COMPRE REVIEWER

I. Multicultural Education of Indigenous People

DepEd Orders
1. DO 32, S. 2015 – ADOPTING THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
EDUCATION CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
 Pursuant to DepEd Order No. 62, s. 2011 entitled Adopting the
National Indigenous Peoples Education (IPEd) Policy Framework
and
DepEd Order No. 43, s. 2013 entitled Implementing Rules and
Regulations of Republic Act No. 10533 otherwise known as the
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, the Department of
Education (DepEd) is adopting the enclosed Indigenous Peoples
Education Curriculum Framework.
 Recognizing the right of IPs to basic education that is culturally
rooted and responsive to the IPEd Curriculum Framework which
seeks to provide guidance to schools and other education
programs, both public and private, as they engage with
indigenous communities in localizing, indigenizing, and enhancing
the K to 12 Curriculum based on their respective educational and
social contexts.
 Fundamental to IPEd is
- establishing partnership between indigenous communities and
the respective schools/learning programs which serve them, to
be pursued through sustainable community engagement which
guarantees the meaningful participation of indigenous
communities in the inclusion of their Indigenous Knowledge
Systems and Practices (IKSPs) and Indigenous Learning Systems
(ILS) in the Basic Education Curriculum.
 The continuous process of community engagement and
refinement of the IPEd Curriculum at the school community level
actualizes the Department’s commitment to the attainment of the
abovementioned right of indigenous peoples to education. In this
regard, for schools and learning programs serving indigenous
 learners, the aims of the K to 12 Program are realized through
IPEd.
 The IPEd Curriculum Framework was formulated based on inputs
from a series of consultations conducted by the DepEd –
Indigenous Peoples Education Office (IPsEO) with community
elders, leaders, and implementers of community-based IPEd
initiatives.

2. AUGUST 8, 2011 DO 62, S. 2011 – ADOPTING THE NATIONAL

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES (IP) EDUCATION POLICY FRAMEWORK
3. SEPTEMBER 14, 2010 DO 101, S. 2010 – THE ALTERNATIVE
LEARNING SYSTEM (ALS) CURRICULUM FOR INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES (IPS) EDUCATION
4. DEPED KICKS OFF IPED TRAINING FOR TEACHERS AND
SCHOOL HEADS IN ARMM

https://www.iwgia.org/en/philippines.html#:~:text=The%20number
%20of%20Indigenous%20Peoples,20%25%20of%20the%20country's
%20population.

According to International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (2024).

The number of Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines is estimated between 10% and
20% of the country's population.

DO32. S 2015 ADOPTING THE NATIONAL INDIGENOUS PEOPLES (IP)

EDUCATION POLICY FRAMEWORK

Since the early 2000s, indigenous communities have been consolidating efforts to inform and approach
the Department of Education through conferences and other fora affirm that schooling has has enabled
indigenous learners to develop competencies needed in responding to the demands of the wider society.

However, they have also consistently shared with DepEd the following key concerns that should be
address:

• the need to respect and recognize Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (ISPs) in school and
learning programs;
• the elimination of discrimination from peers and teachers because of the learner's cultural identity;

• the need for teachers serving in indigenous communities to be adequately oriented and trained so that
indigenous cultures are appreciated, and indigenous cultural practices and values are not discriminated as
"backward", "inferior", "invalid", or "primitive";

• the need to promote respect and due regard for the inherent meanings and purposes of indigenous
cultural expressions - such as dances, chants, instruments, and attire, to name a few - so that these are not
misused/misrepresented in school programs and learning-related activities;2 and

• ensuring that learning programs promote among learners an affirmation and sense of indigenous cultural
identity that sustain inter-generational relationships and cultural integrity in the community.

In response to this, the DepEd adopted the National Indigenous Peoples Education Framework
(Department Order No. 62, s. 2011 or more popularly known as "DO62"). The said policy framework
recognizes that access to basic education is an enabling right "for IPs to claim their other rights, exercise
self- determination, and expand the choices available to them." It seeks to promote an education that
"removes barriers to their meaningful participation in the different levels and spheres of society and
empowers them to exercise their rights and duties as Filipino citizens." D062 provides a basis for the
national implementation of the Department's Indigenous Peoples Education (IPEd) Program.

It is in response to the need for guidance on curriculum development for IPEd that the IPEd Curriculum
Framework was formulated. The formulation of the IPEd Curriculum Framework was facilitated by the
DepEd - Indigenous Peoples Education Office (IPsEO).

The draft IPEd Curriculum Framework underwent a series of consultations that culminated in a national
validation process (2013) involving representatives from indigenous communities and support groups,
including DepEd Regional and Division IPEd Focal Persons.

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/indigenous-peoples-education-curriculum-of-the-philippines/
28414024

The effort of DepEd extends to the IP’s out-of-school youth through ALS. The
curriculum was
created in 2006 in coordination with the National Commission on
Indigenous Peoples and was validated by various indigenous
communities.

https://www.deped.gov.ph/2017/02/20/deped-kicks-off-iped-training-
for-teachers-and-school-heads-in-armm/
The IPEd Program is being implemented nationwide to support the
curriculum contextualization thrusts of the Enhanced Basic Education,
mandated by Republic Act No. 10533 or more popularly known as the
“K to 12 Law”. It seeks to enable DepEd schools and other education
programs to engage with IP communities in pursuing basic education
that is responsive to the community’s context, respects their
identities, and promotes their indigenous knowledge, competencies,
and other aspects of their cultural heritage.

-------

Throughout the years, DepEd has conducted many seminars and

training to ensure the proper implementation of the National
Indigenous Peoples (IP) Education Policy Framework to ensure that
the school heads and teachers are equipped to teach and be aware of
Indigenous knowledge and fundamental cultural aspects.

Multicultural Education of Indigenous People

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F2.zoppoz.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fjournal.aide-
inc.net%2Findex.php%2Faide-irj%2Farticle%2Fdownload
%2F87%2F76&psig=AOvVaw1I_J4FYLLNMIJO8ljayhL2&ust=172069
2248488000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CAQQn5
wMahcKEwigotGmnJyHAxUAAAAAHQAAAAAQBA

According to the study conducted by Rojean M. Balaba titled Social

Impact of Multicultural Education on Indigenous Secondary Learners
of CARAGA Region (2023), results have shown that multicultural
education promotes and has instilled the importance of education
among indigenous learners.

 It significantly influenced indigenous learners' (IL) attitudes,

beliefs, and practices.
  helps ILs appreciate their own culture, which helps to enhance
their self-knowledge and self-development.
 ILs have learned to appreciate and respect others despite their
cultural differences, improve the communication skills by making
new friends with non-indigenous learners.

However, they claimed that poverty, dealing with IP learners, and

bullying are the difficulties they have encountered in school.

 Higaonon and Manobo learners, however, asserted that IP-

related cultural activities were limited only to Music, Arts,
Physical Education, and Health (MAPEH) lessons,
 Mamanwa learners claimed that no culture-related activities were
conducted in school.

Based on such findings, the study recommends the following:

1. Teachers

 reinforcing programs that promote cultural awareness.

 contextualized and localized lesson plans, lesson logs, and
instructional materials using indigenous concepts and knowledge
in all learning areas.

2. School administrators

 guide school personnel

 regularly monitor the performance of IP learners and their
involvement in school activities.
 school personnel can strengthen the participation of parents and
the community in all school activities.
 School administrators must conduct of programs that focus on
building cultural identity and promoting education, training, and
vocational pathways.
  Schools Division Office may give awards and recognition to
schools that are the best implementers of multicultural education
to encourage schools to excel in the implementation of
multicultural education.

3. Curriculum planners

 enhance existing curricula by developing tools and standards

that teachers can use to place a greater emphasis on the needs
of IP learners. For instance, infusion of multicultural concepts in
the activities and materials in the classroom instruction.
https://discover.hubpages.com/education/Multicultural-Education-Practices-and-
Programs-in-the-Philippines

In the Philippines, there are different sub-groups of people whose beliefs and culture
are way different from each other. According to Minority Rights Group International
(2020), the country’s population is composed of the main minority groups: Tagalog (24.4
per cent), Bisaya/Binisaya (11.4 per cent), Cebuano (9.9 per cent), Ilocano (8.8 per
cent) Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (8.4 per cent), Bikol/Bicol (6.8 per cent) Waray (4 per cent),
other local ethnicities (26.1 per cent). These different groups of people have similarities
but have differences as well, which calls for the implementation of multicultural
education system. In the Basic Education of the country, the Department of Education
(DepEd) is implementing the Indigenous Education Program (IPEd) to promote a
culture-based education in the country. Among the practices of the agency to
successfully implement this culture-based education is by capacitating the teachers for
IPEd implementation, and by preparing contextualized and indigenized lessons plans
and instructional materials.

