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COA
1.Define Stack.

Answer:
A stack in Computer Organization and Architecture (COA) is a Last-In, First-Out (LIFO)
data structure used for temporary storage of data. It supports two main operations:
push, which adds an item to the top of the stack, and pop, which removes the item from
the top of the stack. The stack is managed by a stack pointer, and it is commonly
employed for managing subroutine calls, expression evaluation, and local variable
storage in functions.

2.What is the difference between computer organization and

computer
architecture.

Answer:
Computer organization refers to the arrangement and interconnection of hardware
components within a computer system. It deals with how these components work

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 together at a low level to execute instructions, including aspects like data paths, control
signals, and memory organization.
Computer architecture, on the other hand, encompasses a broader scope. It includes
both the internal organization of a computer system and its external interfaces.
Computer architecture involves designing the overall structure of the computer,
including decisions about the instruction set architecture, memory organization, and
input/output systems.
In summary, computer organization focuses on the internal structure and functionality of
a computer's hardware components, while computer architecture involves a higher-level
design perspective that includes both internal organization and external interfaces.

3.What is Flip-Flop? List types of Flip-Flop.

Answer:
A flip-flop is a fundamental digital circuit component used for storing binary information.
It is a bistable multivibrator, meaning it has two stable states and can be used to
represent a bit of memory. The primary purpose of flip-flops in COA is to store and
manage digital data in sequential logic circuits. They play a crucial role in memory
elements, registers, and various components of processors.

Here's a simple list of flip-flop types:

1. SR Flip-Flop (Set-Reset Flip-Flop)

2. D Flip-Flop (Data or Delay Flip-Flop)

3. JK Flip-Flop

4. T Flip-Flop (Toggle Flip-Flop)

5. Master-Slave Flip-Flop

6. Edge-Triggered Flip-Flop

4.Define three state buffer gate. Draw graphic symbol for three
state buffer

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 gate.

Answer:
A three-state buffer gate is a digital logic gate that can exist in one of three states: high
(logic 1), low (logic 0), or a high-impedance state (Z). The high-impedance state
essentially disconnects the output from the circuit, allowing multiple devices to share a
common bus without interfering with each other. This feature is particularly useful in
digital systems where multiple devices may need to drive a common bus. In summary, a
three-state buffer gate has the capability to output a logic 1, logic 0, or be in a high-
impedance state, providing flexibility in digital circuit designs, especially when dealing
with shared buses.

5.List Memory transfer operation with short description.

Answer:

1. Read Operation:

Description: The process of retrieving data from a memory location. The data
stored at the specified memory address is transferred to a data register for
further processing or use by the CPU.

2. Write Operation:

Description: The process of storing data into a specified memory location. The
data in a data register is written to the specified memory address, updating the
content of that memory location.

3. Fetch Operation:

Description: Commonly associated with CPU operations, a fetch operation

involves retrieving an instruction or data from the main memory and placing it in
a register for execution or processing by the CPU.

4. Store Operation:

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 Description: Similar to a write operation, a store operation involves transferring
data from a register to a specified memory location. It is commonly associated
with storing intermediate results or processed data back into the main memory.

5. Transfer Operation:

Description: A general term referring to the movement of data between

different registers, memory locations, or devices within a computer system. This
operation can involve moving data within the CPU, between the CPU and
memory, or between different peripheral devices.

These memory transfer operations are fundamental to the functioning of a computer

system, enabling the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data throughout the
execution of programs.

6.Define effective address.

Answer:

In Computer Organization and Architecture (COA), the effective address refers to the
calculated address that points to the location in the memory where data is stored or
retrieved during the execution of a computer instruction. It is the address generated by
combining a base address with an offset or displacement.

Effective Address:

Definition: The computed address that specifies the location of data in

memory, obtained by adding an offset to a base address.

Calculation: Effective Address = Base Address + Offset

Purpose: It allows the processor to access the correct memory location when
performing operations such as loading or storing data.

In summary, the effective address is a crucial concept in COA as it represents the actual
location in memory where data is manipulated by the CPU, combining a base address
with an offset for accurate memory access.

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 7.When instruction set is said to be complete.

