–11/24/2023

Course Content
CSEN 226 1. Triangulation
Engineering Surveying II 2. Point Positioning
Techniques: Intersection;
Resection
3. Curves
OKUSIMBA, George
Dept. of Civil & Structural Engineering
University of Eldoret
4. Least Squares Adjustment

References
Assessment • ASEC: Journal of Engineering Survey
• Bannister, A and Raymond, S (1998, 7th Ed). Surveying,
 End of Semester Exam - 70 ELBS.
• Ghilani, C.D. and Wolf, P.R. 2003. Elementary Surveying: An
Introduction to Geomatics, 12th Edition. Published by
 Course Work (CATs, Assignments, Pearson/Prentice- Hall London
• Ghilani, C.D. and Wolf, P.R. 2006. Adjustment Computations:
Practicals) – 30 Spatial Data Analysis, 4th Edition. Published by Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Hoboken New Jersey.
• Schofied, W., 2001. Engineering Surveying. Theory and
 Pass Mark – 40/100 Examination Problems for students, Published by Butterworth-
Heinemann, London
• Schofield, W and Breach, M (1997, 6th Ed) Engineering
Surveying, Elsevier Ltd.

1. Triangulation Triangulation…
Control Networks provide reference framework of points for:
 Horizontal Control provides a framework of survey
 Topographic mapping and large-scale plan production.
points, whose relative positions, in 2D, are known to
 Dimensional control of construction work.
specified degrees of accuracy.
 Deformation surveys.
 areas covered by these points may extend over a whole
 Extension and densification of existing control networks.
country and form the basis for the national maps of that
country. Alternatively the area may be relatively small, Methods
encompassing a construction site for which a large-scale  Traversing
plan is required.  Triangulation
 engineering project envisaged: construction of long  Intersection
tunnels and/or bridges; deformation surveys for dams and  Resection
reservoirs; three-dimensional tectonic ground movement  Trilateration
for landslide prediction etc.  Satellite Techniques
 Astronomical Methods

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Triangulation… Triangulation…
 at one time, it was easier to measure angles than it was
distance, triangulation was the preferred method of
Surveying establishing the position of control points.
 Many countries used triangulation as the basis of their
national mapping system.
Horizontal Vertical 3D Procedure:
Control Control Surveying  establish primary triangulation networks, with triangles
having sides ranging from 30 to 50 km in length. The
Traversing;
Differential levelling;
primary trig points were fixed at the corners of these
triangulation;
trilateration; satellite
trigonometric levelling; Satellite techniques; triangles and the sum of the measured angles was correct
barometric levelling; Photogrammetry
techniques; astronomical satellite techniques to ±3”. These points were usually established on the tops
methods
of mountains to afford long, uninterrupted sight lines.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
 The primary network was then densified with points at Classification
closer intervals connected into the primary triangles. This
secondary network had sides of 10–20 km with a reduction  First order (primary)- to determine the shape
in observational accuracy. and size of the earth, to cover a vast area like
 third-order net, adjusted to the secondary control, was a country
established at 3–5-km intervals and fourth-order points
fixed by intersection.  Second order (secondary)- network within
 base line measured by invar tapes in catenary and connected first order triangulation, for a
into the triangulation by angular extension procedures. This region/province
approach is classical triangulation, which is now obsolete.
 The more modern approach would be to use GNSS which  Third order (tertiary)- within second order
would be much easier and would afford greater control of triangulation, for detailed engineering and
scale error.
location surveys

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Classification  Utilizes geometric figures composed of
triangles.
 Horizontal angles and a limited no. of sides
(base lines) are measured-measured sides
give scale while angles define the shape
 By using angles and base line lengths,
triangles are solved trigonometrically and the
positions of stations (vertices) are calculated

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Triangulation… Triangulation…
Figures/Shapes
 Single chain of triangles
 Double chain of triangles
 Braced quadrilaterals
Basic triangulation
figures

 Centered triangles and polygons

 A combination of above systems.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Layouts Layouts

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Layouts Primary layouts for large countries

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Triangulation…
Layout selection
 Simple triangles should be used, preferably equilateral.
 Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate
squares.
 Centered polygons should be regular.
 The arrangement should be such that the computations
can be done through two or more independent routes.
 The arrangement should be such that at least one route
and preferably two routes form well conditioned triangles.
 No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be
small, whichever end of the series is used for
computation.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Layout selection Well Conditioned triangle
 Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°,  any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect
and in the case of quadrilaterals, no angle should be less upon the computed lengths
than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle  To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally
should be less than 40°. affected, these should, therefore, be equal in length.
 The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths.  This condition suggests that all the triangles must,
Very long lines and very short lines should be avoided. therefore, be isosceles
 The layout should be such that it requires least work to  best shape of an isosceles triangle is that triangle whose
achieve maximum progress. base angles are 56°14' each
 As far as possible, complex figures should not involve  EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
more than 12 conditions.
 having an angle less than 30° or more than 120° should
not be considered.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Strength of figure General Procedure
 factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation  Reconnaissance: examine region to be surveyed; select suitable
system to maintain the computations within a desired lines for base line; select suitable positions for triangulation
degree of precision stations; consider inter-visibility between stations; ensure well
conditioned triangles; Selection of conspicuous well-defined
 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys natural points to be used as intersected points; Collection of
computations in triangulation involve use of angles of miscellaneous information (Access to various triangulation
triangle and length of one known side. stations; Transport facilities; Availability of food, water, etc;
other two sides are computed by sine law Availability of labour; Camping ground);use existing maps.
 Erection of signals/station marks;
a given change in the angles, the sine of small angles
 Measurement of baseline;
change more rapidly than those of large angles
 Measurement of horizontal angles; and
Angle less than 30 degrees should not be used
 Computations.

