Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

T.Y. B. Sc. (Physics) SEMESTER V

Core Course- II : Solid State Physics
Module 1I : Superconductivity and Band theory of solids

2 . 1 Superconductivity
Objective:
The objective of this module is to makes the learner cognizant with the principles, properties, and
applications of superconductivity and recent advancements and research in the field

Syllabus
2.1 Superconductivity: Introduction, Mechanism of Superconductors, Effects of magnetic
field, The Meissner effect, the penetration depth, Type I and Type II Superconductors. BCS
theory, A survey of present status of superconductor.

Learning Outcome :
The module is intended to
1. Explain the basic principles of superconductivity, including zero electrical resistance and
the Meissner effect.
2. describe the BCS theory and how Cooper pairs contribute to superconductivity.
3. review different applications and recent research in superconductivity.

Reference :
• Solid state Physics By S. O Pillai (New age Publication)
• https://youtu.be/tuEYQvEYR-M?si=H51e8DtRbUPXP-ZU
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278020674_Lecture_Note_on_Superconductivity_Solid
_State_Physics

Faculty in charge : Dr. Pallavi Raote Page 1

Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a novel state of matter, first observed by Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.
It is the phenomenon in which “The electrical resistance or resistivity of the material
suddenly falls to nearly zero when it cooled to very low temperature.”
The substance exhibiting this property is called as superconductor.
The temperature at which the material undergoes a transition from a state of normal
conductor to superconductor is known as Transition temperature or Critical
temperature.(Tc)

Fig 1. Plot of Resistivity Vs temperature for normal metal and superconductor

Critical temp. is different for different metals, for Mercury it is 4.2 oK. It means, at 4.2 oK the
resistance of mercury abruptly falls to nearly zero and on further decrease in temp. the
substance passes into superconducting state.
On the other hand when the temp. of the superconducting material is increased above
transition temp. (Tc) the material transforms in to a normal material.
For pure and structurally perfect specimen the transition is sharp otherwise it is slightly
broad.
It is further observed that superconductivity vanishes if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is
applied.
The value of minimum magnetic field which is necessary to regain the normal resistivity is
called the Critical magnetic field.(Hc)
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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

Hc(0 At any temp T< Tc, material remains

Hc1 superconducting until a corresponding critical
Magnetic field

magnetic field is applied. When the magnetic field

Hc2 exceeds the critical value the material goes into the
normal state.
Hc(0) is the field required to turn the
superconductor to a normal conductor at 0oK (Fig 2)
Tc1 Tc2 Tc
Temperature The magnetic field (Hc) required to destroy
Fig 2. Schematic representation of critical
the superconducting state decreases progressively
magnetic field as function of temperature
with increasing temperature.
For example, a magnetic field of 0.04T will destroy the superconductivity of mercury at
T ~ 0 oK
where as a field of 0.02T is sufficient to destroy its superconductivity at about 3oK.

The dependence of critical magnetic field (Hc) on temperature is governed by the following
relation

Where Hc(0) is the critical magnetic field at 0oK

Properties of Superconductor:
Zero Electrical resistance: A superconductor is characterized by zero electrical resistance.
Persistent current: Once a current is started in a closed loop of superconducting material, it
will continue to keep flowing around the loop, as long as the loop is held below the critical
temperature. Such a steady current, which flows without diminishing its strength, is called as
Persistent current.
For any superconducting metal its transition below critical temperature to the
superconducting state does not involve any crystallographic structural changes. This is only a
thermodynamic phase change.
At the critical temperature, the specific Heat capacity of the specimen changes
discontinuously.

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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

Meissner Effect:
In 1933 Meissner and Oshcnfeld discovered that a superconductor (S.C) completely expels
any magnetic field lines that were initially penetrating it in it’s normal state.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 3. Meissner Effect
Consider Fig. 3a, specimen is in normal state, it is subjected to the magnetic field, the
magnetic field penetrates the specimen.
Fig. 3b, specimen is cooled below Tc, the substance now turns into superconductor, the
magnetic field lines expel from it’s body (Meissener effect). This is the exhibition of perfect
diamagnetism, susceptibility is found to be -1.
Fig. 3c Magnetic field is switched off, no magnetic lines are found to be trapped by the
superconductor.

Mathematical justification for ‘-1’ susceptibility:

For a normal state ( T>Tc), magnetic induction inside the specimen is given by

Where - is absolute permeability, H- external field applied, M- magnetization produce

within the specimen.
At T< Tc , i.e superconducting state, B = 0 inside the specimen
=0

= -1
Susceptibility =
Thus the two mutually independent properties viz. zero resistivity and perfect diamagnetism is
the essential properties that characterize the superconducting state.

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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

Types of Superconductor:
Based on the magnetic behavior, S.C are classified into two types - Type-I and Type-II.

