1)What are the various types of database failure? 3.Belongs To: Associates Student with Department.

with Department. c) Find the canonical cover: WHERE O.O_id IS NULL;

Explain Log-Based recovery scheme by showing the Attributes: (No specific attributes) A canonical cover is a minimal set of functional g) Find the highest-ordered item.
immediate and deferred database modification with 4.Works In: Associates Faculty with Department. dependencies that is equivalent to the given set. SELECT Item
proper example. 1.Transaction Failures: These occur Attributes: (No specific attributes) Given FDs: {A → BC, B → CD, D → EF, BC → AG, ABG FROM ORDER
when a transaction cannot be completed due to system or In this description: Entities are represented by tables → DF} ORDER BY Quantity * Price DESC
software errors. 2.System Failures: These result from (Student, Faculty, Course, Department).Attributes are the Canonical Cover: LIMIT 1;
problems with the underlying hardware or software, leading fields within each table.Relationships are established A → BC (irreducible, no extra attributes) h) Find the detail of the item with the lowest price.
to the entire database system shutting down. between entities (Enrollment, Teaching, Belongs To, B → CD (irreducible) SELECT *
3.Media Failures: Refers to the loss of data due to Works In). Primary keys (PK) uniquely identify records in D → EF (irreducible) FROM ORDER
physical damage to storage media, such as disk crashes. each table, while foreign keys (FK) establish relationships BC → AG (redundant, remove C) WHERE Price = (SELECT MIN(Price) FROM ORDER);
Log-Based recovery is a technique used to handle these between tables. BC → A Relational Algebra Expressions:
failures. It involves maintaining a log of all transactions and BC → G a) Find the person's name and city whose name starts with
database modifications. ABG → DF (irreducible) S.
Immediate Database Modification: In this approach, Canonical Cover: {A → BC, B → CD, D → EF, BC → A, π_{P_name, City}(σ_{P_name LIKE
changes to the database are made directly during the BC → G, ABG → DF} 'S%'}(PERSON))
transaction execution. Example: Consider a banking This set of functional dependencies is equivalent to the b) Find the person with the highest salary.
transaction where a user transfers money from account A original set but in a canonical form with minimal π_*(σ_{Salary =
to account B. In the immediate modification scheme, the dependencies. MAX(Salary)}(PERSON))
money is deducted from A and added to B immediately 4)Consider the following relations: c) Find the average salary for each Occupation.
during the transaction execution. PERSON(P_ name, F_Name,L_name ,Occupation, π_{Occupation, AVG(Salary)}(PERSON
Deferred Database Modification: Here, changes to the Salary ,City) ⨝_{Occupation=Occupation}γ_{Occupation;
database are recorded in a log but not applied immediately ORDER(O id, P id, Item, Quantity, Price, Order_date) . AVG(Salary)}(PERSON))
during transaction execution. Example: Using the same the primary keys are P_id and O id respectively.
d) Find the detail of the person who has ordered any item.
banking transaction, in the deferred modification scheme, 3)Consider the following relation R(A,B,C,D,E,F) with a Express the following queries in SQL and Relational
π_*(σ_{P_id=P_id}(PERSON
the log would record the deduction from A and addition to set of functional dependencies:FD ={A→BC, B→CD, Algebra. a) Find the person's name and city whose
B, but these changes are applied to the actual database name starts with S. b) Find the person with the highest ⨝_{P_id=P_id}ORDER))
D→EF, BC->AG, ABG->DF}
only after the transaction is successfully completed. salary. c) Find the average salary for each Occupation. e) Find the name of the person who has ordered on the
a) Find the closure of each determinant.
Log-Based Recovery Process: 1.Write-Ahead Logging d) Find the detail of the person who has ordered any same date.
b) Find the candidate key.
(WAL): Ensure that log records are written to the log before item. e) Find the name of the person who has ordered π_{P_name}(σ_{O1.Order_date=O2.Order_dat
c) Find the canonical cover.
the corresponding data is written to the database. FD = {A → BC, B → CD, D → EF, BC → AG, ABG → DF} in the same date. f) Find the name of the person who e AND O1.O_id ≠ O2.O_id}((PERSON
2.Analysis Phase: Identify the transactions that were a) Find the closure of each determinant: hasn't orders any item. ⨝_{P_id=P_id}ORDER)
active during the failure. This is done by examining the log. 1.Closure of A: g) Find the highest ordered item. ⨝_{O1.P_id=O2.P_id}ORDER))
3.Redo Phase: Reapply all the changes made by the A → BC (given) h) Find the detail of Item with lowest Price. f) Find the name of the person who hasn't ordered any
transactions that were active during the failure, using the Closure(A) = {A, B, C} SQL Queries: item.
log. This ensures that all committed changes are reapplied 2.Closure of B: a) Find the person's name and city whose name starts with π_{P_name}(PERSON -
to the database. B → CD (given) S. π_{P_name}(π_{P_id}(ORDER)))
4.Undo Phase: Roll back any incomplete transactions that Closure(B) = {B, C, D} SELECT P_name, City g) Find the highest-ordered item.
were active during the failure. This involves using the log 3.Closure of D: FROM PERSON π_Item(σ_{Quantity*Price=MAX(Quantity
to reverse any changes made by these transactions. D → EF (given) WHERE P_name LIKE 'S%'; *Price)}(ORDER))
2)What is ER model? Draw the detailed ER diagram for Closure(D) = {D, E, F} b) Find the person with the highest salary. h) Find the detail of the item with the lowest price.
university database systems. The Entity-Relationship 4.Closure of BC: SELECT * σ_{Price=MIN(Price)}(ORDER)
(ER) model is a conceptual data model used to represent BC → AG (given) FROM PERSON 5)What do you mean by the Integrity constraints?
the relationships among entities in a database. It uses Closure(BC) = {A, B, C, G} ORDER BY Salary DESC Explain each with the proper example?
entities to represent real-world objects and relationships to 5.Closure of ABG: LIMIT 1; Integrity constraints in a database are rules or conditions that ensure
depict the associations between these entities. ABG → DF (given) c) Find the average salary for each Occupation. the correctness and consistency of data stored in the database. They
Entities: Closure(ABG) = {A, B, G, D, F} SELECT Occupation, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary define the limitations and relationships between various entities,
1.Student: Attributes: Student_ID (Primary Key), Name, FROM PERSON attributes, and data values. There are several types of integrity
b) Find the candidate key: constraints, each serving a specific purpose:
Address, DateOfBirth A candidate key is a superkey from which no attributes can GROUP BY Occupation;
Certainly, here are concise points for each type of integrity
2.Faculty: Attributes: Faculty_ID (Primary Key), Name, be removed while still maintaining uniqueness. d) Find the detail of the person who has ordered any item.
