Soil Mechanics

and Foundation
Engineering
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Properties of Soil
Physical Properties of Soil
Water Content:: There can be no upper limit to water content, i.e., w≥0

Degree of Saturation: 0≤S≤100

Void ratio: e>0

emax = 0.91 and emin = 0.35.

Porosity: 0<n<100

 Both terms i.e. void ratio and porosity are correlated but as the volume of soil solids is a more consistent
data as compared to the total volume of soil, void ratio proves to be more consistent quantity and hence
is used more promptly.

Air Content:

0≤ ≤100

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Percentage air voids:

0≤ <100

Unit Weight/Density:

Bulk Unit Weight:

Dry Unit Weight:

Saturated Unit Weight:

Submerged Unit Weight:

Specific Gravity: There are two types of specific gravity defined for the soil:

Absolute specific gravity:

Mass/Apparent specific gravity:

Relative Density/Density Index/Degree of density:

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10) Relative compaction=80+0.2

Points to Remember
Soil Type Relative density value
Very loose soil 0-15%
Loose soil 15-30%
Medium soil 30-65%
Dense soil 65-85%
Very dense soil 85-100%

Interrelations between physical properties of soil


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Water Content
 Oven dry Method:

Here, W1 = Weight of empty container,

W2 = Weight of container + weight of moist soil sample,

W3 = Weight of container + weight of dry soil sample

 Pycnometer Method:

Here, W1 = Weight of empty pycnometer

W2 = Pycnometer + Soil Sample

W3 = Pycnometer + Soil + Water

W4 = Pycnometer + Water

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Particle size Distribution analysis

 Coarse sieving:

% Weight retained in ith sieve =

Cumulative % Weight retained in sieve =

% fineness = 100

Coefficient of uniformity:

Where If,

Coefficient of Curvature:

Where If,

Testbook Trick
 Effective size of soil = D10.
 Average size of particle = D50.
 Sedimentation Analysis: Particle settling velocity:

Atterberg Limits/ Consistency Limits

Shrinkage Limit:

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Here,

R = Shrinkage Ratio

Volumetric Shrinkage:

Degree of Shrinkage:

Degree of shrinkage 5-10% 10-15%

5% 15%
Suitability for
Good Medium Good Poor Very Poor
foundation

Linear Shrinkage:

Plasticity Index:

Shrinkage Index:

Consistency Index:

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Liquidity Index:

Points to Remember
Ip % Consistency
0 Non-Plastic
1-5 Slight Plastic
5-10 Low Plastic
10-20 Medium Plastic
20-40 High Plastic

40 Very High plastic

Toughness Index

Sensitivity

Points to Remember
Sensitivity (St) Soil Type
1 Coarse Grained/ Non- Sensitive
1-4 Normal/ Less Sensitive
4-8 Sensitive/ Flocculent/ Honeycomb Structure
8-16 Extra Sensitive(like fine clay)

Not suitable for foundation/ Unstable/ Quick Clay

16

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Activity (Ac)

Here, C = %age clay content and Ip= Plasticity index.

Points to Remember
Ac

Soil Type Inactive Normal Active Active

Collapsibility

Points to Remember
Cp% 0-1 1-5 5-10 10-20 ≥ 20
No trouble to Moderate Severe Very severe
Soil description Trouble
structure trouble Trouble trouble

Classification of Soil

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Effective Stress and Capillarity

Here, W = Total load [(External load) – (Self Weight of soil)]

A = Total cross sectional area of soil.

Here, h = Pressure head of water or depth of water in piezometer.

Capillarity
Capillary rise in tube of diameter d, with liquid of density , surface tension force σ, and contact angle
between fluid and material surface is given by:

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‘d’ in the above equation can also be defined as average or equivalent size of pores in the soil

Or by Allen Hazen equation,

Suction Capacity:

Here, hc is capillary height in cm.

Permeability
Head Loss per unit length in soil is called Hydraulic gradient.

; As n < 1 (always), & (always)

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Here,

h = head loss

L = Seepage Length

n = Porosity

A =Total gross flow area

Q = Discharge

Darcy’s Law

Soil type k value

Clean Gravel

Clean Sand

Silt

Clay

S = Specific Surface Area = Surface Area per unit volume.