Answer:

In Computer Organization and Architecture (COA), an instruction set is considered

complete when it can express any computation that is Turing complete. Being Turing
complete means that the instruction set is capable of executing any algorithm or
computation that can be described in a Turing machine.

Completeness of Instruction Set:

Definition: An instruction set is considered complete in COA when it has the

ability to express any possible computation or algorithm.

Turing Completeness: This property ensures that the instruction set can
simulate a Turing machine, a theoretical model of computation that can solve
any problem that is algorithmically solvable.

The completeness of an instruction set is a fundamental characteristic in the design of a

computer architecture, indicating its ability to handle a wide range of computations and
tasks. A Turing complete instruction set provides a foundation for general-purpose
computing.

8.Convert into Reverse Polish Notation: (A+B)[C(D+E)+F].

Answer:

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 9.Define term IOP.

Answer:

In the context of computer systems and architecture:

IOP (Input/Output Processor):

Definition: An Input/Output Processor (IOP) is a specialized processor or controller

responsible for managing and controlling input and output operations in a computer
system. It offloads the CPU from the direct handling of peripheral devices and
manages the data transfer between the central processing unit (CPU) and external
devices.

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 Function: The primary function of an IOP is to handle communication between the
CPU and peripheral devices, such as storage devices, communication interfaces,
and other input/output devices. It coordinates data transfers, manages data buffers,
and ensures efficient communication between the CPU and external devices.

10.Explain T-Flip Flop in detail.

Answer:
A T Flip-Flop (Toggle Flip-Flop) is a type of digital flip-flop that can switch between two
states using a toggle or T input. Here's a summary:

1. Toggle Input (T):

The T input controls the toggle operation. When T is 1 and a clock pulse occurs,
the output state toggles. If T is 0, the state remains the same.

2. Clock Input (C or CLK):

Like other flip-flops, the T Flip-Flop has a clock input that triggers the state
change. The toggle operation happens on the rising or falling edge of the clock
signal.

3. Outputs:

The T Flip-Flop has two outputs: Q and Q'. Q represents the current state, and
Q' is the complement of Q. When T toggles the state, Q and Q' switch values.

4. Operation:

When T is 1 and a clock pulse occurs, the T Flip-Flop toggles its output state. If
the current state is 0, it becomes 1, and if the current state is 1, it becomes 0.

If T is 0, the flip-flop maintains its current state regardless of the clock pulse.

T Flip-Flops are used in circuits that require toggling behavior, such as binary counters
and frequency dividers. They provide a simple and efficient way to implement toggling
functionality in sequential logic circuits.

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 11.Explain Register Transfer with block diagram and Timing
Diagram.

Answer:
Register transfer in computer architecture refers to the movement of data between
registers within a computer system. This process is fundamental to the execution of
instructions and the overall operation of a computer. Here's a brief explanation of
register transfer in computer organization and architecture (COA):

1. Definition: Register transfer is a process where data is transferred between

registers in a computer's central processing unit (CPU). A register is a small, fast
storage location within the CPU that can store data temporarily. Register transfer
operations involve moving data from one register to another or performing
operations on the data within a register.

2. Execution of Instructions: In a computer system, instructions are stored in

memory and need to be executed by the CPU. During the execution of an
instruction, data is transferred between registers to perform arithmetic or logical
operations. These operations involve register transfer to manipulate data and
produce the desired results.

3. Control Unit Role: The control unit of the CPU is responsible for coordinating and
controlling the flow of data between registers. It generates control signals that
determine when and how register transfer operations occur. These control signals
manage the movement of data within the CPU, ensuring that instructions are
executed in the correct sequence.

In summary, register transfer is a crucial aspect of computer architecture, facilitating the

movement and manipulation of data within the CPU through the use of registers. It plays
a key role in the execution of instructions and is controlled by the CPU's control unit.

12.What is shift micro-operation? Explain any two shift micro-

operation.

Answer:

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 A shift micro-operation is a fundamental operation in computer architecture where the
bits of a binary number are moved from one position to another within a register.
Shifting can be either left or right, and it is a basic operation used in various arithmetic
and logical operations. Here are explanations for two types of shift micro-operations:

1. Logical Shift Left (LSL):

Definition: In a logical shift left operation, the bits of a binary number are
shifted to the left by a specified number of positions. The vacant bit positions on
the right are filled with zeros, and the bits shifted out on the left are discarded.