constraint:1.Entity Integrity Constraint: Ensures: Uniqueness and
Department From the given FDs, we can identify potential candidate SELECT DISTINCT P.* non-null values in the primary key. Example: `Student_ID` in a
3.Course: Attributes: Course_ID (Primary Key), Title, keys by starting with individual attributes and checking if FROM PERSON P `Student` table must be unique and not null. 2.Referential Integrity
Credits they close to the entire set. JOIN ORDER O ON P.P_id = O.P_id; Constraint: Ensures: Consistency between foreign key and primary
4.Department: Attributes: Dept_ID (Primary Key), e) Find the name of the person who has ordered on the key values. Example: `Customer_ID` in `Orders` must reference an
Potential candidate keys: {A, B, D, ABG} existing `Customer_ID` in `Customers`. 3.Domain Integrity
Dept_Name By checking the closure of each: same date.
Constraint: Ensures: Validity of data types, ranges, and formats.
Relationships: Closure(A) = {A, B, C} SELECT DISTINCT P.P_name
Example: `Age` column should only contain positive integers.
1.Enrollment: Associates Student with Course.Attributes: Closure(B) = {B, C, D} FROM PERSON P 4.Check Constraint: Specifies: Conditions for data entry or
Enrollment_ID (Primary Key), Student_ID (Foreign Key Closure(D) = {D, E, F} JOIN ORDER O1 ON P.P_id = O1.P_id modification. Example: `Publication_Year` in a `Book` table should
referencing Student), Course_ID (Foreign Key referencing Closure(ABG) = {A, B, C, G, D, F} JOIN ORDER O2 ON O1.Order_date = O2.Order_date not be greater than the current year.
Course), Grade AND O1.O_id <> O2.O_id; 5.Unique Constraint: Ensures: Uniqueness of values in a column or
None of them uniquely determines all attributes. However, set of columns. Example: `Email_Address` in an `Emails` table must
2.Teaching: Associates Faculty with Course. Attributes: combining A, B, and G does form a candidate key: {A, B, f) Find the name of the person who hasn't ordered any item.
be unique.
Teaching_ID (Primary Key), Faculty_ID (Foreign Key G}. SELECT P.P_name
6.Default Constraint: Specifies: Default values for a column if not
referencing Faculty), Course_ID (Foreign Key referencing FROM PERSON P provided during insert. Example:`Status` column defaults to 'Active'
Course), Semester LEFT JOIN ORDER O ON P.P_id = O.P_id in a `User` table.
6)Explain the three-schema architecture of DBMS? | From the given FDs, we identify a candidate key: A | B. A|C
The three-schema architecture, also known as the +---------------------+ Candidate Key:AB (from AB → C) -------- ------
ANSI/SPARC architecture, is a framework for organizing | License | Step 2: Check for BCNF Violations 1 | 3. 1|2
the components of a database management system +---------------------+ Check if there are any BCNF violations. A BCNF violation 1|5 1|4
(DBMS). It was proposed by the American National | License_Type | occurs when a non-prime attribute (not part of any 2|7 2 | 6.
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Standards Planning and | License_Number | (Partial Key) candidate key) is functionally dependent on a superkey. Now, the relation is in 4NF, and it avoids non-trivial
Requirements Committee (SPARC). The architecture is | Expiry_Date | In this case, there is a BCNF violation with the FD C→ D multivalued dependencies.
divided into three levels, each representing a different | Issue_Location | because D is not part of the candidate key. 11)In SQL which command is used for table creation?
perspective or view of the database: | SSN (Foreign Key) | (Total Key) Step 3: Decompose the Relation Also write the SQL command for creating a table with
1.External Schema (User View): +---------------------+ To resolve the BCNF violation, decompose the relation into proper constraints.
Flexibility: Allows different user groups to have tailored In this example: `Person` is the owning entity with `SSN` smaller relations while preserving the functional In SQL, the `CREATE TABLE` command is used to create
views. Customization: Views specific to user requirements as its primary key. `License` is the weak entity set with dependencies. a new table. It allows you to define the table's structure,
and preferences. Security: Access control based on user attributes like `License_Type`, `License_Number` (partial Decomposition: including column names, data types, and various
roles and permissions. key), and `Expiry_Date`. The combination of 1.R_1(ABC) from AB→ C constraints.
2.Conceptual Schema (Logical View): `License_Type` and `License_Number` forms the partial 2.R_2(CD) from C→ D SQL Command for Creating a Table with Constraints: sql
Data Integrity: Enforces rules and relationships to maintain key for the `License` entity. `SSN` from `Person` is used as 3.R_3(BE) from B→ E CREATE TABLE ExampleTable (
data accuracy. Interoperability: Defines a common a foreign key in `License`, completing the total key for the 4.R_4(EF) from E→ F ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
understanding of data for diverse user views. weak entity. The decomposed relations are now in BCNF, as each Name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Independence: Changes to external or internal schema do This design reflects the dependency of `License` on relation has a candidate key and does not violate BCNF. Age INT CHECK (Age >= 18), -- Check constraint for
not affect this level. `Person` for its identity. The partial key alone is not Resulting Relations: age
3.Internal Schema (Physical View): sufficient to uniquely identify a `License`; it needs the 1.R_1(ABC) Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE, -- Unique constraint
Optimization: Concerned with efficient storage and context of the owning `Person`. A|B|C for email
retrieval strategies. Indexing: Specifies how data is 8)Explain the Armstrong's axioms for functional (original data) RegistrationDate DATE DEFAULT CURRENT_DATE -
indexed to enhance query performance. Storage Details: dependency? 2.R_2(CD) - Default constraint for registration date
Describes the actual physical storage structures. Armstrong's axioms are a set of rules used in the field of C|D );
database design to infer all the functional dependencies (original data) Explanation of the SQL commands used:
that logically follow from a given set of functional 3.R_3(BE) `CREATE TABLE`: Initiates the creation of a new table.
dependencies. They were proposed by William W. B|E `ExampleTable`: Name of the table being created.
Armstrong. The axioms provide a foundation for reasoning (original data) Columns and Constraints:
about dependencies and are crucial in the normalization 4.R_4(EF) `ID INT PRIMARY KEY`: Creates an integer column named
process. E|F `ID` as the primary key.