Multicultural education in the Philippines is not yet a big concern because the country is
not yet populated by different races or nationalities. However, the government is
responsive already to the needs of the different types of learners in the country. This
action is a great step to achieving a successful multicultural education once Philippines
is populated by different races. If a country can offer programs, and good practices in
promoting a culture-based education, then it could successfully design a system for
multicultural education.

II. Factors in learning a language vis-a-vis K12

https://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Factors-Affecting-
English-Instruction-of-Grade-7-K-to-12-Curriculum.pdf

FACTORS AFFECTING ENGLISH INSTRUCTION OF GRADE 7 K

TO 12 CURRICULUM AS PERCEIVED BY HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
TEACHERS OF THE DIVISION OF QUIRINO, August 2016

K to 12 basic education curriculum was finally implemented in the

Philippines since the school year 2012-2013. Generally, the dual goal
of the English Curriculum is to develop the leaners’ communicative
and literary competence. Upon the implementation of the new
curriculum in the country, English learning packages of the English 7
class has become the common instructional materials in the entire
Philippines.

According to the Department of Education ’s Learning Area Team for

Languages and Multiliteracies of the of the K to 12 Curriculum for
2012, the general objectives of English for Grade 7 subject in its wide-
ranging concept include the following:

(1) explore real- life themes and situations;

(2) expose the learners to a balance of literary and informative texts;

(3) engage the learners to an interplay of print and non- print

resources;

(4) enrich their grammar awareness; and

(5) enhance one’s information and management skills. On the other
hand, literary competence is concerned with general skills needed to
meet the communicative and linguistic demands of the different types
of Philippine literature.

In addition to the macro-language skills of listening, speaking, reading

and writing and viewing. Indeed, the K to 12 curriculum demands the
implementation of instructional packages for the Grade 7 by which
every teacher and learner is expected to deal with. Aside from the
instructional materials used by the teacher, these modules basically
are used as the prime instructional devices.

Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another

method and instructional devices. This is based on the principle that
best learning takes place when greater number of senses are
stimulated and utilized in the learn ng process.

In dealing with the English subject, according to Ana Hernandez

(2003) updated language strategies allow students to develop
knowledge of subject matter through the competency in English. The
teacher ensures that the lessons are comprehensible to different
learners.

In Philippine setting, the teacher must use comprehensive literary

genres suited for the learners. For language proficiency and English
language development, an effective technique is to draw the learners’
background in the areas of practical applications. Topics must be
related to their personal experiences and connections. It is important
to maintain a comfortable participatory learning environment that
allows the students to practice English language without fear, seeking
clarification or taking linguistic risks.

It is generally accepted that teachers of English play a leading role in

providing learners with the knowledge, skills and understanding they
need to read, write, speak and listen effectively. This is according to
Arkoudis (2003). However, Goodwyn,et.al (2003) point out that all
teachers have a stake in effective literacy. Learners may fail to
understand academic concepts through the language they are still
learning because their subject content teachers are incapable of
assisting them to do so. (Crandall, 1998).

Gouthro (2003) mentioned in her research that excellent teachers

make the difference. These teachers who know their students are alert
to the literacy demands of a curriculum and have a repertoire of
flexible practices. They recognize and value the needs, interests, and
capacities of the learners.

K to 12 curriculum employs the use of learning packages as

instructional material in all subjects. According to Bautista, in his
dissertation (2005 ) the development of several types of instructional
materials is one of the major steps of each curriculum planning and
development procedure. Though the textbook is a widely used
instructional material, it is found that different types of instructional
materials are now being used to achieve learning outcomes or to
improve quality education and for the benefit of both the teachers and
the students. Such materials like teacher’s guide, student’s workbook,
modules, teacher training materials, assessment materials, and
supplementary materials specially for students and resource books for
the facilitators.

There are also factors that affect English instruction in the K to Basic
Education Curriculum. One of which is the students’ practical
application of English in communicating ideas. As the students learn
the second language, Goswami (2010) in his study, mentioned that
students can use opportunities to practice English outside classrooms,
which can enhance the students’ English proficiency. Also, the need
for English to survive in the students’ daily life increases their
motivation to learn English.

Har (2007) stated in her dissertation that teachers have the greatest
impact on students’ motivation to learn English. The result of her
research also revealed that parents’ role in education has affected the
educators in Hong Kong in the development of their curriculum.

Uys ,et.al ( 2007) in his study mentioned that in South Africa, the
grade 7 and 8 students from the rural areas have lower level of
language proficiency. To solve this issue, the researchers suggested
that teachers’ trainings should be extensive and ongoing. All teachers
who have to teach through the medium of English should be required
to obtain a qualification in English medium of instruction. This would
involve training in the required language, methods of teaching and
presentational skills. Teachers lacked the personal language
proficiency required both spoken and written to assist their learners in
the acquisition of academic literacy.

According to Bautista, ( 2005 ) teachers as professionals are expected

to respond to any curriculum changes to make teaching and learning
dynamic and effective. The use of modules and learning packages
become the tailored instructional techniques that would suit best to the
students’ ability. Gone are those days when teachers dominate the
classroom routine. As the twenty- first approaches, the demand for
better teachers and better quality instructions gets higher. As
curriculum alters, instructional materials call for innovations because
teaching-learning process is a matter of personal response.

Where educational knowledge or curriculum content not only comes

from books but also from actual practice, and where such knowledge
is held not only by the teachers but also by community folks
themselves, the knowledge available becomes multi- faced, multi-
layered and always open to confirmation and rejection.
( DOronilla,2000)

Conclusion

To match up with the world’s global competitiveness, the Philippines

implemented the K to 12 Education Curriculum, a program which is
patterned from the educational system in most countries in the world.
One of the core subjects of this curriculum is English. It calls on
teachers, school administrators, parents, families, community
members, superintendents, and the government itself to work together
to ensure any student’s success. They are the factors to consider in
any teaching- learning situation. From the findings of this study, the
following conclusions were drawn:

 It indicates that English instruction is much affected in terms of

module factor, teacher factor, and student factor. While the
school factor moderately affects the English instruction. Hence,
four of the factors affect English instruction that much.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this research, the following are

recommended :

1. Upon the implementation of the new curriculum, all modules

needed for the whole calendar year should have been completed from
first quarter up to the fourth quarter. This will lead to easier
accessibility intended for the use of the English teachers. It makes the
teachers well-prepared in their teaching endeavors from the start of
the school year up to the last quarter.

2. Parents should have been informed meticulously on the qualitative

grading system so that they can have a constant monitoring of their
children on their English grades. This can be done through series of
meetings among school administrators, the parents and the teachers.

3. The school must provide the necessary trainings and seminars to

update the teachers on skills relevant to the changing curriculum to
ensure improved English instruction.

4. English teachers should lessen their module dependency rather

have the interest to use their resourcefulness and creativity to make
English lessons enjoyable to the students.

5. Teachers should manifest sensitivity and concern for their students’

competence in English especially in literary genres and language
itself.

6.The school heads should work with the teachers and parents to
lessen the effects of some issues brought upon by the much affected
factors that affect the English instruction.

7. Researchers in the field of education are encouraged to conduct the

same study but different in setting. This is suggested for constant
research in education leads to the better implementation of the
curriculum in the country.

https://aclanthology.org/2022.paclic-1.80.pdf

The language learning process of the Department of Education

(DepEd) is anchored to a belief that for effective language acquisition
and learning to take place, language teachers must be guided by the
six (6) language teaching principles. These are Spiral Progression,
Interaction, Integration, Learner-Centeredness, Contextualization, and
Construction. These principles are applied in the classroom in which
skills, grammatical items, structures, and various types of texts are
taught, revised, and revisited at increasing levels of difficulty and
sophistication. DepEd believes that this will allow students to progress
from the foundational level to higher levels of language use. This may
seem effective, but the National Achievement Test (NAT) 2018
showed declining scores and skills mismatch since 2013. This
problem in the language education sector showed that despite
continuous teaching of language skills, no mastery was taught to the
student. The basic education ends at grade 12 then college is next. In
College, where education is of a higher form, mastery of skills is
enhanced but if mastery is underdeveloped what then will be
enhanced?

Philippine English Proficiency of the K12 students: Basis for the

improvement of the English Curriculum

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1383105.pdf

Carhill, Suárez-Orozco & Páez (2017) Students' time spent speaking

English in informal social situations is predictive of English language
proficiency. Social context factors significantly influence English
language learning among adolescent immigrant youth, highlighting the
importance of school and peer interventions.