Example: Let's say we have the binary number 11011010 , and we perform a
logical shift left by two positions. The result would be 01101000 , with zeros
shifted in from the right and the two leftmost bits discarded.

2. Arithmetic Shift Right (ASR):

Definition: In an arithmetic shift right operation, the bits of a binary number are
shifted to the right by a specified number of positions. The leftmost bit (sign bit)
is duplicated to fill the vacant positions on the left. This type of shift is commonly
used in signed arithmetic operations to preserve the sign of the number.

Example: Consider the binary number 11010111 , and perform an arithmetic shift
right by one position. The result would be 11101011 , where the leftmost bit ( 1 ) is
duplicated, and the rightmost bit is shifted out.

These two examples illustrate the basic principles of logical shift left and arithmetic shift
right micro-operations. These operations are frequently employed in tasks such as data
manipulation, multiplication, and division in computer systems.

13.Draw and explain control unit of basic computer.

Answer:

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 The control unit is a crucial component of a basic computer's architecture responsible
for coordinating and controlling the operations of the entire system. It plays a central
role in the execution of instructions stored in the computer's memory. Here's an
explanation of the control unit in a basic computer:

1. Definition:

The control unit is a part of the central processing unit (CPU) that manages the
execution of instructions by controlling the flow of data and operations within the
computer.

It interprets program instructions and generates the necessary control signals to

coordinate the activities of other hardware components, such as the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), memory, and input/output devices.

2. Functions of the Control Unit:

Instruction Fetching: The control unit retrieves instructions from memory. It

determines the address of the next instruction to be fetched and fetches it from
the memory into the instruction register.

Instruction Decoding: Once an instruction is fetched, the control unit decodes

it to determine the operation to be performed and the operands involved. It
extracts the opcode and operands from the instruction.

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 Execution Control: The control unit generates control signals to direct the
ALU, memory, and other components to execute the decoded instruction. It
coordinates the flow of data between registers and controls the timing of
operations.

Branching and Jumping: The control unit is responsible for managing

program flow, including handling branches and jumps in the execution of
instructions. It determines the next instruction to be fetched based on the
current instruction and any branching conditions.

Clock Signal Generation: The control unit produces clock signals that
synchronize the operations of various components in the computer, ensuring
that instructions are executed in the correct sequence.

3. Control Signals:

The control unit generates control signals that act as commands for different
parts of the computer. These signals include read and write signals for memory,
signals for ALU operations, and signals for input/output operations.

4. Execution Cycle:

The control unit follows an instruction execution cycle, which typically involves
fetching an instruction, decoding it, executing the operation, and updating the
program counter to move to the next instruction.

In summary, the control unit is the brain of the CPU, managing the flow of instructions
and data to ensure the proper execution of programs in a basic computer. It interprets
and executes instructions by generating control signals that coordinate the activities of
other hardware components.

14.Draw and Explain one stage of Arithmetic Circuit.

Answer:

An arithmetic circuit is a set of gates with a separate set of inputs for each number that
has to be processed. The gates are connected so as to carry out an arithmetic action
and the outputs of the gate circuit are the digits of the result (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, or division).

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 15.Draw Flowchart for instruction cycle.

Answer:

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 16.What is difference between a direct and an indirect address
instruction? How many references to memory are needed for each
type of instruction to bring an operand into a processor register?

Answer:

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 Direct and indirect addressing modes refer to different ways in which instructions specify
the location of operands in memory. The key difference lies in how the memory address
of an operand is determined.

1. Direct Addressing:

In direct addressing, the operand's memory address is explicitly specified in the

instruction itself.

The instruction contains the actual address where the operand is located in
memory.

Example: LOAD R1, 500 means load the content of memory location 500 into
register R1.

Memory References: One memory reference is needed to fetch the operand

directly from the specified memory address.

2. Indirect Addressing:

In indirect addressing, the instruction contains a pointer or an address of a

memory location that holds the actual memory address of the operand.

The processor first fetches the address from the specified location and then
uses that address to access the operand in memory.