For Spherical particles:

For particles in general:

Here,

a = Sieve size through which particles passed

b = Sieve size in which particles got retained

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Permeability of Stratified Soil;

Flow Parallel to strata layers:

Flow Perpendicular to strata layers:

In two dimensional flow:

In three dimensional flow:

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If flow passes through stratified soil with different values of permeability:

Properties of fluid:

Generally, value of ‘k’ is reported at 20C̊ but it differs if the temperature changes:

Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Laboratory Methods
Constant Head Permeability Test:

If in time ‘t’ quantity of water collected is ‘Q’ and area of soil through which water is passing is ‘A’
then,

Variable Head Permeability Test:

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If ‘a’ is the cross sectional area of the stand pipe, ‘h1’ is difference in head at time t = 0 and ‘h2’ is
difference in head at time ‘t’ then:

Now if in time interval ‘t’, head difference fall from height h1 to h2 and in the next time interval ‘t’,
head difference fall from height h2 to h3 then,

Capillary Permeability test:

Here,

hc = Capillary Head S = Saturation Level

n = Porosity and k = Coefficient of Permeability

Indirect Methods
Kozeny-Carman’s Equation:

Here,

Kk = Shape Coefficient

= Dynamic viscosity of water

= Unit weight of water

e = Void Ratio

S = Specific surface area

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Allen Hazen’s Equation:

This equation is valid for particle size range 0.1 to 3 mm.

Here,

k = Permeability (in cm/s)

C = Constant: (varies from 40 to 120)

D10 = Effective size of particle (in cm)

Consolidation Equation:

Here,

Cv = Coefficient of consolidation

= Unit weight of water

= Coefficient of compressibility

Louden’s Equation:

Here,

S = Specific surface area

n = Porosity

Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants depending on soil type and temperature.

Well Hydraulics
Specific Yield

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Specific Retention

Coefficient of transmissibility (T)

Here,

= Hydraulic Conductivity

= Thickness of Aquifer

Radius of influence
it ranges from 150 to 300 m.

Here,

= Radius of influence

= Observed Drawdown

= Coefficient of permeability

Pumping Out Test

Thiem’s Theory

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Permeability or discharge can be found using given formula:

Dupuit’s Theory
r1=r and r2=R

where r is radial distance of test well and R = Radius of influence.

Confined Aquifer
Thiem’s Theory

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Dupuit’s Theory

Here, S is drawdown.

Partially Confined Aquifer

When test well doesn’t penetrate fully in confined aquifer from base, flow occurs from the base of the

well also which is spherical and its discharge is approximately times that of a radial one and
hence

Here, each notation has their usual meaning as given earlier.

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Pumping In Test
Open End Test
Let r be the radius of pipe, h be the head under which water is added above the base of pipe (h = gravity
head + Pressure head)

Packer’s Test/ Open Side Test

L be the length of the pipe from the base which is perforated then,

Analysis of open well

Discharge at any instance of time when drawdown is h:

Analysis of well in Unsteady State

For unsteady drawdown, Jacob’s Formula is used:

Here, S = drawdown in observation well after time t

T = coefficient of transmissibility
Q = Constant discharge pumped out of main well
A = Coefficient of storage of the measured drawdown
r = Radial distance of the observation well from the main pumped well.
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Seepage In Soil
In state of Seepage,

(+)ve for upward flow

(-)ve for downward flow

Hence in upward flow, effective stress in soil decreases and in downward flow effective stress in soil
decreases.

Seepage Pressure and Force

Seepage Pressure always acts in direction of flow

Now, for Hydraulic Gradient ‘ ’ Seepage force will be given by:

Here,

z = Height of soil layer

A = Area of bottom of soil

= Seepage force per unit volume of soil.

Critical Hydraulic gradient ()

Factor of safety against Quick Sand:

∴ Minimum head required to cause quick sand condition:

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Here,

z = Depth of soil layer

= Actual Hydraulic Gradient

= Critical Hydraulic Gradient

Terzaghi’s criteria for design of Protective filters:

Seepage Analysis through Flow Net

Flow Net

Here,

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h = Total head-loss between upstream and downstream face

Nd = Number of equipotential drops in flow net

If Nf is the number of flow channels then,

Applications of Flow Net

Determination of Seepage Discharge:

Determination of exit gradient:

Here,

= Length of field at exit (hatched field in figure)

Determination of Seepage Pressure:

h = balance seepage head up to point C= (Total seepage head) – (Head-loss up to point C)

Head-loss between two adjacent equipotential lines (equipotential drop)

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Here,

n = number of potential drop up to C,

Uplift Pressure (Pu):

Phreatic Lines
For α < 30,̊

For 30˚≤ α ≤ 60,̊

Anisotropic Soil
The seepage loss rate is computed by taking average permeability (k’) as follows:

Here,

Compresibility and Consolidation

Normally Consolidated Clay:

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Over Consolidated Soils:

Over Consolidation Ratio

Determination of Coefficient of Compression (Cc):

For undisturbed clay of medium sensitivity:

= Liquid Limit

For Remoulded soil of medium to low sensitivity:

When Natural moisture content (wn) is given:

If void ratio is given:

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Here, e0 = Initial void ratio or void ratio at the beginning of the consolidation.