The three main Armstrong's axioms are: (original data) `Name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL`: Creates a variable
1.Reflexivity (Reflexive Rule): Now, each resulting relation is in BCNF, addressing the character column named `Name` with a maximum length
If Y is a subset of X, then X → Y holds. BCNF violation, and the original relation is decomposed of 50 characters, and it cannot be null.
Example: If A → B, then A, B → B. accordingly. `Age INT CHECK (Age >= 18)`: Creates an integer column
2.Augmentation (Augmentation Rule): 10)What is multivalued functional dependency? named `Age` with a check constraint ensuring that the age
If X → Y holds, then XZ → YZ also holds for any Z. Explain 4NF with example is 18 or older.
Example:If A → B, then AC → BC. Multivalued Functional Dependency (MVD): `Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE`: Creates a variable
3.Transitivity (Transitive Rule): A multivalued dependency is a type of dependency in a character column named `Email` with a maximum length of
If X → Y and Y → Z hold, then X → Z holds. relational database where a relationship between two sets 100 characters, and it must be unique.
7)Give an example of a weak entity set? Explain why it Example:If A → B and B → C, then A → C. of attributes implies a relationship between their - `RegistrationDate DATE DEFAULT CURRENT_DATE`:
is weak with an ER diagram. These axioms form the basis for deriving additional corresponding values. It involves three attributes: X, Y, and Creates a date column named `RegistrationDate` with a
A weak entity set is an entity set that does not have a functional dependencies from a given set. Additionally, the Z, where X and Y have a multivalued dependency on Z if, default value of the current date.
primary key attribute of its own. It depends on another closure of a set of attributes with respect to a set of for each value of Z, there is a set of corresponding values 12)What are the deadlock and starvation Problems in
entity, called the owner entity, to provide a partial or total functional dependencies can be obtained using these for both X and Y. database concurrent transactions?
key. The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by axioms. 4th Normal Form (4NF): Deadlock:
combining its own partial key and the primary key of the For instance, if we have a set of functional dependencies A relation is in 4NF if, in addition to being in BCNF, it avoids A deadlock in a database occurs when two or more
owning entity. {A → B, B → C}, we can use Armstrong's axioms to derive non-trivial multivalued dependencies. transactions are blocked forever, each waiting for the other
Let's consider an example of a weak entity set: `License`. additional dependencies like A → C (applying Transitivity). Example: to release a lock. In simpler terms, a deadlock is a situation
In this example, a `Person` entity can have multiple The closure of a set of attributes, denoted as X^+, is the Consider a relation R(A, B, C), and the multivalued where transactions cannot proceed because each is
licenses, such as a driving license, fishing license, etc. The set of all attributes that are functionally determined by X dependency A →→ B, C (read as A MVD B, C), which holding a resource and waiting for another resource
`License` entity is weak because it doesn't have a unique using the given set of functional dependencies. The closure implies that for every unique value of A, there are acquired by some other transaction.
identifier on its own. is found by repeatedly applying Armstrong's axioms until corresponding sets of values for both B and C. Key characteristics of deadlocks:
ER Diagram: no more attributes can be added. R(A, B, C) Circular Waiting:Transactions form a cycle where each is
+---------------------+ 9)Given R(A, B, C, D, E, F) with FDs 1, {2, 3} waiting for a resource held by the next in the cycle.
| Person | (A→C, B→E, AB→C, C→D, E->F) Normalize R up to 1, {4, 5} Mutual Exclusion:Resources cannot be shared
+---------------------+ BCNF, 2, {6, 7} simultaneously; a transaction must hold exclusive access.
| SSN (Primary Key) | To normalize the relation R(A, B, C, D, E, F) up to Boyce- In this example, for A = 1, we have two sets of values for No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away
| Name | Codd Normal Form (BCNF), we follow the BCNF both B and C ( {2, 3} and {4, 5}), satisfying the multivalued from a transaction; they must be released voluntarily.
| Address | decomposition process. dependency A →→ B, C. Preventing Deadlocks:
+---------------------+ Given Functional Dependencies (FDs): To bring the relation into 4NF, we might decompose it into - Use a timeout mechanism to break a potential deadlock.
| -A→ C, B→ E, AB→ C, C→ D, E→F two relations: - Design the system to ensure a strict ordering of resource
Step 1: Identify Candidate Key(s) 1. R1(A, B). 2. R2(A, C) acquisition.
- Implement deadlock detection and recovery mechanisms. 14)Explain the ACID property of a Transaction in detail. Implementation: Requires updating and maintaining +---------------------+
Starvation: ACID is an acronym that stands for Atomicity, Consistency, multiple levels. In the diagram:
Starvation is a situation where a transaction or a process Isolation, and Durability. These properties ensure the Flexibility: Can adapt to various data access patterns. Secondary Key (SK):Column with a secondary index.
is perpetually denied necessary resources and is unable to reliability and integrity of transactions in a database B-Tree: A B-tree (Balanced Tree) is a self-balancing tree Primary Key (PK):Corresponding primary key values
make progress. Unlike deadlock, starvation does not management system. data structure that maintains sorted data and allows obtained through the secondary index.
involve a circular waiting scenario but rather a continuous 1.Atomicity: searches, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time. It is Data:Actual data stored in the data blocks.
denial of resources. Definition: Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated particularly useful in databases and file systems where **Advantages of Indexing:**
Key characteristics of starvation: as a single, indivisible unit of work. Either all its operations large amounts of data need to be efficiently stored and 1. **Improved Query Performance:** Indexes reduce the
Resource Contention:Multiple transactions or processes are executed successfully, or none are. accessed. number of records that need to be scanned during query
compete for limited resources. Key Concepts: All or Nothing: If any part of the transaction Balancing: Self-balancing structure maintains logarithmic execution.
Priority Issues: Some transactions or processes may have fails, the entire transaction is rolled back. No Partial complexity. 2. **Faster Data Retrieval:** Accessing data directly
higher priority, leading to lower-priority ones being Updates: Modifications to the database are made in an all- Sorting: Keys are sorted within each node. through index values speeds up data retrieval.
consistently denied access. or-nothing fashion. Node Types: Root, internal, and leaf nodes. 3. **Enforcement of Uniqueness:** Primary indexes ensure
Preventing Starvation: Example:Consider a funds transfer transaction where Search Efficiency:Logarithmic time complexity for various the uniqueness of primary key values.