Recommendations

https://aclanthology.org/2022.paclic-1.80.pdf

Aside from incorporating Philippine English in Purposive

Communication and English Skills Enhancement at the College level,
an additional course such as "Philippine English" will help enhance the
evolving Philippine language learning.

Teachers, on the other hand, can execute the learning to their

students if they are also properly oriented with the World/ Philippine
English paradigm. Kirkpatrick (2007) talks about how some scholars
have recommended using a native speaker variety as a norm, with the
local variety as a model. This being said, it is the heart of having a
local variety such as Philippine English, where American English is the
native speaker variety. In this way, learners will not be discouraged
from using whatever variety they speak. It can be seen already in the
present study that learners can talk about the language in the local
variety. Imposing the local variety as part of the curriculum can
produce Standard Philippine English.

Despite the awareness of the ELT teachers on the use of PE,

acceptance of the topic is needed for other educators who do not
advocate the use of this variety. For the new educators, symposiums,
seminars, and awareness campaigns are suggested to be done.
World Englishes varieties exist and being chauvinistic about a
particular variety does not help make English language teaching more
effective. Relatively, more studies on using Philippine English in the
academic setting are highly encouraged. This will further establish the
emerging body of literature on the Filipino's own variety of English.

https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1884&context=etd

The Problems: Possible Causes for Underachievement of English

Language Learners (ELLs) in the Elementary Classroom

The following sections synthesize scholarship on possible causes for

underachievement of ELLs in elementary classrooms. Topics to be
discussed are initial placements, pullouts and re-designation
practices; unreliable and invalid testing; lack of access to rigorous
academic content instruction, socioeconomic status of ELL students;
and lastly, under-prepared teachers who are ill-equipped to meet the
educational needs of a diverse population of ELLs in a high stakes
environment.

Initial Placements, Pullouts and Re-designation Practices

When parents enroll their children in school, they must fill out an
enrollment survey that addresses which languages are spoken in the
home and to what extent each language is used (Stokes-Guinan
&Goldenberg, 2011). Students are classified as ELL if any other
language than English is spoken in the home, even if it is only the
student's grandmother or aunt that speaks a second language, not the
student themselves. In some districts, this initial classification
immediately requires that students demonstrate a mastery level of
proficiency in English while speaking, listening, reading and writing in
order to be reclassified as English proficient and to be exited from the
label of ELL (Callahan et al., 2010).

. Trapped in lower level classes without access to complex texts

and/or complex grammar, these students have no way to access the
academic language needed for success in college preparatory classes
(Callahan et al., 2010). This is a point of conflict because access to
complex text (measured by Kibler, Walqui and Bunch, (2015) as "...
the extent to which multiple levels of meaning are embedded in the
text, how explicitly an author's purpose is stated, how typical
conventions of genre are represented, the amount of figurative
language used, and the text's grammatical features and vocabulary"
(p. 12)) is the only way to master complex grammar and literacy skills
(Wong Fillmore & Fillmore, 2012). This aligns with what other
researchers know to be true: the best way to truly understand a
language's grammar is to read and decipher the multiple meanings of
a particular grammar usage intertwined with rich vocabulary in context
throughout complex texts (Kasper, 1997; Schleppegrell, 2012;
WongFillmore, 2014). This advanced element of language teaching is
missing from many low tracked, remedial English language courses.

Lack of Access to Rigorous Academic Content Instruction

Throughout the study, the team looked at several factors that could
affect the overall academic achievement of all the students: Academic
preparation, prior achievement, individual and family characteristics,
parental involvement and school characteristics. They also closely
looked at how, when, and why students would be classified as ELL
and, thus, be confined to ESL classes. Disturbingly, these researchers
found that while there was no positive benefit to being enrolled in ESL
classes, there were several negative effects, such as being
significantly less likely to enroll in college preparatory classes.
Specifically, Callahan et al. (2010) found that linguistic minority
students in ELL programs were 45% less likely to enroll in
collegepreparatory science courses and 48% less likely to enroll in
college-preparatory social science courses than linguistic minority
students not placed in ELL programs.

Poverty, Socioeconomic Status and Home Life of ELLs

According to Cherciov (2013) and Hoglund and Leadbeater (2004), it

is poverty, socioeconomic status, students' home life, classroom
ecology and attitudes toward the L1 and L2 that affect ELL students'
attitude toward learning, and, therefore, their achievement levels (See
also Drajea & O’Sullivan, 2014). Other factors impacting ELL
achievement include pre-school and kindergarten social and academic
readiness factors (BulotskyShearer et al, 2011) individual student
motivation and analytical ability, (Grigorenko et al, 2009) family
educational aspirations, parental support, social factors (including time
spent on homework, absences from school, school safety climate) and
school factors (percentage of students receiving free or reduced lunch
and average class size) (Casillas et al, 2012 ); as well as students’
general home lives and instances of maltreatment at home (Mallett,
2017). All of these factors contribute to a student's performance in an
academic setting.
Under Prepared ELL Teachers

ELL students oftentimes receive under prepared teachers (Calderon,

Slavin & Sanchez, 2011; Johnson & Wells, 2017; McGraner & Saenz,
2009), especially in high poverty areas (Crawford & Hairston, 2018).
Lucas, Villegas and Freedson-Gonzalez (2008) observe the following
about under prepared ELL teachers in classrooms: At present, the
majority of teachers have had little or no professional development for
teaching ELLs; few have taken a course focused on issues related to
ELLs; and most do not have the experiential knowledge that comes
from being proficient in a second language. It is not surprising, then,
that the majority of teachers report that they do not feel prepared to
teach ELLs (p. 361). These contributing factors ultimately lead to a
high teacher turnover rate (Katz, 1999), which compounds the
problem: under prepared teachers contributing to a lack of
achievement among at-risk students. The unfortunate link between
under prepared teachers and under achievement among at-risk
students underscores the fact that students learn best with highly
educated and motivated teachers (Calderon, Slavin & Sanchez, 2011;
de Jong, Harper & Coady, 2013) who construct positive and trusting
relationships with their students (Cooper & Miness, 2014; Wentzel,
1997). There is a large learning curve, however, as teachers agree
that they understood the most about how to best teach ELLs
effectively from firsthand experience, rather than their initial teacher
preparation programs (Faez & Valeo, 2012). In an attempt to improve
teacher preparation in working with ELL students, the state of
California's teaching preparation program now requires teachers to be
CLAD (Cross Cultural, Language and Academic Development) or
BCLAD (Bilingual, Cross-cultural, Language and Academic
Development) certified (CDE, CLAD/BCLAD). Teachers who are
BCLAD certified have reported feeling most prepared to teach ELL
students, because their bilingualism allowed them to effectively
communicate with their students in the students' primary language
(Gandara, Maxwell-Jolly & Driscoll, 2005).

Recommendations: Successful Practices for Supporting ELLs'

Academic Development

These recommendations relate to the need for: attention to academic

language in content instruction and developing the quality of teacher
preparation programs.

Attention to Academic Language in Content Instruction

Silverman and Hines (2009) who conducted a study regarding the

effectiveness of multi-media teaching of academic vocabulary to both
ELLs and non-ELLs. They found that by augmenting read alouds with
the use of multi-dimensional multimedia presentational techniques,
(such as a supplemental and complementary video that included live
action, animation, voice over, text and music) the knowledge gap of
specifically targeted science words (e.g. same, different, predator,
prey, discover, community, habitat, explore, creature, rare etc.) was
closed between non-ELLs and ELLs (Silverman & Hines, 2009). The
two authors go on to explain that this augmentation may be effective
because "complementing the traditional storybook reading format, in
which children hear a book read aloud and see the static pictures in
the book, with a multimedia presentation that reinforces the meaning
of the text may benefit children learning a second language" (p. 305).

Increase the Quality of Teacher Preparation Programs and Teachers'

Professional Development Opportunities

All of the above mentioned recommendations may not be sufficient if

teachers are not effectively prepared to implement them. As Calderon,
Slavin and Sanchez (2011) write, "Effective teaching is critical to
student learning" (p.118). This is supported by other researchers who
claim that in order for teachers to be most effective, teacher
preparation programs may need to be reformed with an intensified
focus to the needs of ELL students (de Jong, Harper & Coady, 2013;
Faez &Valeo, 2012; Johnson & Wells, 2017). Further changes that
must be made to the teacher preparation and professional
development programs come from de Jong, Harper & Coady (2013),
who explain that effective teachers of ELL students must also: (a)
[understand] ELLs from a bilingual and bi-cultural perspective; (b)
[understand] how language and culture shape school experiences and
inform pedagogy or bilingual learners; and (c) [have the ] ability to
mediate a range of contextual factors in the schools and classrooms
where they teach (p.90). Some researchers go so far as to suggest
that international teaching opportunities are the best way to increase
teachers' multicultural and multilingual sensitivities in preparation for
effective classroom teaching (Gonzalez-Carriedo et.al. 2017). Others
recommend additional professional development opportunities,
including a Master's degree, as a way for teachers to feel more
prepared and/or effective teaching English to ELL students (Gandara,
MaxwellJolly & Driscoll, 2005).