Terzaghi’s 1-Dimensional Consolidation Theory

Here,

= Rate of change of pore water pressure wrt time

= Second order rate of change of pore water pressure wrt depth

= Coefficient of Consolidation

K= Permeability

= Coefficient of volume change

Compression Modulus (Bulk Modulus of Soil)

Determination of Degree of Consolidation

Here,

= Settlement at any stage in consolidation

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= Final settlement after completion of primary consolidation

= Initial excess pore pressure.

= Excess Pore pressure at any stage during consolidation

= Void ratio of soil at any instance during consolidation

= Void ratio of soil at the start of consolidation

= Void ratio of soil after completion of primary consolidation

Time Factor (Tv)

Here,

d = Length of drainage path

t = Time required to achieve corresponding degree of consolidation.

Settlement Analysis

Immediate Settlement:

Settlement of Cohesion-less soil: Using standard penetration test data.

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Here,

= Initial height of soil layer

= Static Cone Resistance

Settlement of cohesive soil: by Schleicher’s Equation:

Here,

q = Uniform pressure at base of footing

B = Width of foundation

μ = Poisson’s ratio of soil (varies from 0.2 for elastically behaving soil to 0.5 for soil with plastic behav-
iour

Es = Young’s Modulus of soil

If = Influence Factor or Shape Factor

Settlement due to Primary Consolidation:

With the help of change in void ratio:

With the help of coefficient of volume compression:

If coefficient of compression (Cc) is given:

For over-consolidated clay, instead of Cc Cr is used.

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If over-consolidated soil is followed by normally consolidated soil behaviour then,

Using Cr

= Using Cc

Determination of Secondary Settlement:

Here, H100 = Thickness of soil layer after completion of primary consolidation

e100 = Void ratio after completion of primary consolidation

t100 = Time required for completion of primary consolidation

t = any instance of time during the process of consolidation

Permissible Settlement
Type of foundation Permissible Total Settlement
Isolated Foundation on Clay 65mm
Isolated Foundation on Sand 40mm
Raft Foundation on Clay 65 to 100mm
Raft Foundation on Sand 40 to 65mm
Raft Foundation on Clay 40mm
Raft Foundation on Sand 25mm

In case of large framed structure angular distortion must not exceed in general and if all types of

minor damages are to be prevented, the angular distortion should not exceed .

Compaction of Soil
Compaction Curve/Proctors Curve

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Here,

= Dry density of given Soil

= Density of given Soil after compaction

= Water content of the soil

Shear Strength of Soil

For Pure Clay:

For any other soil:

Points to Remember
Here,
= Normal stress on critical plane
= Shear Strength on failure plane
= Angle of maximum obliquity
= Angle of friction for soil
= Maximum Principal Stress in soil
= Minimum Principal Stress in soil

Mohr’s Circle for ϕ-soil

Mohr-Coulomb Theory of Shear Strength

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When soil is in submerged state, effective parameters are used. In such case the equation to calculate
shear strength will become as given:

Also,

Here, = Cohesion (kN/m2)

= Normal Stress on failure plane

= Angle of internal friction for the given soil

= Shear Stress in submerged condition

= Effective cohesion

= Effective normal stress

= Angle of internal friction for submerged soil

Unconfined compression test:

For Clay:

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Here, Unconfined compressive strength of soil .

Triaxial Shear Test

In Drained Test there is significant change in volume and the area of specimen will be given by as
follows:

Here,

= Initial area of specimen

= Final area of specimen

= Induced vertical strain

= Induced lateral strain

Vane Shear Test

When both top and bottom sides with vertical sides participate in shearing:

When only bottom sides with vertical sides participate in shearing:

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This test can also be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil:

Pore Pressure Parameters

Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameters:

Cell pressure stage:

Here, Change in cell pressure

Change in pore pressure due to change in cell pressure

B is zero for dry soil (S = 0) and B is 1 for saturated soil (S = 1) but the relationship isn’t linear.
Further:

Here, Coefficient of consolidation

Compression index

Shear Stage:

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Here, = Change in pore water pressure due to applied deviator stress

Applied deviator stress is pressure applied in vertical direction excess of cell

pressure

Total applied vertical stress

Earth Pressure Theory

Earth Pressure Analysis at Rest

Horizontal Earth Pressure

Coefficient of earth Pressure at rest K0

Here,
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= Poisson’s ratio of soil mass

= Angle of internal friction for soil

= Horizontal Earth pressure

= Vertical Earth pressure

OCR = Over-Consolidation Ratio, NC = Normally consolidated, OC = Over- consolidated

As per Rankine
In active state, Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure:

In passive state, Coefficient of Passive Earth Pressure:

Active Thrust:

Acting at from base.

Similarly, Passive thrust:

Acting at from base.

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Earth Pressure in case of Presence of Surcharge

Active Earth Pressure:

Passive Earth Pressure:

Earth Pressure in case of Inclined Fill

Hence resultant of active and passive earth pressure will act parallel to surcharge at an angle with

horizontal and it act at a height from the base.

Earth Pressure in case of Horizontal Backfill with Inclined Back

W = Weight of soil above inclined face of wall.

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In Case of Inclined Backfill with Inclined Wall

Using the figure:

Earth Pressure on Cohesive Soils

Considering an element at depth ‘z’ as shown in figure:

Active Earth Pressure in Cohesive Soil

Pressure at depth ‘z’ will be given by:

Influence Factor = =

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Depth of Potential Cracks:

Critical Depth/ Critical Height: It is the maximum height of vertical cut which can be left unsupported:

Hence total active earth pressure when tension cracks aren’t developed:

Above force acts at from the base of retaining wall.

Total active earth pressure when tension cracks are developed:

Above force acts at from the base of retaining wall.

Passive Earth Pressure in Cohesive Soil

Passive Earth pressure at any point will be given by:

Total passive force per unit length of Retaining Wall:

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Coulomb’s Wedge Theory

Here,

= Angle of back with horizontal

= Angle of internal friction of the soil

= Angle of backfill with horizontal

= Coulomb’s coefficient of active earth pressure

= Coulomb’s coefficient of passive earth pressur

Here, ‘δ’ is friction angle between wall and soil. Theoretically,

For vertical wall, (α = 90˚) and Horizontal backfill (β = 0˚) and δ = 0˚then,

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Stability of Slopes
Types of Slip in occurring in Soil Slopes
Transitional Slip:

Rotational Slip:

Depth Factor:

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Factor of Safety for Slopes

Factor of Safety with respect to Cohesion:

Here,

z = Actual Depth of cut

c = Mobilised unit cohesion of soil

cm= Mobilised cohesion of soil

For pure clay =0

Factor of Safety with respect to internal friction:

Here,

= Actual angle of internal friction

= Slope Angle

= Mobilised Angle of friction

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Stability Analysis of Infinite Slopes

Cohesion-less soil under dry or moist condition:

Cohesion-less soil with water table present above slip surface:

Here,

= Effective angle of internal friction (modified due to submerged soil)

= Average total unit weight of soil above GWT

Note: If water table rises up to ground level then,

Cohesive Soils:

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Taylor’s Stability Number

The expression to find the stability number is given by:

Swedish Circle Method

This method is used on homogenous or stratified soil or where seepage is taking place:

Stress Distribution in Soil

Boussinesq’s Theory

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Here,

= Stress at a depth ‘z’ and horizontal distance ‘r’ from the point of loading

= Boussinesq’s constant at depth ‘z’ and horizontal distance ‘r’

Variation of stress in horizontal direction with constant depth

At ,

At ,

At ,

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Variation in vertical direction with constant horizontal distance

Application of Boussinesq’s Theory

Vertical Stress due to line load:

Vertical Stress due to strip load:

Vertical stress due to circular loading:

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Newmark’s Influence Charts:

‘m’ concentric circles with ‘n’ radial lines divide the chart into ‘m*n’ units. Each block of area has
equal influence on the centre.