Example: LOAD R1, (A) means load the content of the memory location whose
address is stored in memory location A into register R1.

Memory References: Two memory references are needed in indirect addressing -

one to fetch the address from the specified location, and another to fetch the
operand from the address obtained in the first step.

In summary:

Direct Addressing: One memory reference is needed for each instruction to bring
an operand into a processor register.

Indirect Addressing: Two memory references are needed for each instruction to
bring an operand into a processor register.

The choice between direct and indirect addressing depends on the specific
requirements of the instruction set architecture and the design goals of the computer

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 system. Indirect addressing allows for more flexibility but may require additional memory
accesses, potentially impacting performance.

17.Give Difference between CISC and RISC Instructions.

Answer:

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 18.Draw Flowchart for Complete Computer operation.

Answer:

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 19.Explain Instruction Format.

Answer:
Instruction format in computer organization and architecture refers to the structure of
a machine instruction. It defines how instructions are composed and decoded by the
processor. The key components typically include:

1. Opcode (Operation Code): Specifies the operation to be performed.

2. Operand Specifier: Identifies data, registers, or addresses involved in the

operation.

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 3. Addressing Mode: Indicates how operands should be interpreted or accessed.

4. Other Fields (Optional): Additional information such as data size or condition

codes.

Instruction formats are crucial for proper instruction decoding and execution, varying
between different processor architectures based on design choices and addressing
modes.

20.What is Control Word? Write Encoding table of Register

Selection fields and ALU Operations.

Answer:
A control word, in the context of computer architecture, is a binary word or sequence
of bits used to configure or control various operations within a processor or a digital
system. In the context of a microprocessor, the control word is often used to specify
settings, modes, or operations, and it is typically decoded by the control unit to
control the flow of data and operations.

Register Selection Register Name

000 R0

001 R1

010 R2

011 R3

100 R4

101 R5

110 R6

111 R7

ALU Operation Operation Name

0000 ADD

0001 SUB

0010 AND

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 0011 OR

0100 XOR

0101 NOT

0110 SHIFT LEFT

0111 SHIFT RIGHT

1000 INC

1001 DEC

1010 MUL

1011 DIV

1100 CMP

1101 NOP

1110 HLT

1111 Others

20.Convert the following numerical arithmetic expression into

reverse polish notation and show the stack operations for
evaluating the numerical result. (3+5)[10(2+6)+9].

Answer.

Stack | Expression
| 3 5 + 10 2 6 + * 9 +

3 | 5 + 10 2 6 + * 9 +
3 5 | + 10 2 6 + * 9 +
8 | 10 2 6 + * 9 +
8 10 | 2 6 + * 9 +
8 10 2 | 6 + * 9 +
8 12 | + * 9 +
20 |*9+

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 20 9 | +
29 |

21.Explain various modes of data transfer between central

computer and
peripherals.

Answer.

Data transfer between a central computer and peripherals occurs through various
modes, each designed for specific purposes and characteristics. Here are some
common modes of data transfer:

1. Programmed I/O (PIO):

Description: CPU controls the data transfer.

Characteristics:

Simple and straightforward.

CPU actively involved.

May lead to busy waiting.

2. Interrupt-Driven I/O:

Description: CPU is interrupted when peripheral is ready to transfer data.

Characteristics:

Reduces busy waiting compared to PIO.

CPU can perform other tasks while waiting for the interrupt.

3. Direct Memory Access (DMA):

Description: Peripherals transfer data directly to/from memory without CPU

involvement.

Characteristics:

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 Reduces CPU overhead.

Efficient for transferring large blocks of data.

Requires DMA controller.

4. Cycle Stealing:

Description: DMA controller gains control of the system bus for one bus
cycle during each transfer.

Characteristics:

Shares the bus with the CPU.

May impact CPU performance.

5. Programmed I/O with Interrupts:

Description: PIO with interrupts to notify CPU when peripheral is ready for
data transfer.

Characteristics:

Combines aspects of PIO and interrupt-driven I/O.

Reduces CPU involvement during idle times.

6. Memory-Mapped I/O:

Description: Treats control and status registers of peripherals as memory

locations.

Characteristics:

Simplifies interface between CPU and peripherals.