Conclusion

This paper has acknowledged an existing achievement gap between

ELLs and native speakers in K-12 classrooms that oftentimes
culminates in a high dropout rate and limited access to higher
education for ELL students. In addition, this paper has also identified
possible reasons for this gap and has provided recommendations for
improving the education these students receive.

In light of the preceding discussion of the literature, the following

educational practices are recommended to increase the academic
development of ELLs: Attention to vocabulary, specifically, academic
language in content instruction and increasing the quality of teacher
preparation including, but not limited to, more professional
development opportunities for teachers. Furthermore, special care
should be placed on building ELL students' vocabulary through
dynamic processes involving multimedia and multiple opportunities to
practice discussing their content based knowledge through interaction
with their peers.

These recommendations are given in hopes of closing the

achievement gap between ELLs and native speakers.

There is room for further study as well, on the following questions:

How does individual ELLs' motivation and perceived group identity
affect school, district and state level achievement? To what extent do
teacher beliefs and/or their educational backgrounds impede or direct
compliance with district and state level policies? How does the student
to teacher ratio and overall class size bear upon the practices that
teachers may [or may not] be implementing in their classrooms?

Related factors that also warrant future research include the effects of
institutional racism, ever changing educational policies, high stakes
test scores, and the behavioral manifestations of students in response
to these factors. Teaching and learning do not occur in a vacuum, and
K-12 classrooms are a swirling vortex of variables all affecting
individual and group achievement. Research based policies are
always needed as guidance to those who are academically preparing
tomorrow's citizens and leaders.

https://www.usnews.com/education/k12/articles/how-language-
acquisition-works-in-school

In an article titled How Language Acquisition Works in School

published by Heidi Borst (2021), Learning English is not easy, but experts see
progress when schools and families cooperate.
It’s common for ESL students to receive English language instruction from an ESL
teacher and grade level or content instruction from a different teacher, so it is essential
that all teachers coordinate and work as a team, Gonzalez-Powers says. This way, they
can deliver seamless and meaningful instruction in listening, speaking, reading and
writing.

ESL teachers should also know students’ academic strengths and needs. “ESL
students are most successful when direct, explicit, systematic and multi-sensory
instruction is provided in conjunction with visual and language support,” she says.

If encouraged to continue learning in their home language, ESL students can actually
have a larger vocabulary than English-only students, Hile says.

“They may go back and forth between their languages to write or think or process, but
that just means they are using all the language at their disposal,” Hile says. “If
students are taught to think about the connections between their language and English,
then their skills will develop exponentially.”

Language Acquisition Across Grades

According to Goldin, there is an ideal window of opportunity for learning a second

language, known as the “critical period,” which is generally anytime before the early
teenage years. After that, students need different kinds of supports and instructional
strategies.

“For all children, conversational language skills are acquired rather quickly while
academic language takes several years to learn and master,” Goldin says.

She says the process of learning a second language changes with a student’s grade
level:

 Preschool and K-2. Children in this age range can learn second languages
quickly and in a seemingly effortless way due to their brain’s ability to change
and adapt. At school, a significant amount of time is dedicated to teaching
important foundational literacy skills. Multilingual learners who have not yet
 learned to read and write in their first language may begin their literacy journey
in English.
 Grades 3-5. In this age range, many multilingual learners will already have
literacy skills in their first language. Therefore, in addition to learning to speak
a second language, they must also learn to read and write it while still
advancing in other subjects.
 Grades 6-8. As children reach their early teens, other factors come into play in
the learning process, and language may not come as naturally, specifically in
areas like pronunciation. Anxiety, embarrassment and self-consciousness can
also make language learning more challenging.

How Teachers Can Help

Perhaps now more than ever, teachers are prepared with the tools and resources to
help multilingual learners succeed, according to Goldin.

“One great tool teachers can employ is ‘translanguaging,’” she says -- allowing
students to use multiple languages to communicate. “Students who know their
classroom is a safe space, and a place where they can use both English and their first
language when needed, feel supported and less anxious.”

Displaying classroom signs and labels in multiple languages and using multilingual
resources or texts can make language learning a natural part of Immersion learning is
also an effective model for bilingual education in which the mainstream curriculum is
taught through two languages with the goal of fostering bilingualism and biliteracy.
Children in immersion learning can use both languages to communicate across their
curriculum and have authentic social opportunities to interact with peers.

“The majority of these programs in the U.S. are Spanish-English, but a range of other
target languages are also offered,” Goldin says. “Two-way, dual-language programs
serve a student population composed of nearly balanced numbers of English learners
… and English-fluent speakers,” she says.

the day for all children, Goldin says.

How Parents Can Help

Hile says parents don’t have to be English proficient, or even know English, to
encourage literacy and language at home. They can develop their child’s home
language and literacy through songs, chants, games and reading in their native
language.

Practicing “environmental literacy,” such as reading traffic signs, menus, food labels
and directions, can also help. “Environmental literacy … is really important,
especially at a young age,” Hile says.

Experts say one of the best resources bilingual parents can give their children is the
gift of the home language. Parents should use their native tongue as much as possible
and read to and with their children.

“Anything parents can do to develop their child’s native language can help teachers
transfer skills and vocabulary to English,” Hile says.

https://www.learnalberta.ca/content/eslapb/
understanding_the_acquisition_factors.html
Various personal and environmental factors can influence English language proficiency and the rate of
language development.

Social Environment Factors That Affect Language Acquisition

Social Setting

Community attitudes towards gender roles, class structure, cultural identity, ways to show respect to
elders (including teachers), and attitudes towards language learning can all influence how a student
approaches learning English.

Situational Factors

Situational factors include circumstances related to the student’s family or living situation. If the
student is a newcomer to Canada, situational factors could include circumstances surrounding the
student’s move to the community.

Understanding an English language learner’s individual situation can help teachers identify possible
challenges (e.g., stress, emotional trauma) and opportunities (e.g., family and community supports).

Learning Environment Factors That Affect Language Acquisition

Positive Learning Environment
Creating a learning environment in which the student feels comfortable taking risks is critical in
promoting English language development. As well, support in learning grade-level content helps
ensure the student experiences academic success and develops a positive self-identity.

Promotion and Support of the Home Language

The home language is the dominant language that a student uses at home to communicate with family
members, but it is not a language that the student routinely uses at school.

Viewing the student’s home language as an asset rather than a deficit, and encouraging the student to
maintain and further develop home language proficiency can help the student in many ways—
personally, socially, and academically.

The level of proficiency in the home language can influence a student’s success in learning English.
Generally, the greater the proficiency in the home language, the stronger the language base the
student has to draw upon to learn English.

Incorporating the home language in the student’s learning can support the development of English
language proficiency. It can also promote the student’s confidence and self-identity and the valuing of
their home culture and language.

For more information on the importance of the home language in English language acquisition, see
Encouraging the Use of Home Languages.

Instructional Strategies

The instructional strategies that teachers use can greatly influence the student’s English language
development. Instructional strategies should be selected to suit the needs of the individual English
language learner.

For instructional strategies that are effective with English language learners, refer to Making a
Difference: Meeting diverse learning needs with differentiated instruction (Chapter 9); Supporting
English as a Second Language Students: Promising ESL strategies in Alberta; and Working with Young
Children who are Learning English as a New Language.

Examples of strategies that are effective for use with English language learners include

 providing learning resources that have a reading level or listening-comprehension level that
matches or is slightly more advanced than the student’s current English language proficiency
level
 using dual-language books
 providing explicit language instruction that takes into account the student’s
o proficiency in other languages
o current English language proficiency level, which helps teachers plan language instruction to
ensure the student continues to learn in incremental steps. (The Alberta K–12 ESL Proficiency
Benchmarks can help teachers identify specific language-learning goals.)
 providing feedback and modelling correct English language use
 focusing on vocabulary development, especially academic vocabulary. Academic vocabulary
includes words required for explaining abstract ideas, analyzing, evaluating, debating, and
understanding figurative language and humour.
 encouraging peer interaction and support
 encouraging student use of learning strategies, including language-learning strategies
 recognizing and building on the student’s knowledge of other language(s)
For more teaching and learning strategies that are effective with English language learners, refer to
the English as a Second Language (ESL) Guide to Implementation, Kindergarten to Grade 9 and the
English as a Second Language Senior High School Guide to Implementation.
What Are Student Characteristics and Traits That Affect Language Acquisition?
Age

The age at which a student is exposed to an additional language impacts the acquisition of that
language.