Due to loading in any region encircled by the influence chart, stress at the centre can be given by
as follows:

Westergaard’s Theory

Approximate Methods of Stress Analysis

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Equivalent Point load method

Divisions should be such that:

Trapezoidal Method
General Case: Assuming 1V: nH trapezoidal dispersion of load in the soil. Vertical stress in such case
will be given by:

1:2 Method: In this method it is assumed that the load dispersion in taking place in 1H:2V manner as
shown:

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Foundation Engineering
Determination of Bearing Capacity on the basis of Shear Criteria
Gross Pressure:

Net Pressure:

Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity(qnu):

Here, γ = Bulk unit weight of soil

Df = Depth of footing

Net safe Bearing Capacity(qns):

Safe Bearing Capacity(qsafe):

Shallow Foundation
Analysis of Shallow Foundation using Analytical Methods

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Rankine’s Theory (for cohesion-less soils only):

For Shallow Foundations, minimum depth of footing is given by:

Bell’s Method (c-ϕ soil):

Here, and are bearing capacity factors.

For clays (ϕ = 0), and .

Terzaghi’s Method:

For strip footing only

For Pure Clay:

Prandtle’s Theory Terzaghi’s Theory

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For Terzaghi:

Modification to Terzaghi’s equation

Square Footing:

Circular Footing:

Rectangular Footing with width of footing = B and length of footing = L (B < L):

For Pure Clay:

Effect of water table on Bearing Capacity:

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Here, cohesion value to be used, Water Table correction factors

When water table is below ground level at depth but above the base of the footing

as shown in figure (a) then:

When water table is at a depth below the base of the footing as shown in
figure (b) then:

Terzaghi considers general shear failure but if soil, fails in local shear failure, modified shear pa-
rameters are required to be used:

Skempton’s Theory (c-soil): For cohesive soils only but can also be applied on deep foundations.

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Meyerhof’s Equation: Can be applied in any case of shallow foundations:

Here, Slope correction factor for cohesion, surcharge and width.

Inclination correction factor for cohesion, surcharge and width.

Depth correction factor for cohesion, surcharge and width.

Plate Load Test

If is ultimate bearing capacity of footing, is ultimate bearing capacity of the plate,

is width of footing and is width of plate then

Determination of allowable bearing pressure on the basis of settlement criteria using results
of Plate Load Test:

Here, Settlement of foundation, Settlement of plate, Width of foundation

and Width of plate. For sand, and for clayey soils, .

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Here, empirical coefficient. Here its value

If S1 is the settlement of foundation of width Bf which is placed at a depth D1 and S2 is the

settlement of same foundation when placed at depth D2 then:

Standard Penetration Test:

Correction in SPT number:

Over-burden pressure correction:

Over-burden Pressure :

Over-burden Pressure :

Dilatancy Correction/ Water Table Correction: Applied when water table is present at
test level or above.

For N1 > 15:

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For N1 < 15:

Determination of net allowable pressure using SPT data on basis of settlement criteria:

Peck-Hansen Equation: Here, Allowable net pressure on footing, Per-

missible settlement of footing, Water table correction factor

Here, Depth of water table below ground level

Depth of footing, Width of footing

Teng’s Equation: Here, Net safe pressure on footing, Permissible

settlement of footing, Water table correction factor, Depth correction

factor

Meyerhof’s Equation: For

For :

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Here, and are same as that of Teng’s Equation.

IS code Equation: In IS code method, Teng’s Equation is used without depth correction
factor.

For Raft Foundation:

IS 1904:1986 Recommendations
Maximum Differential
Type of Footing Angular Distortion
Settlement Settlement

Steel Structure

Isolated Plastic Clay

RCC Structure

Steel Structure

Raft on Plastic Clay

RCC Structure

Deep Foundation
Analysis of load carrying capacity of Piles
Allowable load applicable on piles:

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Here,

Ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile

Factor of safety usually kept between 2.5 and 3.0

Static Methods of Analysis of Piles

Here,

Adhesion Factor = Coefficient of skin friction

Average cohesion of soil over the depth of the pile

Average horizontal thrust on the pile face over the depth of the pile

Further,

Average vertical stress on pile face over the depth of the pile

Coefficient of passive earth pressure

Wall friction angle:

Where, Angle of internal friction for the soil

For pure Clay:

As for clayey soil,

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For Granular Soil: For analysing in case of sand . Hence,

Where,

Similarly,

Here, Lateral dimension of the pile and rest is as shown in the figure:

Surface area of pile in contact with soil down to a depth of 15D.

Surface area of pile in contact with soil below the depth of 15D.

Angle of friction between pile surface and the soil.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Pile using λ method:

Frictional Resistance:

Here, Constant usually given in the problem

Average effective vertical stress

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Weighted average value of cohesions of all strata

Area of pile under influence of skin friction

Static methods are suitable for clay only. For sand, dynamic methods are more suitable.