Uses same address and data buses as memory.

The choice of data transfer mode depends on factors such as peripheral nature,
data amount, and desired CPU involvement. Different modes are suitable for
different scenarios, balancing performance, efficiency, and system complexity.

22.Draw Space-time diagram for six segment pipeline showing the time it takes
to process eight tasks.

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 Answer.

23.Explain Execution of AND and BSA instruction.

Answer:

Execution of AND Instruction:

1. Fetch:

The processor fetches the AND instruction from memory.

2. Decode:

The control unit decodes the instruction to understand that it is an AND

operation.

3. Fetch Operands:

If the AND instruction requires operands, the processor fetches the operands
from the specified registers or memory locations.

4. Perform AND Operation:

The processor performs a bitwise AND operation on the operand values. Each
bit of the result is the logical AND of the corresponding bits of the operands.

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 5. Store Result:

The result of the AND operation is stored in the specified destination register or
memory location.

6. Update Flags:

Depending on the processor architecture, flags such as zero flag, sign flag, and
carry flag may be updated based on the result.

Note on BSA:
As mentioned earlier, "BSA" is not a standard assembly language instruction. If it's a
custom instruction or specific to a particular processor architecture, you would need
to refer to the documentation or specifications for that architecture to understand its
execution. If you have more context or if "BSA" refers to a specific instruction in a
particular assembly language, please provide additional details for a more accurate
explanation.

24.Explain Direct Mapping.

Answer:

Direct mapping is a cache mapping technique where each block of main memory is
mapped to a specific cache line, determined by the block's location within a set. The
mapping is direct, meaning that a block in main memory can only reside in a specific
line within a specific set in the cache. This technique is simple to implement but may
lead to conflicts when multiple blocks map to the same set, resulting in potential
cache misses and reduced performance in certain scenarios.

25.Explain Address Mapping using Pages.

Answer:
Address mapping using pages involves dividing both the logical and physical
address spaces into fixed-sized blocks called pages. A process's logical address is

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 split into a page number and an offset, with the page number used to index a page
table. This table maps logical pages to corresponding physical frames in memory.
Translation Lookaside Buffers (TLBs) may speed up this process by caching recent
mappings. Page faults occur when a needed page is not in physical memory,
prompting the operating system to bring it in from secondary storage. This technique
allows for efficient memory use and serves as the foundation for virtual memory
systems in computers.

26:What is strobe? Draw block and timing diagram for source

initiated and
destination initiated data transfer.

Answer:

In Computer Organization and Architecture (COA), a "strobe" signal is used to

synchronize and time data transfers, especially in memory and input/output (I/O)
operations. Here's a summary:

1. Memory and I/O Interface:

When transferring data between the CPU and memory or I/O devices, a
synchronization mechanism ensures the correct timing.

2. Strobe Signal:

The "strobe" signal indicates the specific time to sample or read data on a
bus or line.

When asserted, it signifies that the data is valid and should be sampled by
the receiving component (e.g., memory, I/O device).

3. Example: Memory Read Operation:

In a memory read operation, the strobe signal indicates when to read data
on the memory data bus.

The CPU waits for the strobe signal to be asserted before sampling the
data, ensuring it reads the correct information.

4. Timing Considerations:

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 Strobe signals maintain proper timing, preventing data corruption or errors.

Interfaces, buses, and protocols incorporate strobe signals for synchronized

communication.

5. Memory Address Strobe (RAS and CAS):

In dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) systems, Row Address Strobe

(RAS) and Column Address Strobe (CAS) signals specify valid row and
column addresses for memory operations.

27.What is Hand shaking? Draw block, timing diagram and

sequence of events for source initiated data transfer using
hand shaking.

Answer:
In computer communication and digital systems, "handshaking" is a process or
protocol where two entities establish a communication link by exchanging
signals or messages to ensure readiness for data transfer. It synchronizes
actions between sender and receiver, like a handshake agreement.

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 Key aspects of handshaking:

1. Communication Protocol:

Used to establish, maintain, and terminate connections between

devices.

2. Synchronization:

Syncs sender and receiver activities, ensuring readiness for data

transfer.

3. Acknowledge and Confirm:

Exchange of acknowledgment signals to confirm readiness for the next

step.