- Use techniques such as priority-based scheduling to money is withdrawn from one account and deposited into operations. 4. **Efficient Sorting:** Indexes facilitate efficient sorting of
ensure fairness. another. Atomicity ensures that both operations succeed or Application: Commonly used in databases and file data.
- Implement resource allocation policies that prevent one fail together. systems. 17)What is metadata? Give an example
transaction from monopolizing resources for an extended 2.Consistency: Node Size:Variable node size improves flexibility. Metadata:
period. Definition:Consistency guarantees that a transaction 16)What is the use of Index in database management - **Definition:** Metadata refers to data that provides
13)Define different states of a Transaction with proper brings the database from one valid state to another. It system? Explain the primary and secondary Indexing information about other data. It describes the structure,
diagram? ensures that the integrity constraints and rules are not with proper diagram? behavior, and properties of data in a database.
In a database management system, a transaction is a violated. Use of Index in Database Management System: An index - **Example:** In a database, metadata can include
sequence of one or more SQL statements that are Key Concepts: Preserving Database Invariants: in a database management system is a data structure that information about tables, columns, data types, constraints,
executed as a single unit of work. Transactions ensure data Transactions maintain the database's consistency, improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a and relationships. For instance, the schema information
consistency and integrity by allowing multiple operations to adhering to predefined rules. database table. It acts as a pointer or reference to the stored in a database's data dictionary is a form of
be treated as a single, atomic operation. Transactions go Example: If a database has a constraint that each account actual data, allowing the database system to locate and metadata.
through different states during their lifecycle: balance must be non-negative, a transaction updating an access specific records more quickly. Indexes are crucial 18)Differentiate between schema and instance?
1.Active State: account balance must preserve this condition. for enhancing query performance, especially in large Schema vs. Instance:
Description:The initial state where a transaction is actively 3.Isolation: datasets, by reducing the number of records that need to - **Schema:** Describes the structure of the database,
executing its operations. Definition:Isolation ensures that the concurrent execution be scanned. including tables, columns, data types, and relationships. It
Actions: Executing SQL statements and potentially of multiple transactions does not interfere with each other. Primary Indexing: is a blueprint or template for the database.
acquiring locks on data. Each transaction appears to be executed in isolation, Definition: A primary index is an index created on the - **Instance:** Represents the actual data stored in the
2.Partially Committed State: irrespective of other concurrently executing transactions. primary key of a table. database at a specific point in time. It is the instantiation of
Description:The state where the transaction has executed Key Concepts: Transactions Do Not Interfere: Even if Characteristics: the schema with real data.
all its operations successfully and is ready to be committed. multiple transactions are executing simultaneously, the Unique: Primary keys are unique identifiers for each 19)Explain how update command works in SQL.?
Actions:All SQL statements have been executed, and the outcome should be as if they were executed one after record. Update Command in SQL:
system is about to make the changes permanent. another. Ordered: Primary index is usually created on an ordered - The `UPDATE` command in SQL is used to modify the
3.Committed State: Example: If two transactions are updating the same record set of primary key values. existing records in a table.
Description:The state where the transaction's changes simultaneously, isolation ensures that one transaction's Direct Mapping: Provides a direct mapping between the - **Syntax:**
have been successfully applied to the database. changes are not visible to the other until it's committed. primary key values and the corresponding data blocks. UPDATE table_name
Actions:The changes made by the transaction are 4.Durability: Diagram: SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
permanent and visible to other transactions. Definition:Durability ensures that once a transaction is +---------------------+ WHERE condition;
4.Failed State: committed, its effects on the database persist even in the | Primary Key (PK) | - It updates the specified columns with new values based
Description: The state where a transaction has event of system failures (e.g., power outage, crashes). +---------------------+ on a specified condition.
encountered an error or failure. Key Concepts: Permanent Changes: Committed changes | Data | 20)Explain briefly about the object-oriented data
Actions:Rolling back the transaction to undo the changes are stored permanently and survive system failures. +---------------------+ model?
made so far. Example: After a funds transfer transaction is committed, Secondary Indexing: Object-Oriented Data Model:
5.Aborted State: the updated account balances persist, and the changes are Definition: A secondary index is an index created on a non- - **Definition:** An object-oriented data model is a
Description:The state reached after a failed transaction has durable, even if the system crashes. primary key column. database model that represents data in the form of objects,
been rolled back. 15)Explain the multi-level indexing and B' Tree? Characteristics: similar to object-oriented programming concepts. It
Actions: The transaction is completely undone, and the Multi-Level Indexing: Non-Unique: Values in the indexed column may not be includes classes, objects, inheritance, and encapsulation.
database returns to its state before the transaction started. Multi-level indexing is a hierarchical structure used to unique. - **Key Concepts:**
6.Inactive (or Terminated) State: organize and manage large amounts of data efficiently. It Ordered/Unordered: Depending on the type, secondary - **Class:** Defines a template for objects with shared
Description: The final state where a transaction has either involves creating multiple levels of indexes, each pointing indexes may or may not be ordered. attributes and behaviors.
committed or been rolled back. to a more detailed level of the index or directly to the data. Indirect Mapping: Requires an additional level of - **Object:** An instance of a class, representing a real-
Actions: No active processing; the transaction is no longer The primary goal is to reduce the time required to search indirection, mapping key values to primary key values, and world entity.
in progress. for specific data by narrowing down the search space at then to data blocks. Diagram: - **Inheritance:** Allows a class to inherit properties and
each level. +---------------------+ methods from another class.
Hierarchy Levels: Root, intermediate, and leaf levels. | Secondary Key (SK) | - **Encapsulation:** Bundles data and methods that
Key Features: Broad overview at higher levels, finer details +---------------------+ operate on the data within a single unit.
at lower levels. | Primary Key (PK) | 21)Define Foreign Key? Write an example to explain it.
Use Cases: Efficient for large datasets where searching is +---------------------+ Foreign Key:
common. | Data |
- **Definition:** A foreign key is a column or a set of Mapping Conceptual Model to Relational Model: with a GPA of 3.5. If Transaction A is re-executed, it may - Determine storage structures, indexing mechanisms,
columns in a table that refers to the primary key of another - **Steps:** return the new student, creating a phantom. and other physical aspects based on the logical model.
table, establishing a link between the two tables. 1. Identify Entities: Identify entities in the conceptual 35)What is the possible violation if an application 6. Implementation:
- **Example:** model. program use isolation level "Repeatable Read” - Implement the database design using the chosen
CREATE TABLE Orders ( 2. Define Attributes: Define attributes for each entity. Violation with "Repeatable Read" Isolation Level:** database management system.