Children who are exposed to another language by 12 years of age are more likely to achieve native-
like fluency in the new language. That is, they sound like a native speaker and pick up the
grammatical patterns of the target language through immersion.

However, older students generally have a greater knowledge base of vocabulary, ideas, and concepts
on which to build new understandings. Therefore, they may be able to acquire an additional language
more rapidly than some younger students (see What Is Common Underlying Language Proficiency
(CULP)?).

Students who have literacy skills developed in one language can transfer this learning when acquiring
an additional language (see Using Iceberg Models to Explain English Language Learner Profiles).

Attitude

A student’s attitude towards the English language and Canadian culture influences his or her
development as a language learner.

Parents/caregivers and community members can play a role in encouraging students to have a
positive attitude about learning English.

Motivation

A student’s motivation to learn and use a new language can also influence the rate and level of
language development. Fortunately, students learning English in an English majority context, like in
Alberta, are generally highly motivated to learn English.

Providing encouragement, tools, and resources will help English language learners feel competent and
will accelerate their progress in acquiring English.

Personality and Cultural Factors

A student’s personality and cultural factors may also influence the development of language
proficiency. For example:

 A student’s cultural background may influence the student’s preferred process for learning and
how the student interacts with the teacher and peers in a classroom setting.
 Some English language learners may be more comfortable taking risks when communicating in
their new language when they are
o in a large group
o in a small group
o communicating one-on-one
 Some students feel more confident about speaking or sharing their writing when given an
opportunity to rehearse or to check the grammatical accuracy of their oral or written text.
 Some students focus less on grammatical accuracy and focus more on being understood.
Learning Disabilities
A student who experiences challenges acquiring English or appears to have greater challenges
progressing in a language domain (listening, speaking, reading, or writing) may need to be assessed
for underlying factors that may impact English language acquisition.

Explicit instruction, scaffolding, targeted language support, and the appropriate use of technology can
directly support the learning of students with diverse learning needs.

How Do Skills and Experiences Affect Learning?

Existing Skills

The skills, including language skills, that students possess can influence the acquisition of English as
an additional language.

Teachers should be aware of the skills that students have in a variety of contexts and seek to
integrate these skills into their learning (e.g., the ability to draw, type, navigate the Internet, play a
sport or an instrument, or solve problems).

Students will also have language skills that they developed in their home language, such as:

 predicting the content of an oral or written text depending on context

 focusing on key words (like nouns, adjectives, and verbs) and phrases to help get the gist of the
communication
 paying attention to details (like names, numbers, dates, descriptive words)
 inferring meaning
 testing assumptions and getting clarification and confirmation of meaning
 interpreting the audience’s reaction to determine success in communicating ideas and thoughts
to others
Students learning English as an additional language will have numerous strategies for using these
kinds of language skills.

Student Use of Learning Strategies

Language-learning strategies are thoughts, actions, behaviours, and techniques that students use
consciously, and sometimes subconsciously, to help them learn, use, and understand an additional
language.

Students who develop and use a repertoire of language-learning and language-use strategies are
often more successful language learners.

English language learners may not have been taught language-learning strategies in their previous
academic experiences and may require support in acquiring and using language-learning strategies.

For example, one very useful language-learning strategy is using circumlocution, which means
overcoming vocabulary gaps by describing something when the word for it is not known. Another
important strategy is using and interpreting nonverbal gestures, such as facial expressions, shoulder
shrugging, and pointing to support communication.

Language-learning strategies, like the ones in Language-learning Strategies for English Language
Learner, are important tools for English language learners and should be explicitly taught and
encouraged.

Prior Knowledge
English language learners bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experiences, which may be
related to such things as languages, culture, storytelling, life in other parts of Canada or other parts of
the world, technology, prior schooling, and personal interests.

Teachers should encourage English language learners to relate their new learning to their prior
knowledge, including their knowledge of other languages, to help build understanding and value what
they already know.

Limited Formal Schooling

English language learners who are refugees may not have had a formal education or they may have
had breaks in their schooling due to war, trauma, or natural disasters. As a result, they may not have
the foundational skills (e.g., literacy and concepts) for successful learning in either their home
language or in English.

Because students with limited formal schooling need time to develop foundational literacy skills, it will
likely take more time for them to learn English than other newcomer students who are English
language learners.

As well, students with limited formal schooling have to develop an understanding of foundational and
pre-requisite concepts in order to engage successfully with Alberta’s curriculum—and this conceptual
knowledge needs to be developed in English, their new language.

Explicit language instruction, literacy development, and high-interest/low-vocabulary resources are

required to support these students at school.

https://www.coursehero.com/file/77681473/MODULE-III-The-Languages-Curriculum-in-the-K-12-
Programdocx/

The Languages Curriculum in the K-12 Program

Literacy in the mother tongue and the second language/s: Bridging among languages

Mother Tongue – Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) is the government’s banner

program for education as a salient part of the implementation of the K to 12 Basic Education
Program. Its significance is underscored by the passing of Republic Act 10523, otherwise known
as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013.” MTBMLEis education, formal or non - formal,
in which the learner’s mother tongue and additional languages are used in the classroom.
Learners begin their education in the language they understand best - their mother tongue and
develop a strong foundation in their mother language before adding additional languages.
Research stresses the fact that children with a solid foundation in their mother tongue develop
stronger literacy abilities in the school language. Their knowledge and skills transfer across
languages. This bridge enables the learners to use both or all their languages for success in
school and for lifelong learning. In terms of cognitive development, the school activities will
engage learners to move well beyond the basic WH-questions to cover all higher order thinking
skills in L1 which they can transfer to the other languages once enough Filipino or English has
been acquired to use these skills in thinking and articulating thoughts. With the end goal of
making Filipino children lifelong learners in their Li (MT), L2 (Filipino, the national language),
and L3 (English, the global language) the learners are more than prepared to develop the
competencies in the different learning areas. This will serve as their passport to enter and achieve
well in the mainstream educational system and in the end, contribute productively to their
community and to the larger society as well as Multilingual, Multiliterate, and Multi-Cultural
Citizens of the country. For the effective implementation of the MTB-MLE, it is suggested that
the two-track method be used, that is the primer track to focus on accuracy and the story track to
focus on meaning. Learning via the two-track method to gain proficiency in literacy as well as
comprehend academic content and gain curriculum mastery, creative and critical thinking skills
for decisive decision- making.

https://www.worldservicesgroup.com/publications.asp?action=article&artid=5735

The Enhanced Basic Education Act offers the following salient features

Mother-Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education. Language is recognized to play a strategic role

in shaping the formative years of learners; hence, basic education is to be taught in languages
understood by the students.

For kindergarten and the first three (3) years of elementary education, instruction, teaching
materials and assessments is to be given and made in the regional or native language of the
learners. The DepEd will formulate a mother language transition program from Grade 4 to Grade
6 so that Filipino and English will gradually be introduced as languages of instruction until such
time when the two (2) languages can become the primary languages of instruction at the
secondary level (Sec. 4). Twelve mother tongue languages have been introduced for SY 2012-
2013, namely: Bahasa Sug, Bikol, Cebuano, Chabacano, Hiligaynon, Iloko, Kapampangan,
Maguindanaoan, Meranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog, and Waray. (See
http://www.gov.ph/k-12/#Features)

All in all, the new law seeks to bridge our basic education with, ultimately, employment in the
globalized world. It does this by harnessing language to improve the way we learn, and by
maximizing time spent in secondary education to equip us with skills for the careers we choose.
The implementation of the new law may be expensive, what with the need to build more
classrooms and train more teachers to accommodate two more years of basic education, but it is
about time that we invest heavily in education, if we should invest in the future of our country at
all.

https://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/aceid2018/ACEID2018_39734.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
361980733_English_Language_Proficiency_in_the_Philippines_An_Overview
- Other factors includes social and academic readiness factors (BulotskyShearer et al,
2011) individual student motivation and analytical ability, (Grigorenko et al, 2009) family
educational aspirations, parental support, social factors (including time spent on homework,
absences from school, school safety climate) and school factors (percentage of students
receiving free or reduced lunch and average class size) (Casillas et al, 2012 ); as well as
students’ general home lives and instances of maltreatment at home (Mallett, 2017).

