126-7, 161, 319 Water 18
Solar system 344-5, 361 body 82, 322 Wavelength 414, 431
Solenoid 314, 318 scales 320-1 Weight 373, 374, 376
Solid 138-9, 144, 147, 151 Tendon 29 White blood cell 62, 63
Solubility 158, 160, 170 Testicle 33 Work 251, 255
Solute 159, 162 Testosterone 33 World Health Organisation 66
Solutions 158-9, 162, 168 Thermal, conduction 324-5, 328 Year 355
Solvent 159-60, 162, 168 decomposition 225-7 Zinc 242
Solvents, as drugs 59 energy 251 Zoo 119
Sonar 424 insulation 324, 328 Zygote 12, 31, 35, 38, 40, 80, 81
Sound energy 252 Thermistor 304
Sound waves 421-8 Thermometer 4, 125-6, 321-2
longitudinal 424 Thermos flask 332
transmission 425 Tides 270
ISEB
Independent Schools
Examinations Board res(=a ex=,
This is the second book of a best-selling two part course completing the syllabus for science
at Key Stage 3 and Common Entrance Examinations at 13.

“A single text for all three sciences for the two year course leading to the 13+ CE
examination is a first in publishing and will be warmly welcomed by teachers and
roy oY]Karel (MamMat=Mmoxey
ai(-1al amolce)Ule(:t-Mm (ave) colelelaMmere)Y(:1¢-\e(-Mme) Mm(al- MmOl =M-)AIT-
lo]0\-mr- Tale Mm(al)
style and format cannot fail to enthuse and captivate the reader”.
Dr David Penter, Chairman of ISEB Science Panel

mers il-M olore) MUM r-lal (clo MmelU[ gmof-1¢-1a]Cw: ly(em (ola: laleMel¥l amol¥]e)|(-Malsi-re(-\oMal-l-w-laahcle Mmmm
comes as no surprise to learn that ISEB has officially endorsed So you really want to
learn Science as an examination course text book”.
Richard Hompstead, Westminster Abbey Cathedral School

“..jitis perfect for teaching any Key Stage 3 pupil as all the material in the book is
relevant for the national curriculum. The information is clearly presented with
explanations followed by practice exercises to ensure that students have grasped
each concept. There are also extension questions for further practice and
fo(AVAfo)oun ta) olamer-1a Clam Co)olor MeN Clam (ele) (ale Molar: Meceliile)(-1(-M@-\VMc} tle[- MM (-ddtolele) em
EC mmelle lal(ton Comm ilar UNAM ilave Mme: olele) QT]CuMm-LO Le] Mmeg(-¥-lamecelal ictal am-lateMmelar-li(-Varellare]
exercises. My students are thoroughly enjoying using this series and | would
certainly recommend this book to any teacher of the Key Stage 3 syllabus”.
Claire McCourt, Baylis Court School

“Having been sent many science books for KS3 by [other publishers], | have to say
that this book is absolutely brilliant and | am delighted with the layout of it”.
Steve Fields, Greshams School

About ISEB
The Independent Schools Examinations Board (ISEB) offers examinations for pupils
transferring from junior to independent senior schools at the ages of 11+ and 13+. The
syllabuses are devised and regularly monitored by ISEB, which is composed of
representatives from the Headmasters’ and Headmistresses’ Conference, the Girls’ Schools
Association and the Independent Association of Preparatory Schools.

=Voo!”
GALORE PARK

TAWA Ae Fle) c=)el-1d @ere my]