OrderID INT PRIMARY KEY, 3. Define Relationships: Identify relationships between - **Possible Violation:** Non-repeatable reads may occur, 7. Testing and Evaluation:
ProductID INT, entities. where a transaction reads the same data multiple times but - Test the database design for correctness, efficiency,
OrderDate DATE, 4. Normalize: Normalize entities and relationships to gets different results because another transaction has and adherence to requirements.
FOREIGN KEY (ProductID) REFERENCES eliminate redundancy. modified or deleted the data in the meantime. 8. Maintenance and Evolution:
Products(ProductID) ); 5. Map to Tables: Map entities to tables, attributes to 36)Which protocol always ensures recoverable - Regularly maintain and update the database design to
In this example, `Orders.ProductID` is a foreign key that columns, and relationships to foreign keys. schedule? accommodate changing requirements and improve
references the primary key `Products.ProductID`. 29)What is the use of DML in DBMS? Protocol for Recoverable Schedule: performance.
22)Explain the role of DBA in DBMS? Use of DML in DBMS: - **Two-Phase Locking (2PL):** The 2PL protocol ensures 39)Explain the entity integrity and referential integrity
Role of DBA in DBMS: - **Definition:** Data Manipulation Language (DML) in a a recoverable schedule by enforcing two phases: a growing constraints. How they are use full in database Design?
- **Database Administrator (DBA):** DBMS is used for manipulating (inserting, updating, phase where locks are acquired, and a shrinking phase Entity Integrity Constraint:
- Manages and oversees the overall functioning of the deleting) data within the database. where locks are released. It prevents cascading rollbacks -Definition: Entity integrity ensures that each row in a table
database system. - **Functions:** and ensures that a transaction's changes are not visible is uniquely identified by a primary key, and no attribute
- Responsible for database design, implementation, and - `INSERT`: Adds new data to the database. until it is committed. participating in the primary key is allowed to have a NULL
optimization. - `UPDATE`: Modifies existing data in the database. 37)What do you understand by a data model? Explain value.
- Ensures data security, integrity, and availability. - `DELETE`: Removes data from the database. the difference between conceptual data model and the -Usefulness: Ensures uniqueness and non-null values in
- Monitors performance, resolves issues, and performs - `SELECT`: Retrieves data from the database. internal model. primary key columns, preventing duplicate or incomplete
backups and recovery. 30)List two reasons why we may choose to define a Data Model and Conceptual vs. Internal Model: records.
23)Define a Transaction in database? view? Data Model: A data model is an abstract representation -Example: In a "Students" table, the "StudentID" column is
Transaction in Database: Reasons to Define a View: that defines how data is organized and accessed in a the primary key, ensuring each student is uniquely
- **Definition:** A transaction is a sequence of one or more 1. **Data Security:** Views can be used to restrict access database system. It provides a way to describe the identified, and the "StudentName" column does not allow
SQL statements that are executed as a single unit of work. to specific columns or rows, providing a layer of security. structure of a database, relationships between data NULL values.
It follows the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, 2. **Simplifying Complexity:** Views can simplify complex elements, and constraints on the data. Referential Integrity Constraint:
Isolation, Durability) to ensure data integrity. queries by abstracting underlying table structures. Conceptual Data Model: -Definition: Referential integrity ensures the consistency
24)Explain the dirty read problem? 31)A primary key if combined with a foreign key Definition: A conceptual data model represents high-level between foreign key and primary key values in related
Dirty Read Problem: creates what? concepts and relationships between entities. It is tables. It enforces that a foreign key in one table
- **Definition:** Dirty read occurs when one transaction Combined Primary and Foreign Key: independent of the database management system (DBMS) corresponds to an existing primary key in another table.
reads a value written by another uncommitted transaction. - When a primary key from one table is combined with a and focuses on business requirements. -Usefulness: Maintains data consistency between related
If the second transaction rolls back, the first transaction has foreign key in another table, it creates a **Referential Characteristics: Abstract, entity-relationship diagrams, tables, prevents the creation of orphan records.
read incorrect and "dirty" data.**Example:** Transaction 1 Integrity Constraint**. This constraint ensures that values expresses business concepts. -Example: In a "Orders" table, the "CustomerID" column is
reads a value modified by Transaction 2, but Transaction 2 in the foreign key column match the values in the primary Internal Model: a foreign key referencing the "CustomerID" in the
rolls back, leading to an inconsistent state for Transaction key column. Definition: The internal data model represents how data is "Customers" table, ensuring that orders are associated
1. 32)Explain the following terms associated with physically stored and accessed within the database with existing customers.
25)what is trivial fusional dependency? relational database design: Primary Key, Secondary system. It is specific to a particular DBMS implementation. Usefulness in Database Design:
Trivial Functional Dependency: key. Foreign Key? Characteristics: Physical storage details, indexing, -Data Integrity: Ensures data accuracy and consistency by
- **Definition:** A trivial functional dependency is a Relational Database Design Terms: access methods. preventing the introduction of incomplete or inconsistent
dependency where the independent attribute(s) - **Primary Key:** A primary key uniquely identifies each Difference: data.
functionally determine themselves or a subset of record in a table and ensures data integrity. Conceptual Model: Focuses on business requirements, -Relationships: Facilitates establishing and maintaining
themselves. - **Secondary Key:** A secondary key is a column or set of abstract, independent of implementation details. relationships between tables, reflecting real-world
- **Example:** In a table with attributes (A, B), the trivial columns that is not the primary key but is used for indexing Internal Model: Specifies how data is physically stored, connections.
functional dependencies are A → A and (A, B) → (A, B). and improving data retrieval. implementation-specific, details storage structures. - Preventing Orphans: Referential integrity prevents the
26)Explain the use of hashing in Index structures? - **Foreign Key:** A foreign key is a column or set of 38)What are the main steps of database design? creation of orphan records by ensuring that foreign keys
Hashing in Index Structures: columns in one table that refers to the primary key of Explain them in brief. reference existing primary keys.