4. Flow Control:

Adjusts data transmission rate based on receiver's readiness and

capacity.

5. Error Handling:

Includes mechanisms for error detection and recovery.

6. Examples:

Serial Communication: Uses handshaking lines (e.g., RTS/CTS) to

indicate readiness.

Network Protocols: Common during connection establishment (e.g.,

TCP three-way handshake).

Peripheral Devices: Coordinates data transfer and communication.

7. Initiation and Termination:

Involves negotiation and graceful termination.

Handshaking ensures reliable and synchronized data transfer in digital

communication systems.

28.Explain CPU-IOP Communication.

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 Answer:

CPU-I/O (Central Processing Unit-Input/Output) communication refers to the

interaction between the CPU, which is the central processing unit responsible for
executing instructions, and the I/O devices, which handle input and output
operations. I/O devices include peripherals like keyboards, mice, monitors, printers,
storage devices, and network interfaces.
Here's an overview of the CPU-I/O communication process:

1. Initiation of I/O Operation:

The need for an I/O operation is initiated by either the CPU or the I/O
device.

CPU initiates I/O operations through instructions in the program. For

example, when a program wants to read data from a disk, it issues an I/O
request.

I/O devices can also generate interrupts to signal the CPU that they need
attention.

2. Issuing Commands:

The CPU issues commands to the I/O controller to perform specific tasks.
These commands may involve reading data from or writing data to a
particular device.

3. I/O Controller Handling:

Each I/O device has an associated I/O controller, which acts as an

intermediary between the CPU and the device itself.

The I/O controller manages the low-level details of the I/O operation, such
as controlling the device, buffering data, and handling error conditions.

4. Data Transfer:

Data transfer between the CPU and I/O device occurs through various
techniques.

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 For slow devices, data transfer might occur through programmed I/O, where
the CPU manages the entire process.

For faster devices, direct memory access (DMA) may be used. In DMA, the
I/O controller transfers data directly to or from memory without CPU
involvement after an initial setup by the CPU.

5. Interrupts and Status Signals:

I/O devices generate interrupts to alert the CPU when an operation is

completed or when attention is required.

The CPU can check the status signals from the I/O devices to determine the
completion or status of an operation.

6. Polling or Interrupt Handling:

The CPU regularly checks the status of I/O operations through polling or
responds to interrupts generated by I/O devices.

Polling involves the CPU repeatedly checking the status of an I/O device,
while interrupts are signals that interrupt the normal execution of the CPU,
directing its attention to the I/O operation.

7. Completion and Result:

Once the I/O operation is complete, the CPU receives the results or data
from the I/O device.

The CPU then continues with the execution of the program, possibly using
the data obtained from the I/O operation.

In summary, CPU-I/O communication involves the coordination between the CPU,

which executes instructions, and I/O devices, which handle input and output
operations, to transfer data and manage various tasks efficiently.

29.Give difference between Write through and Write back.

Answer:

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 Write Through:

Idea: Imagine you have a notebook where you write down things. In Write
Through, every time you write something new, you immediately update your
main diary.

Explanation: Making a change ensures your original diary is updated right

away. It reflects real-time updates.

Pros and Cons:

Advantage: Your main diary is always up to date.

Disadvantage: Writing may take slightly longer because you update both
diaries each time.

Write Back:

Idea: Now, imagine you have a sticky note where you jot down quick things. In
Write Back, you write on the sticky note first and transfer the information to your
main diary later.

Explanation: You delay updating your main diary until it's more convenient.
Changes are tracked on the sticky note for a later update.

Pros and Cons:

Advantage: Writing on the sticky note is faster.

Disadvantage: Your main diary may not be completely up to date all the
time.

In Computing Terms:

Write Through:

Data is written to both the cache and the main memory simultaneously.

Ensures synchronization between the main memory and the cache.

Write Back:

Data is initially written to the cache, and the main memory is updated later
when necessary.

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 The main memory is updated less frequently, potentially causing differences
between the cache and main memory.

In essence, Write Through updates both places immediately, while Write Back
involves making quick notes first and updating the main record later. Each approach
has advantages and trade-offs depending on the situation.

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