Dynamic Methods of analysis of Piles

Engineering News Record Formula (ENR):

And,

Here, Ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile

Factor of safety (usually taken as 6)

Maximum allowable load on the pile

Weight of hammer

Height of fall of hammer in cm

Final Set = Average penetration per blow in cm. Its value is taken as average of last 5
blows for drop hammer and average of last 20 blows for steam hammer.

Area of piston

Pressure acting on steam piston

Constant accounting for energy loss due to friction, elastic compression of piles and
soil and cushion

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Hiley’s Formula: This formula is adopted by IS code and is based on principle of conservation of energy:

Here, hammer efficiency

Hammer blow efficiency.

Here,

Final set per blow of the hammer

Total elastic compression of pile, pile cap and soil

Field Methods of Analysis of Piles

Standard Penetration Test:

Driven Piles (Displacement Piles):

Here, Corrected SPT number at the base of pile

Corrected average SPT number over the depth of the pile

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For driven Piles,

Bored Piles:

For Bored Piles,

Cone Penetration Test:

Here,

Cone resistance at pile base

Average cone resistance over the depth of pile

Under-Reamed Piles

Here, Ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile.

Unit cohesion of soil at the base of the pile

Cohesion factor for soil

Bearing area of the bulb

Here, Diameter of the bulb

Coefficient of adhesion between pile skin and the soil

Average cohesion over the depth of the pile.

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Negative Skin Friction on Piles

loss of strength in single pile due to negative skin friction:

Here, Negative Skin Friction load on single pile

Unit negative skin friction on the pile

Perimeter of the pile

Depth of the pile in which negative friction is prevalent.

Loss of strength in Pile Group Block:

Here, negative skin friction load in pile group

For group of pile

Cohesion value of soil

Surface Area of pile group block experiencing skin friction effect

Unit Weight of soil

Length of pile under influence of negative skin friction

Cross-sectional area of pile group

Revised Factor of safety considering negative skin friction:

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Group Action of Piles

Minimum spacing between the piles:

Group Efficiency

Individual Failure Case:

Here, Load carrying capacity of pile group in the basis of individual pile failure.

Number of piles

Load carrying capacity of individual pile

Bearing area of individual pile

Cohesion at the base of individual pile

Bearing capacity factor for cohesion at the base of individual pile

Area of individual pile under skin friction of soil

Coefficient of skin friction along the skin of pile

Average cohesion in soil along the length of the pile

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Average vertical stress at the base of individual pile

Bearing capacity factor for overburden pressure at the base of individual pile

Coefficient of earth pressure at rest

Average stress along the length of individual pile

Angle of friction between pile and soil

Block Failure case:

Here, Load carrying capacity of pile group on the basis of block failure criteria

Bearing area of pile block

Area of pile block under skin friction

Here, Horizontal Length of the pile block

Width of pile block

Vertical length of pile block

Rest all the notations are same as above.

Group Efficiency: Now as, Pile Group Capacity:

And, Safe Capacity:

Hence Group Efficiency will be given by:

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Group Efficiency Analysis using Empirical Methods

Converse Labarre Formulae:

Here, Number of rows of piles

Number of piles in each row

Arc tan value in degree

Here, Diameter of each pile

Spacing between each pile

Seiler Keeney Formulae:

Here, all the notations have the meaning as discussed earlier.

Settlement of Pile Group

Pile embedded in uniform clay deposit and pile acting as a friction pile:

Here,
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Total Settlement of Pile Group

Coefficient of compression as discussed in topic consolidation.

Initial depth of seat of settlement as described in diagram below. It is the depth

sandwiched between assumed equivalent footing and underground rock strata.

Initial void ratio

Initial effective stress at section x-x or at half the height of seat of settlement

Change in effective stress at section x-x due to loading pile.

Pile embedded into stiff clay stratum down to a depth of L2 overlain by soft clay layer down to depth L1:

Here, Coefficient of compression for stiff clay layer

Rest all the notations have their meaning as described earlier

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Pile Group being end bearing with pile base on stiff clay:

Here,

Coefficient of compression for stiff clay as shown

Rest of the notations have the meaning as discussed earlier

In case of sand, group settlement ratio can be determined using size of pile group:

Here, Size of square pile group in meter

Group settlement ratio

Value of :

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Soil Stabilization and Exploration

Degree of Disturbance in a Soil Sample

Inside Clearance:

Outside Clearance:

Area Ratio:

Recovery Ratio:.

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In Seismic Exploration Method, boundary between two strata is given by:

d = Distance corresponding to break point velocity

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