- **Use of Hashing: Hashing is used in index structures to another table, establishing a link between the two tables. Main Steps of Database Design: - Efficient Queries: Constraints enhance the efficiency of
map keys to locations in a data structure, typically an array. 33)What is ACID property? 1. Requirements Analysis: queries and joins by enforcing relationships and
It allows for direct access to the desired data location ACID Property: - Identify and document user requirements for data uniqueness.
based on the hash value of the key. - ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and storage and retrieval. 40)Explain with the help of examples, the concept of
27)In Relational model what do you mean by Durability. It defines a set of properties to ensure reliable 2. Conceptual Design: insertion anomalies and deletion anomalies
cardinality? and secure transactions in a database system. - Create a conceptual data model based on identified Insertion and Deletion Anomalies:
Cardinality in Relational Model: 34)What is Phantom Phenomenon? entities, attributes, and relationships. Insertion Anomalies:
- **Definition: In the relational model, cardinality defines Phantom Phenomenon: 3. Logical Design: -Definition: Insertion anomalies occur when it is not
the number of tuples in one relation related to tuples in - **Definition:** Phantom Phenomenon occurs in a - Translate the conceptual model into a logical data possible to add data to the database without violating the
another. Types include One-to-One (1:1), One-to-Many database transaction when a query returns a set of records model using a specific data model (e.g., relational, integrity constraints.
(1:N), Many-to-One (N:1), and Many-to-Many (N:N). that satisfy a search condition, but new records meeting the hierarchical). -Example: In a table where student courses are stored, if a
Cardinality is fundamental in designing relational same condition are inserted or existing ones are deleted 4. Normalization: student has not registered for any course, inserting
databases, ensuring accurate representation of before the transaction is committed. - Apply normalization techniques to eliminate data information about the student would result in NULL values
relationships between tables. - **Example:** Transaction A queries for all students with a redundancy and improve data integrity. or a need for a placeholder, leading to incomplete records.
28)How can you map a conceptual model to a relational GPA greater than 3.0. Transaction B inserts a new student 5. Physical Design: Deletion Anomalies:
model?
-Definition: Deletion anomalies occur when deleting data 2.Resource Utilization: Efficient use of system resources, | Courses | - Example Statement: {t | R(t) ∧ S(t)} (retrieve tuples t
from the database unintentionally removes other related including CPU and memory, reduces the load on the +------------+ where R and S hold).
data that should be preserved. database server. | 101 | - Notation: Uses logical symbols and variables.
-Example: If deleting a course record also deletes 3.Cost Reduction:Optimization leads to reduced query | Math, Eng | -Application:Provides a non-procedural way to express
information about the students enrolled in that course, it execution costs, benefiting both in terms of hardware and +------------+ queries.
leads to the loss of student information unrelated to the operational expenses. This violates 1NF as the "Courses" attribute is not atomic. 48)Discuss 4 basic features of ODBMS. What are the
course. 4.User Experience: Faster query response times contribute Second Normal Form (2NF): advantages?
Impact on Database Design: to a better user experience, especially in applications with -Definition: A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non- **Four Basic Features of Object Database Management
-Normalization: Proper normalization helps address real-time or interactive requirements. key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the Systems (ODBMS):**
insertion and deletion anomalies by organizing data 5. **Scalability:** Optimized queries support better primary key. 1.Complex Data Types:ODBMS supports complex data
efficiently. scalability, allowing the database system to handle larger -Example: types, such as objects, arrays, and nested structures,
-Relationships: Establishing appropriate relationships datasets and increased user loads. StudentCourses allowing for the modeling of real-world entities more
between tables and enforcing referential integrity 44)Why do query optimizers consider only left-deep +------------+---------+ naturally.
constraints mitigates these anomalies. join trees? Give an example of a query and a plan that | StudentID | Course | - Example: An object in ODBMS can encapsulate both
-Data Consistency: Ensuring that data remains consistent would not be considered because of this restriction. +------------+---------+ data (attributes) and behavior (methods).
and complete during insertions and deletions is crucial for Query optimizers often consider only left-deep join trees | 101 | Math | 2.Encapsulation and Information Hiding:Encapsulation
a well-designed database. due to their simplicity and ease of optimization. Left-deep | 101 | Eng | allows bundling of data and methods into a single unit,
41)Given R with FD set F=(A->B, BC->D, D->BC, join trees have a straightforward structure where each +------------+---------+ promoting modularity and code organization. Information
DE→Ø) Find the number of redundant FDs in F. inner node corresponds to a join operation, and the left This is in 2NF as "Course" is fully functionally dependent hiding restricts access to certain details of an object,
Redundant FDs in F: child is a base table or another join. This simplicity allows on the primary key "StudentID." enhancing security and reducing dependencies.
- Given FDs: F = {A->B, BC->D, D->BC, DE→Ø} for efficient optimization strategies, such as dynamic 46)During its execution, a transaction passes through - Example: Object encapsulation hides the internal
- Closure of A: programming and greedy algorithms. several states, until it finally commits or aborts. List all details of data representation and behavior
- A+ = {A, B} (using A->B) An example of a query and a plan that would not be possible sequences of states through which a implementation.
- Closure of BC: considered due to the left-deep join tree restriction: transaction may pass. Explain why each state 3.Inheritance:ODBMS supports the concept of inheritance,
- BC+ = {BC, D} (using BC->D) Query: transition may occur. allowing the creation of new classes by inheriting attributes
- Closure of D: SELECT * FROM A Transaction States: and methods from existing ones.
- D+ = {D, BC} (using D->BC) JOIN B ON A.ID = B.ID 1.Active: The initial state when a transaction starts. Inheritance promotes code reuse, extensibility, and the
-Closure of DE: JOIN C ON B.ID = C.ID 2.Partially Committed: Transaction has executed all modeling of hierarchical relationships.
- DE+ = {DE} (no additional closure) JOIN D ON C.ID = D.ID operations successfully but not committed yet. - Example: A "Vehicle" class can be inherited by "Car"
Redundant FDs: Left-Deep Join Plan (Considered): 3.Committed: Changes made by the transaction are and "Motorcycle" classes.
- DE→Ø is redundant as it can be inferred from the other A permanent. 4.Persistence:ODBMS provides mechanisms for persisting
FDs. | 4.Failed: Transaction has encountered an error and cannot objects, ensuring that data can be stored in a database and
Number of Redundant FDs: 1 (DE→Ø) B be completed. retrieved later. Objects can be stored and retrieved without
42)Given R(ABCDEFGH) with FDs F=(A->C,B→D,E- | 5.Aborted: Transaction is rolled back to the state before it the need for complex mapping between the object-oriented
>F,G->H,C->G).How many number of candidate keys C started. model and the relational database model.
are there? Which normal form R is in? | Reasons for State Transitions: - Example: Objects representing customer details can be
Candidate Keys and Normal Form: D -Active to Partially Committed: Successful execution of all stored persistently in an ODBMS.