III. Ambiguity of phrases/clauses/sentences

A Word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning. The ambiguity,
however, can be noticed if one really has a linguistic knowledge of how to analyze the phrase or
sentence.

Three kinds of ambiguity - lexical, constructional (structural) and derivational ambiguity.

Structural ambiguity occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure,
such as ‘old men and women’, ‘old’ can refer to only men or both men and women. The phrase
can be disambiguited by puting it in a sentence with some sort of formal signals which help the
reader or hearer to recognize the sentence structure (Taha, 1983 : 169). Some of the signals
include function words, inflections, affixes, stress, juncture and punctuation as in ‘The old men
and women talked about the president election’. The three types of ambiguity that the writer
wants to explore in this paper are lexical, constructional (structural) and derivational ambiguity.
The rest of this paper also discusses and ambiguity such as: (1) identify test, (2) independent
sense relations, (3) homonymy and polysemy. In this paper, the writer also explores the causes of
ambiguity (Polysemy).

Ambiguity- having An expression is ambiguous because it has

two or more distinct more than more than one possible
meanings constituent structure. (Structural
Ambiguity- very common)
Larry raises miniature can mean
badgers and raccoons. ‘miniature badgers and
miniatures raccoons’
or
Miniature badgers and raccoons

Badgers and raccoons forms a constituent:

adjective miniature applies to both the
badgers and the raccoons.
 ‘miniature badgers and
raccoons (of any size)

Miniature badgers and raccoons

miniature badgers form a constituent: only

the badgers are miniature
We need more can mean
intelligent leaders ‘a greater quantity of
intelligent leaders’
or

More intelligent leaders

intelligent leaders is constituent for this

reason: represents the interpretation a
greater quantity of intelligent leaders.
‘leaders who are more
intelligent’

More intelligent leaders

more intelligent form a constituent:

represents the meaning leaders “who are
more intelligent”
A sentence containing a word with more
than one meaning is said to be lexically
ambiguous
The cranes were crane can refer either both meanings are represented with the
transported by boat to to a kind bird or to a same constituent structure.
Minneapolis. large construction
device

Two kinds of Ambiguity: Polysemy and Homonym

Polysemy refers to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings, in other words, it is
one form several meanings. \

Homonymy is the relation between two or more expressions which have the same form but
different meanings. In other words, it is two lexical items which happen to have the same
phonological form.
Example: “a bird flew into the bank”. This sentence is lexically, ambiguous because of the word
‘bank’ can either mean “institution for the custody of money” and “raised body of earth or river
bank”.

Ambiguity arises when a single word or string of words is associated in the language system
with more than one meaning.

a) You should have seen the bull we got from the people

- papal communication / male cow /nonsense

Example below shows a simple kind of structural, or syntactic ambiguity

b) Competent women and men hold all the good jobs in the firm

- the men holding the good jobs are competent /the women and the men holding the good jobs
are competent.

Example below shows lexical ambiguity

c) Mary claims that Jhon saw her duck.

- The duck (bird) belonging / lower her head.

Example below illustrates scope ambiguity

d) Someone loves everyone.

- can be interpreted that “some lover to each person (there is always the person’s mother) or as
saying that someone is a universal lover (perhaps a divinity). The ambiguity here arises from the
relation between someone and everyone.

Structural ambiguity

I saw someone with a telescope.

This has two possible interpretations:

 1. I was using a telescope, and I saw someone. (PP/ prepositional phrase
modifies VP/ verb phrase)
In the first interpretation, the prepositional phrase [PP with a telescope]
modifies the verb phrase headed by saw

2. I saw someone, and that person had a telescope. (PP modifies NP/ noun
phrase).
In the second interpretation, the same prepositional phrase modifies the
noun phrase someone.

The same will be true for other cases of structural ambiguity—each meaning will
correspond to a different potential tree structure.
Importance of studying linguistic meaning, and how what we are learning about
meaning in this textbook might have an impact on our lives. One immediate way in
which linguistic meaning has an impact on our lives is how meaning affects the law.
This can range from how a legal contract is to be interpreted to how statements are to
be interpreted in court. The momentary confusion is likely not harmful in everyday
conversations. In a legal context however, how something is to be interpreted can be
life-changing, so an informed understanding of types of linguistic meaning and
possible sources of ambiguity is critical.

Syntax- branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of structure and
formation of sentences. Explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct
sentences.

Example of tree diagram.

Insert some from notebook

 1. lexical ambiguity- arises when one word can mean several things
- meet me by the First National bank or meet me by the river bank,
since bank can refer either to a place to keep money or to the earth immediately adjacent
to a river.
2. constructional (structural) ambiguity- occurs when a word can modify more than one
other word.
- the old men and women left.
- can mean either the old people left (but the young ones stayed) or the old men and all the
women left (but the young men stayed). In the first instance, old is interpreted as
modifiying men and women: in the second, it modifies only men.
3. derivational ambiguity- precise meaning will become clearer shortly.
- the shooting of the soldiers was terrible
- can mean either that the soldier were terrible marksmen, or that it is terrible that the
soldiers were shot. Here the ambiguity arises not form a word having two or more
meanings, or from of the soldiers modifying or not modifying shooting (which it does
in either case)

Types of lexical ambiguity There are a lot of lexical ambiguity, the ones that are explored in this
paper only include:

1. They went to the bank (O’ Grady et al. 1997 : 44)

The word ‘bank’ in the sentence has two possible meanings, the edge of a river, or a financial
institution. From the sentence it self, it is diffcult to get the meaning of ‘bank’. It needs a context
to clear up the message conveyed. In other words, the sentence is ambiguous due to lacking of
information. It can be disambiguated by providing additional information as in. ‘They went to
the bank to save some money’.

2. I saw her duck (Finegan, Edward 2008: 174)

The word duck here, can be interpreted into two ways, duck may refer to ‘the act of bending over
quickly (while walking through a low door way) or it may be a noun refering to a type of
waterfowl..

3. Eric is a drawing a cart (Adi Sutrisno Wagiman 2008 : 60)

The word drawing, can also be interpreted into two ways: (1). Making a picture of a cart, or (2).
Pulling a cart.

4. I found the table fascinating (Crystal, David 1983 : 24)

5. I’ll meet you by the bank (Fromkin and Roodman 1998: 164)
6. I saw ally on my way to school (Richard, Platt, and Weber 1985 : 11)

7. The old matron fed her dog biscuits (Jacob and Rosenbaun 1968 : 9)

Structural (constructional ambiguity)

1. Abnormal psychology professor (Frank 1986: 62). This phrase can be interpreted into two
ways :

(a). Professor of abnormal psychology

(b). Psychology professor who is abnormal

2. Red oak table. This phrase can be interpreted into two ways :

(a). Table made of red oak

(b). Oak table painted red

3. Big truck Driver. This phrase can be interpreted in to two ways :

(a). One who drives big trucks

(b). Truck driver who is big

4. Second language teacher. This phrase can be interpreted into two ways : _

(a). Teacher of a second language

(b). An additional teacher of language

5. American history teacher (Frank, Parker 1986 : 62)

6. The lamb is too hot to eat (Richard, Platt, and Weber 1985: 11)

7. New houses and shops (Crystal, David, 1980 : 23). This phrase can be interpreted into two
ways :

(a). New (houses and shops) both are new

(b). (New houses) and shops the houses are new.

8. The English king (Hornstein and Lightfoot 1981 : 46)

9. I saw a neck on my way home (Lyons, John 1981 : 147)

10. Nicole saw the people with binoculars (0, Grady et al. 1997: 260)

The sentence can be grasped in two ways. One interpretation is that Nicole used binoculars to see
the people. In this sense, binoculars modify Nicole (Nicole with binoculars). The other meaning,
the people had binoculars when Nicole saw them. It means that ‘binoculars’ modifies the people
(people with binoculars).

Derivational Ambiguty

1. The shooting of the snipers was terrible. This sentence can be interpreted into two ways:

(a). The snipers shooting were terrible. or

(b). It is terrible that the snipers were shot.