Type I superconductor:
In type- I S.C, the transition from S.C state to normal state in the presence of a magnetic
field occurs sharply at the critical value Hc.(fig 4 a)

TYPE I superconductor

SC Normal state
SC Normal state
Resistivity (ρ)

Hc
Applied Magnetic field

(a) (b)
Fig 4 Typical variation of resistivity and magnetization curve as function of applied magnetic field

As shown in fig 4(b), upto Hc the magnetization of the material grows in proportion to the
external field and then suddenly falls to zero at Hc.
In super conducting state (applied magnetic field ≤ Hc), the magnetic field lines are
completely expels from the interior of the superconductor and the substance behave as a
perfect diamagnetic material.

Eg. Al, indium and lead

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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

TYPE II Superconductor:

Resistivity (ρ)

Normal state

HC1 HC2
Applied Magnetic field

(a) (b)

Fig 5 variation of resistivity and magnetization curve as function of applied magnetic field in Type II
Superconductor
Type- II is characterized by two critical magnetic field HC1 and HC2.
The transition from S.C to normal occurs gradually as the magnetic field is increased from
HC1 to HC2.
o For H < HC1 behaves as perfect diamagnetic material.
o For HC1 < H < HC2, the flux penetrates and fills partially in the body of the material and
diamagnetic property decreases. Between HC1 and HC2 specimen is magnetically in
mixed state but electrically it is superconductor.
o At H ≥ HC2, material turns into normal state.
Eg. Transition metals and alloys consisting silicon, niobium, vanadium and aluminum.

High TC Superconductivity:
In the year 1986, Bednorz and Muller discovered S.C in ceramics at 30 ok which is relatively high
compare to 4.2ok of mercury. (Low transition temp was big hurdle in utilizing this S.C in much
potential application.)
Now the transition temperature jump to as high as 92 ok , which even broke the liquid nitrogen
barrier (77 ok). So discovery of High Tc marked the beginning of new era.

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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

BCS THEORY- (Explanation of superconductivity):

Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer provides a better quantum explanation of superconductivity,
based on electronic and atomic structure. The trio received Nobel Prize in 1972 for the same.
BCS theory is based on cooper pairs or pairing of
electrons. Quantum mechanically they are considered
as a single entity. According to this theory Super
conductivity occurs when an attractive interaction
between two electrons by means of phonon exchange
dominates the usual repulsive coulomb interactions.
Such a pairing is possible only at very low
Fig 6: Cooper pair formation
temperature. When the electrons flow in the form of
the Cooper pairs in the material, they do not encounter any scattering and the resistance
decreases to a very low value ~ 0Ω.

Josephson Effect:-
Theoretically it showed that tunneling of cooper pairs is as likely as tunneling of unpaired
electrons.
D.C Josephson effect:- Flow of D.C. current across the Josephson junction in the absence of any
electric or magnetic field.
Two superconducting films separated by a thin
insulating layer of 10 to 20Ao thick known as
Josephson junction.
Cooper pairs can tunnel through this insulting
layer and a steady super current (IS) can exists

Fig 7: Schematic diagram of a Josephson junction

without any external potential difference.
Due to the presence of the insulating layer a phase difference (θ) is introduced between the
wave-function of cooper pair before and after tunneling. (i.e. passing through the insulting
layer). As a result of the phase difference in the wave-function of cooper pair the super-current
appears across the junction without application of any potential difference.
The super current (I) is given as

where θ = phase difference between wave function describing Cooper pairs.

IC = critical current depends on thickness and width of insulting layer as well as externally
magnetic field.

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Sem – V Core Course – II (23US5PHCC2SSP) Solid state Physics

A.C Josephson effect- Generation of a.c current across the Josephson junction due to the
application of d.c voltage.
When a d.c voltage is applied across the Josephson junction it introduces an additional phase
on cooper pairs during tunneling which leads to the generation of a.c current I. It is given by
…………….. (1)
Because of d.c voltage V applied across the barrier the energies of cooper pairs on both the
sides of the barrier differ by 2eV and causes a frequency difference .

The above equation represents the alternating current of frequency

Substituting this value in equ. (1), We get,

The above equation shows that a photon of frequency is emitted or absorbed when a cooper
pair crosses the Josephson’s junction.

Applications-

1. Superconducting cables can be used to transmit electric power over long distance
without resistive losses (I2R)
2. Superconducting coils generates much strong magnetic fields so sizes of motors and
generators will be drastically reduced.
3. Based on meissner effect, frictionless bearings can be designed that is used in MAGLEV
trains. (Magnetically Levitated vehicles) They are used in transportation by being set
afloat above a guide way. The utility of such levitation is that in absence of contact
between moving and stationary systems the friction is eliminated. This brings great
speed with low energy consumption.
4. Several medical diagnostic equipments are now employing SQUIDS (Superconductor

Quantum Interface Device) which detects very minute changes in the magnetic field of a
human brain or body.

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