Given FDs: F = {A->C, B->D, E->F, G->H, C->G} Non-Left-Deep Join Plan (Not Considered): operations. Advantages of Object Database Management Systems
Candidate Keys (Minimal Superkeys): A -Partially Committed to Committed: Commit statement (ODBMS):
- AC is a candidate key (A→C and C→G are necessary | executed. 1.Natural Modeling:
and sufficient). B -Active/Partially Committed to Failed: Encounter of an - ODBMS allows developers to model real-world entities
- BC is a candidate key (B→D and C→G are necessary | error. more naturally using object-oriented concepts, reducing
and sufficient). C - Failed to Aborted: Manual decision or automatic detection the impedance mismatch between the application and the
- EC is a candidate key (E→F and C→G are necessary | of failure. database.
and sufficient). D - Partially Committed/Failed to Aborted: Transaction is 2.Improved Code Reusability:
- GC is a candidate key (G→H is necessary and In the non-left-deep join plan, the query optimizer may rolled back. - Object-oriented features like encapsulation and
sufficient). consider plans where the joins are arranged differently. For 47)Explain the difference between relational algebra inheritance promote code reusability, leading to more
Number of Candidate Keys: 4 (AC, BC, EC, GC) instance, a right-deep join tree where the right child is a and relational calculus. modular and maintainable software.
Normal Form: The relation R is in BCNF (Boyce-Codd base table or another join. However, these non-left-deep Relational Algebra vs. Relational Calculus: 3.Complex Querying and Analysis:
NormalForm) because for every non-trivial functional join plans can be more complex to optimize efficiently, and Relational Algebra: ODBMS supports complex queries and analyses,
dependency X→Y, X is a superkey. therefore, many query optimizers focus on left-deep join -Formal Language: Operational, based on mathematical leveraging the expressive power of object-oriented query
43)What is the goal of query optimization? Why is trees for simplicity and ease of optimization. operations. languages, which can navigate relationships and
optimization important? 45)What is normalization? Explain the first and second -Expressiveness: Describes sequences of operations on hierarchies more effectively.
Goal of Query Optimization: normal forms using appropriate example. relations. 49)A database is being constructed to keep track of the
Goal:The primary goal of query optimization is to generate Normalization: -Example Operation: Projection, Selection, Union, Join. teams and games of a
an efficient execution plan for a given query. It aims to First Normal Form (1NF): -Notation: Uses symbols like σ (selection), π (projection), sports league. A term has a number of players, not all
minimize the overall query processing time by choosing the -Definition: A relation is in 1NF if it contains only atomic × (cartesian product). of whom participate in each game. It is desired to keep
most efficient algorithms, access methods, and join (indivisible) values, and each attribute has a single value -Application: Provides a procedural way to manipulate track of the players participating in each game for each
strategies. for each tuple. relations. team, the positions they played in that game, and the
Importance of Optimization: -Example: Relational Calculus: result of the game. Try to design an ER schema
1.Performance Improvement: Optimized queries result in StudentCourses - Formal Language: Declarative, based on logical formulas. diagram for this application, stating any assumptions
faster data retrieval and processing, enhancing overall +------------+ - Expressiveness: Describes what data to retrieve without you make, Choose your favourite sport (soccer,
system performance. | StudentID | specifying how. football, baseball.....).
ER Schema Diagram: Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC): - The graph is cyclic (contains a cycle 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5 3.Conflict Detection and Resolution:
Assumptions: - Selection: {t | R(t) ∧ condition} → 1), indicating that the schedule is not conflict Explanation: Transactions are allowed to proceed without
- Let's consider the sport of “soccer” for this application. - Projection: {t | ∃u (u in R(t) ∧ attributes(u) = attributes(t))} serializable. locks. Conflicts are detected at the time of commit, and
- Each team has a roster of players, and players can - Union: {t | R(t) ∨ S(t)} 52)a. Explain various locking technique for resolution strategies (e.g., abort, retry, merge changes) are
participate in multiple games. - Difference: {t | R(t) ∧ ¬S(t)} concurrency control. employed.
- A game is associated with two teams (home and away), - Join: {t | ∃u (R(t) ∧ S(u) ∧ condition(t, u))} b. Describe optimistic concurrency control Advantages: Allows for high concurrency, avoids locking
and each game has a result. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC): techniques? during execution.
ER Schema Diagram: - Selection: {t | R(t) ∧ condition} a)Locking Techniques for Concurrency Control: Disadvantages: Possibility of conflicts and rollbacks.
+------------+ +-------------+ - Projection: {attributes | ∃t (R(t) ∧ attributes = 1. Two-Phase Locking (2PL): 4.Time-Stamp Ordering:
| Team | | Game | attributes(t))} Explanation: Transactions acquire locks in two phases – Explanation: Transactions are ordered based on their start
+------------+ +-------------+ - Union: {attributes | R(attributes) ∨ S(attributes)} the growing phase (acquiring locks) and the shrinking timestamps. If the timestamps indicate a conflict, the
| TeamID (PK)| | GameID (PK) | - Difference: {attributes | R(attributes) ∧ ¬S(attributes)} phase (releasing locks). Once a transaction releases a transactions are ordered according to their commit
| TeamName | | Date | - Join: {attributes | ∃t, u (R(t) ∧ S(u) ∧ condition(t, u) ∧ lock, it cannot acquire new locks. timestamps.
+------------+ | Result | attributes = attributes(t) ∪ attributes(u))} Advantages:Ensures serializability, avoids deadlock. Advantages: Provides a consistent order of transactions,
| +-------------+ SQL: Disadvantages:May result in contention, potential for avoids deadlocks.
| | - Selection: SELECT * FROM R WHERE condition; deadlock if not managed properly. Disadvantages: Potential for cascading rollbacks.
| | - Projection: SELECT attributes FROM R; 2.Timestamp-Based Protocol: 53)a)What is lossy decomposition? Check whether the
+----|----+ | - Union: SELECT * FROM R UNION SELECT * FROM S; Explanation:Each transaction and data item have following decompositions are lossy or lossless.