2. The shooting of the hunters that can mean either

(a). The hunters shot something ( taking hunters as the subject)

(b). Someone shot the hunters or (the hunters were shot) (taking hunters as the objeet)

3. Starving children can be dangerous (Koutsoudas, Andreas 1966 : 3) ,

4. I dislike visiting relatives (Huiddeston, Rodney 1976: 132) ,

5. Visiting Great aunts can be a nuisance (Aitchison, Jean 1978 : 83)

IV. Multicultural education in a sociopolitical context

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/
Cultural_Sociology_and_Social_Problems/Exploring_Socio-
Cultural_Perspectives_in_Diversity_(Cozart_et_al.)/01%3A_Multiculturalism/
1.02%3A_Sociopolitical_Contexts_of_Education

Understanding the sociopolitical context of education allows for a critical analysis of

educational policies and practices in an effort to reduce educational inequalities,
improve the achievement of all students, and prepare students to participate in
democratic society.
In the field of multicultural education– and across the social sciences– the sociopolitical
context refers to the laws, regulations, mandates, policies, practices, traditions, values,
and beliefs that exist at the intersection of social life and political life.

There are similar connections between the social and the political in the field of
education. Given that one of the main purposes of schooling is to prepare students to
become productive members of society, classroom practices must reflect– to some
extent– the characteristics of the larger social and political community.

For example, many schools use student governments to expose students to the
principles of democratic society. By organizing debates, holding elections, and giving
student representatives a voice in educational decision making, schools hope to impart
upon students the importance of engaging in the political process.

The policies and practices that support the operation of student government directly
reflect the larger sociopolitical context of the United States. Internationally, the use of
student government often reflect the political systems used in that country, if a student
government organization exists at all. However, sociopolitical contexts influence
educational experiences in subtler ways as well.

Throughout the history of American education, school policies and practices have
reflected the ideological perspectives and worldviews of the underlying sociopolitical
context. As stated above, schools in democratic societies often have democratic student
government organizations that reflect the political organization of the larger society,
while similar organizations cannot be found in schools in countries that do not practice
democracy. Similarly, if a society shares a widespread belief that some groups (based
on race, class, language, or any other identifier) are inherently more intelligent than
another, educational policies and practices will reflect that belief.

For example, as the United States expanded westward into Native American lands
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many Americans shared the widespread
belief that Native Americans were inherently less intelligent and less civilized than white
Americans. This belief system served as a justification for the “Manifest Destiny”
ideology that encouraged further westward expansion.

Not surprisingly, the larger sociopolitical context of the time influences educational
policies and practices. In large numbers, young Native Americans were torn from their
families and forced into boarding schools where they were stripped of their traditions
and customs before being involuntarily assimilated into “American culture”. These
Native American boarding schools outlawed indigenous languages and religions. They
required students to adopt western names, wear western clothes, and learn western
customs. While from a contemporary perspective these schools were clearly inhumane,
racist, and discriminatory, they illustrate how powerful the sociopolitical climate of the
era can be in the implementation of educational policies and practices. Educational
policies today continue to reflect the larger social and political ideologies, worldviews,
and belief systems of American society, and although instances of blatant discrimination
based on race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, language, or any other
identifier have been dramatically reduced in recent decades, a critical investigation into
contemporary schooling reveals that individuals and groups are systematically
advantaged and disadvantaged based on their identities and backgrounds, which will be
explored in more depth in subsequent sections of this (book/class).

The role of social institutions in educational experiences are another key consideration
in developing an understanding of the sociopolitical contexts of education. The term
social institutions refer to the establish, standardized patterns of rule governed behavior
within a community, group, or other social system. Generally, the term social
institutions includes a consideration of the socially accepted patterns of behavior set by
the family, schools, religion, and economic and political systems. Each social institution
contributes to the efficiency and sustained functionality of the larger society by ensuring
that individuals behave in a manner that consistent with the larger structure, which
allows them to contribute to the society. Traffic regulations offer an example of how
social institutions work together to create and ensure safety and efficiency in society. In
order to reduce chaos, danger, and inefficiency along roadways in the United States,
political institutions have created laws and regulations that govern behavior along public
roads. Drivers found in violation of these regulations face punishment or fines that are
determined by the judicial system. Furthermore, families and schools– and to some
extent religions organizations– are responsible for teaching young people the rules and
regulations that govern transportation in their society. The streamlined and regulated
transportation system produced by the aforementioned social institutions allows
economic institutions to function more efficiently. Functionalist Theory is a term used to
refer to the perspective that institutions fill functional prerequisites in society and are
necessary for social efficiency as seen in the previous example.

However, Conflict Theory refers to the idea that social institutions work to reinforce
inequalities and uphold dominant group power. Using the same transportation example,
a conflict theorist might argue that the regulations that require licensing fees before
being able to legally operate a vehicle disproportionately impact poor people, which
would limit their ability to move freely and thereby make it more difficult for them to
hold and maintain a job that would allow them to move into a higher socioeconomic
class. Another argument from the conflict theorist perspective might challenge
institutionalized policies that require drivers to present proof of citizenship or
immigration papers before being allowed to legally operate a vehicle. These policies
systematically deny the right of freedom of movement to immigrants who entered the
United States illegally, thereby limiting their civil rights as well as their ability to
contribute to the American economy. Both the Functionalist Theory and Conflict Theory
perspectives can contribute to a nuanced understanding of contemporary educational
policies and practices by providing contrasting viewpoints on the same issue.
Throughout these modules these perspectives will inform the discussion of educational
institutions and how they influence– and are influenced by– other social institutions.

Much like educational policies and practices, the rules and regulations set by social
institutions do not exist within a vacuum, nor are they neutral in regard to the way they
impact individuals and groups. Institutional discrimination refers to “the adverse
treatment of and impact on members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit
rules that regulate behavior (including rules set by firms, schools, government, markets,
and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or ‘non-
conscious understanding of appropriate conduct’ systematically advantage or
disadvantage members of particular groups” (Bayer, 2011). Historical examples of
institutional discrimination in abound in American history. In the field of education,
perhaps the most well known example of institutionalized discrimination is the existence
of segregated schools prior to the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. During
this era, students of color were institutionally and systematically prevented from
attending white schools, and instead were forced to attend schools that lacked
sufficient financial, material, and human resources. Institutional discrimination in
contemporary society, however, is often subtler given that there are a plethora of laws
that explicitly prevent discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, or any other identifier. Regardless of those laws, social institutions and
institutionalized discrimination continue to disadvantage non-dominant groups, thereby
advantaging members of the dominant group. Use housing as an example,
homeowner’s associations are local organizations that regulate the rules and behaviors
within a particular housing community. If a homeowner’s association decides that only
nuclear families can live within their community and create a bylaw that stipulates such,
the practice of allowing nuclear families and denying non-nuclear families becomes
codified as an institutionalized policy. While the policy does not directly state that it
intends to be discriminatory, it would disproportionately affect families from cultures
that traditionally have households that include aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents,
and other extended family members, a practice that is common in many Asian, African,
and South American communities. Although hypothetical, this example represents an
example of the subtle ways in which institutional discrimination surfaces in
contemporary society.

A more concrete example of institutionalized discrimination can be drawn from the

housing market in New Orleans as homes were being rebuilt in the aftermath Hurricane
Katrina. While the Lower Ninth Ward– a mostly black neighborhood– was among the
most damaged neighborhood in New Orleans, just down river the St. Bernard Parish
neighborhood– which was mostly white– was also heavily damaged. By 2009, most of
St. Bernard Parish had been rebuilt, while the Lower Ninth Ward remained unfit for
living. As families began moving back into the neighborhood, elected officials in St.
Bernard Parish passed a piece of legislation that required property owners to rent only
to ‘blood relatives’. In effect, the policy barred potential black residents from moving
into the area and served to maintain the racial makeup of the neighborhood prior to
Katrina. After several months of implementation, the policy was legally challenged and
was found to be in violation of the Fair Housing Act in Louisiana courts. In 2014, the
Parish agreed to pay approximately $1.8 million in settlements to families negatively
affected by the policy. This example illustrates how institutionalized discrimination
surfaces in contemporary society. Throughout the modules, instances of institutional
discrimination in schools, as well as in American society as a whole, will be critically
analyzed in order to develop an understanding of how educators can work to reduce
inequality and promote academic achievement for all students.

A basic understanding of social institutions and institutional discrimination helps inform

this course’s approach to key educational issues in the field of multicultural education.
As the student body in American schools becomes increasingly diverse, it becomes
increasingly important for future teachers to know and understand how students’
identities might impact their educational experiences as well as their experiences their
larger social and political settings. While there are many issues facing education today,
Nieto and Bode (2012) identified four key terms that are central to
understanding sociopolitical context surrounding multicultural education.
These terms include: equal and equitable education, the ‘achievement gap’,
deficit theories, and social justice.

The terms equal and equitable are often used synonymously, though they have vastly
different meanings. While most educators would agree that providing an equal
education to all students is an important part of their mission, it is sometimes more
important to focus on creating equitable educational experiences. At its core, an equal
education means providing exactly the same resources and opportunities for all
students, regardless of their background. An equal education, however, does not
ensure that all students will achieve equally. Take English Language Learners (ELLs) as
an example. A group of ELL students sitting in the same classroom as native English
speakers, listening to the same lecture, reading the same books, and taking the same
assessments could be considered an equal education given that all students are
receiving equal access to all of the educational experiences and materials. The outcome
of this ostensibly equal education, however, would not be equitable. The ELL students
would not be able to comprehend the lecture, books, or assessments and would
therefore not be given the real possibility of achieving at an equal level, which is the
aim of an equitable education. Equity refers to the educational process that “provides
students with what they need to achieve equality” (Nieto & Bode, 2012, p.9). In the
case of the ELL example, an equitable education would provide additional resources–
perhaps including ESL specialists, bilingual activities and materials, and/or programs
that foster native language literacy– to the ELL students to ensure that they are
welcomed into the classroom community and are given the opportunity to learn and
succeed equally. Working towards educational equality by providing equitable
educational experiences is one of the central tenets of multicultural education and will
be a recurring topic throughout these modules.

A second key term that is crucial in understanding multicultural education is the

‘achievement gap’. A large body of research has documented that students from racially
and linguistically marginalized groups as well as students from low-income families
generally achieve less than other students in educational settings. Large scale studies of
standardized assessments revealed that white students outperformed black, Hispanic,
and Native American students in reading, writing, and mathematics by at least 26
points on a scale from 0 to 500 (Nieto and Bode, 2012; National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2009).

Though usage of the term has changed over time, it often focuses on the role that
students themselves play in the underachievement, which has drawn criticism from
advocates of multicultural education because it places too much responsibility on the
individual rather than considering the larger sociopolitical and sociocultural contexts
surrounding education. While gaps in educational performance no doubt exist, Nieto
and Bode (2012) suggest that using terms such as “resource gap”, “opportunity gap”,
or “expectations gap” may be more accurate in describing the realities faced by
marginalized students who often attend schools with limited resources, limited
opportunities for educational advancement or employment in their communities, and
face lowered expectations from their teachers and school personnel (p.13). Throughout
this (book/course) issues related to the achievement gap’ and educational inequalities
based on race, class, gender, and other identifiers will be viewed within the larger
social, cultural, economic, and political contexts in order to create a more holistic and
systematic understanding of student experiences, rather than focusing purely on the
individual.

Historically in educational research, deficit theories have been used to explain how and
why the achievement gap exists, but since the 1970s, scholars of multicultural
education have been working to dismantle the lasting influence of deficit theory
perspectives in contemporary education. The term ‘deficit theories’ refer to the
assumption that some students perform worse than others in educational settings due
to genetic, cultural, linguistic, or experiential differences that prevent them from
learning. The roots of deficit theories can be found in 19 th century pseudo-scientific
studies that purported to show ‘scientific evidence’ that classified the intelligence and
behavior characteristics of various racial groups. The vast majority of these studies
were conducted by white men, who unsurprisingly, found white men to be the most
intelligent group of human beings, with other groups falling in behind in ways that
mirrored the accepted social standings of the era (Gould, 1981). Though many have
been disproved, deficit theories continue to surface in educational research and
discourse. Reports suggesting that academic underachievement is a product of cultural
deprivation or a dysfunctional relationship with school harken back to deficit theory
perspectives. Much like the ‘achievement gap’, deficit theories place the burden of
academic underachievement on students and their families, rather than considering
how the social and institutional contexts might impact student learning. Deficit theories
also create a culture of despondency among educators and administrators since they
support the idea that students’ ability to achieve is predetermined by factors outside of
the teacher’s control. Multicultural education aims to disrupt the prevalence of deficit
theory perspectives by encouraging a more nuanced analysis of student achievement
that considers the structural and cultural contexts surrounding American schooling.

The fourth and final term that is central to understanding the sociopolitical context of
multicultural education is social justice. Throughout these modules, the term social
justice will be employed to describe efforts to reduce educational inequalities, promote
academic achievement, and engage students in their local, state, and national
communities. Social justice is multifaceted in that it embodies the ideologies,
philosophies, approaches, and actions that work towards improving the quality of life
for all individuals and communities. Not only does social justice aim to improve access
to material and human resources for students in underserved communities, it also
exposes inequalities by challenging and confronting misconceptions and stereotypes
through the use of critical thinking and activism. Finally, in order for social justice
initiatives to be successful, they must “draw on the talents and strengths that students
bring to their education” (Nieto and Bode, 2012, p.12). This allows students to see their
experiences represented in curriculum content, which can empower and inspire
students– not only to excel academically– but also engage in activities that strengthen
and build the community around them. These key components of social justice
permeate throughout the field of multicultural education.

In order to develop a holistic understanding of educational experiences, these modules

will interpret and analyze educational policies and practices through a lens that
considers the sociopolitical contexts of education. By recognizing the role that social and
political ideologies have over educational decision making, multicultural approaches to
education aim to reduce educational inequalities, improve the achievement of all
students, and prepare students to participate in democratic society.

Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2013). Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of
Multicultural Education (Sixth Edition). United States: Pearson Education. 450 pp.,
ISBN: 978-0-13-136734-0.

Reviewed by Rafet Günay, Curriculum and Instruction, Yildiz Technical University,

Turkey.

Multicultural education should not only be taken into consideration at schools,

but also in social, economic and political context of our world.
In the book, it has been mentioned that students from different ethnic
backgrounds should have the awareness of multicultural education’s necessity
and benefit to affirm different cultures. At that point, the effects of the
sociopolitical condition of society and schools on learning and schooling have
been researched in terms of affirming different cultures. Moreover, some other
issues’ effects on learning - such as racism, bias, students’ expectations of
success, school organization, education policies and practices, culture and
ethnic, race, gender, language, sexual tendency, social and religious class - have
been discussed in the book.
It has been pointed out that understanding multicultural education in a
sociopolitical context has five tasks. These are, classifying keys words and aims of
multicultural education, analyzing the mythologies about migration and differences,
naming social, economic, political and ideological foundations that have an effect on
educational structures, examining demographic structure of society, cleansing national
curriculum and policies from political challenges.
Multicultural education have seven main characteristics;
i) multicultural education is against racism.
ii) Multicultural education is a main education.
iii) Multicultural education is important for all students.
iv) Multicultural education has mixed everywhere.
v) Multicultural education is for social justice.
vi) Multicultural education is a process. vii) Multicultural education is a critical
pedagogy.
The effects of racism, bias and discrimination on students’ success have been
researched. By pointing out, gender, ethnic groups, social class, language, sexual
tendencies, age, anti-semiticism, anti-Arabic discriminations, historical background of
these biases have been examined. Moreover, it has been pointed out that according to
a research about racism held in Stanford University which had 2300 participants,
families whose socio-economic condition is low have more discrimination than others.
In the fourth chapter, John Dewey’s saying “Democracy is not a place where you
tell your own culture and traditions to get better.” has been focused and pointed out the
necessity of a classroom atmosphere where different identities are taken into
consideration although there are some political practices. It has also been mentioned
that it is necessary to follow a students from each group and encourage them to attend
activities inside the school. Furthermore, it has been said that the school curriculum
should be organized that way and there should be an appropriate classroom
atmosphere. It has also been mentioned that while organizing such a classroom
atmosphere, it is necessary to take support from parents, teachers and students.
there should be an equal status for all students to develop an attitude based on
cooperation in a democratic environment.
the focus is on understanding students’ learning and their success at school.
There are also some theories on how to increase students’ academic success. These
are caring, deficit perspectives, economic reproduction, cultural incompabilities, out of
school factors, resistance, the school of prison pipeline, cultural ecological theories and
complicating theories of identities within school structures. In the eighth chapter, the
authors try to define the condition of suppportive teachers and schools that help
students to be successful. I
 In the ninth chapter, the authors mention how curriculum is practices in
multicultural classrooms.
In the last chapter, there is a revision of responsibilites of teachers, parents and
schools in a multicultural education context. It has also been mentioned that teachers’
interest on students in a pedagogical context have an effect on students’ success. By
organizing activies outside the curriculum, it has been aimed that the relations between
parents get stronger and it has been observed that students’ success at schools
increase.
there is information about the factors that effect students’ success, condition of
classrooms, the role of teachers in multicultural education and some stories of teachers
which make readers to understand the issue in a scientific way.
The topics concerning differences and equity have been mentioned in the book by
pointing out the current policies and practices. It has also been stated that multicultural
education is a school reform. It has been pointed out that all individuals in a society can
have education freely, interpret their history and the events objectively, express their
identities more comfortable only through multicultural education.