| | | - Difference: SELECT * FROM R EXCEPT SELECT * associated timestamps. Transactions can read/write a data (i) Let R=ABCD,R1 =AD, R2 =AB, R3 =BE, R4 =CDE, R5
+--------|---------|-------+ | FROM S; item only if their timestamp is older than the data item's =AE, F=( A->C, B- >C, C->D, DE->C, CE->A)
| | | | | - Join: SELECT * FROM R JOIN S ON condition; creation timestamp. (ii) R (XYZWQ), FD= (X-Z, Y-Z, Z->W, WQ->Z, ZQ-> X, R1
| +----|----+ | +---|-------|---+ 51)a. what is serializability? Explain conflict Advantages:Provides a systematic way to order (XW), R2 (XY), R3
| |Player | | |Game_Player | serializability and view serializability. transactions, avoids deadlock. (YQ), R4 (ZWQ), R5 (XQ) }
| +---------+ | +-------------+ b. Test if the following schedule is conflict serializable Disadvantages:May lead to cascading rollbacks. b. )Eliminate redundant FDs from
| |PlayerID | | | GameID (FK) | or not. R1(A), R2 (D), W1 (B), R2(B), W3 (B), R4 (B), W2 3.Multiple Granularity Locking: (i) F=(X->Y, Y-X, Y→Z, Z→Y, X→Z, Z->X}
| |Name | | | TeamID (FK) | (C), R5 (C), W4 (E), R5 (E), W5(B) Explanation: Allows locking at different levels of granularity (ii) F= (X-YZ, ZW->P, P->Z, W>XPQ, XYQ, YW, WQ -
| |Position | | | PlayerID (FK)| a)Serializability: (e.g., row-level, page-level, table-level) to balance >YZ)
| +---------+ | | Position | Serializability is a property of a schedule in a database concurrency and overhead. Lossy Decomposition:
| | +-------------+ system, ensuring that the final result of concurrent Advantages: Fine-tunes locking to specific needs, reduces Definition: A decomposition of a relation is considered
+------------------+ transactions is equivalent to some serial execution of those contention. lossy if information is lost during the decomposition, and
Explanation: transactions. In other words, it ensures that the concurrent Disadvantages: Increased complexity, potential for the original relation cannot be reconstructed from its
- Each team has a unique TeamID and a TeamName. execution of transactions produces results as if they were deadlocks. decomposed parts.
- Each game has a unique GameID, a Date, and a Result. executed in some sequential order. 4.Deadlock Handling: Checking for Lossy Decomposition:
- Players are associated with a Team, identified by Conflict Serializability: Explanation: Detect and resolve deadlocks by aborting one Decompose the original relation into several smaller
PlayerID. Definition: A schedule is conflict serializable if the order of or more transactions involved. Techniques include relations.
- The Game_Player table represents the many-to-many conflicting operations (read and write) in the schedule can timeouts, wait-die, wound-wait. Verify if the union of the smaller relations covers all the
relationship between games and players, indicating which be swapped without changing the final result. Advantages: Prevents system from getting stuck in attributes of the original relation.
players participated in each game and their positions. Testing: Use a precedence graph, where each transaction deadlocks. If the union does not cover all attributes or if some
50)What are the basic operations for a relational is a node, and directed edges represent conflicts. If the Disadvantages: Overhead of detection and resolution. information is lost, the decomposition is considered lossy.
language? How are basic graph is acyclic, the schedule is conflict serializable. 5.Shared and Exclusive Locks: a) Lossy or Lossless Decomposition:
operations represented in relational algebra, TRC, View Serializability: Explanation: Shared locks allow multiple transactions to Given Decompositions:
DRC, and SQL? Definition: A schedule is view serializable if it produces the read a resource simultaneously, while exclusive locks - Let R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 be the decomposed relations of
Basic Operations for Relational Language: same result as a serial schedule, even if the actual order of permit only one transaction to write to a resource at a time. R = ABCD.
1.Selection (σ): Retrieves rows that satisfy a given operations is different. Advantages: Enables multiple readers or exclusive writers. - FDs: F = {A->C, B->C, C->D, DE->C, CE->A}
condition. Testing: Compare the view of each transaction in the Disadvantages: May lead to contention, potential for Analysis:
2.Projection (π): Extracts specific columns from a relation. concurrent schedule with its view in some serial execution. deadlock. - Check if the union of the decomposed relations is equal
3.Union (∪): Combines tuples from two relations (must If they are equivalent, the schedule is view serializable. b) Optimistic Concurrency Control Techniques: to the original relation (R).
have the same attributes). b) Testing Conflict Serializability: 1.Timestamp-Based Validation: - R1 ∪ R2 ∪ R3 ∪ R4 ∪ R5 = ABCD (Original relation)
4.Difference (-): Removes tuples that exist in both relations. Given Schedule: Explanation: Each transaction has a start timestamp and - Since the union covers all attributes, the decomposition is
5.Cross Product (×): Forms the Cartesian product of two - R1(A), R2(D), W1(B), R2(B), W3(B), R4(B), W2(C), maintains a read timestamp for each data item. Before “lossless”.
relations. R5(C), W4(E), R5(E), W5(B) committing, the transaction checks if the read timestamp of b) Eliminating Redundant FDs:
6. Join (⨝):Combines rows from two or more relations based on a Precedence Graph: each accessed item is older than its start timestamp. (i) F = {X->Y, Y->X, Y→Z, Z→Y, X→Z, Z->X}
related attribute. - Construct a graph where each transaction is a node, and Advantages: Reduces contention, allows transactions to - Analyze the FDs and eliminate redundancies:
Representation in Relational Algebra, TRC, DRC, and directed edges represent conflicts. proceed without locking during execution. - Redundant FDs: Y->X and Z->X are redundant as they
SQL: R1(A) R2(D) W1(B) R2(B) W3(B). | 1 |→ | 2 |. → Disadvantages: May lead to rollbacks if conflicts are can be inferred from other FDs.
Relational Algebra: | 1 |→. | 3 |→. | 4 | detected. - Simplified FDs: F = {X->Y, Y->Z, Z->X}
- Selection: σ_condition(R) 2.Versioning: (ii) F = {X->YZ, ZW->P, P->Z, W->XPQ, XYQ, YW, WQ-
- Projection: π_attributes(R) R4(B) W2(C). R5(C) W4(E). R5(E) W5(B) Explanation: Maintain multiple versions of a data item, >YZ}
- Union: R ∪ S |2 | → | 5 | → | 4 | →| 5 | →. | 1 | each associated with a timestamp. Transactions can read - Analyze the FDs and eliminate redundancies:
- Difference: R - S Analysis: from any version but write to the latest version. - Redundant FDs: None are redundant; all are necessary
- Cross Product: R × S Advantages: Enables concurrent reads, avoids locking for expressing dependencies.
during reads. - The FD set remains unchanged as no redundancies were
- Join: R ⨝_condition S
Disadvantages: Increased storage requirements. found.
The decompositions are lossless, and redundant FDs have
been eliminated from both given sets.