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Triangulation… Triangulation…

TRIANGULATION Instruments
 Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.
 Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
 Steel tape/EDM
FIELD WORK COMPUTATIONS
Angle adjustment  Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.
Reconnaissance
Erection of signal/station marks Bearing computation  Heliotropes for ascertaining inter-visibility.
Baseline measurement Side computation  Binocular.
Horizontal angle measurement Easting computation  Drawing instruments and material.
Northing computation
Astronomical observations  Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees
Measurement of vertical angles
 GNSS receivers

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Signals & Towers Station Marks
 signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a should be permanently
triangulation station so that it can be observed from other marked on the ground so that
stations the theodolite and signal may
 tower is a structure over a station to support the be centred accurately over
instrument and the observer, and is provided when the them
station or the signal, or both are to be elevated
 Non luminous signal–Pole signal, target signal, pole and
brush signal, beacons
 luminous signals: sun signals – Heliotrope
Night signals - Oil lamps, electric lamps, acetylene lamps,
Magnesium lamps

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Non Luminous Signals Luminous Signals

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Triangulation… Triangulation…
Luminous Signals Towers

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Towers Towers

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Towers Towers

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Triangulation… Triangulation…
Base line Measurement Base line Measurement
 Most important part of triangulation  Accuracy of triangulation depends on accuracy
 Aligned and measured with great accuracy attained in measurement of baseline
 Site selection for baseline:
 Forms the basis of computations of triangulation
system • Fairly level
• Free from obstruction
 Equipment:
• Firm and smooth ground
• standardized tapes,
• Two extremities should be inter-visible
• Hunter’s short base,
• Well conditioned triangle can be obtained
• tacheometric measurements,
• Minimum length of baseline as specified should be
• EDM available

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Base Net Base line Measurement

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Corrections to Base line Measurement-tape Horizontal Angle Measurement
 Optical/digital theodolites for primary and
secondary triangulation
 Transit theodolites for tertiary triangulation
 Horizontal angles are measured using the method
of rounds to improve accuracy. The theodolite is
set up on say station O (centering, levelling and
elimination of parallax); the optical micrometer is
set to read zero approximately in the FL position
and pointing is made on reference station A.

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Triangulation… Triangulation…
 In a clockwise direction, point the instrument to B and  Individual angles are
note the reading on horizontal circle. Do the same for deduced from readings in
C,D,E and finally back to A. the face may be changed and the usual way and if the
pointings made to stations E,D,C and B. the final reading difference between one
on A should differ now from the first by 180o. This reading and the mean for
completes one set of readings. that angle exceeds 4”, it
 The zero setting is altered to use other parts of the scale should be repeated before
and a similar procedure is followed. The numbers of leaving the station.
zeroes depend on the degree of precision required. For
primary triangulation, 16-32 zeroes may be taken in
which side lengths of up to 50km apply. Secondary
triangulations, 8-16 zeroes having side lengths of up to
15km.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Coordinate Computation Accuracy of Triangulation
 Coordinates are computed using the basic  Precision is measured by the average triangular error
which is the average deviation of the sum of measured
formulae for computing coordinates from observed
angles in the triangles from 180o after correction of
angles and distances. curvature.
 This has been discussed already. In triangulation,  For small triangles of sides of order 2km, the curvature of
too many data is usually observed and hence some earth may be neglected and the three measured angles
adjustment is required to get the best unique set of should sum to 180o.
coordinates.  In larger triangles, the curvature of earth results in these
three angles adding up to more than 180o and the excess is
known as spherical excess.

Triangulation… Triangulation…
Accuracy of Triangulation
Application
 (measured angles)-( 180o+E)=; E is the spherical
excess;  is the triangular error.  to establish accurate control for plane and
𝐴
 𝐸 = 𝑅2 sin 1" geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial
A is the area of triangle; R is mean radius of earth.
methods,
 For all works (except geodetic) the area of the triangle can  to establish accurate control for
be estimated as if it were a plane, so that: photogrammetric surveys of large areas
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑞 𝑘𝑚
𝐸=
1000
𝑥5.09"  to assist in the determination of the size and
 In geodetic work (highest accuracy) the average value of  shape of the earth by making observations
should be less than 1” of arc. for latitude, longitude and gravity, and of
crustal movements, etc.

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Triangulation… 2. Point Positioning Techniques

Application Intersection
 locating and coordinating a point from at least two
 to determine accurate locations of points in existing control stations by observing horizontal
engineering works such as : directions at the control points.
Fixing centre line and abutments of long  Applications:
– Coordinating new control points. Could be high or inaccessible
bridges over large rivers. points;
Fixing centre line, terminal points, and – Surveying detail in inaccessible positions;
– Point location in industrial measurement system
shafts for long tunnels.
Transferring the control points across (a) Intersection with angles
wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc. (b) Intersection with known bearings
Detection of crustal movements, etc. (c) Intersection with distances (trilateration)

Intersection with Angles

Consider the figure, A and B are control points and the
coordinates of point Q are to be determined as follows:
 Compute AB and distance AB.
 Angles a and b are measured;
 Determine lengths AQ and BQ using sine rule;
 Establish bearings AQ and BQ;
 Compute coordinates of Q using: AQ and SAQ or BQ 𝐴𝑃
• 𝐸𝑃 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
and SBQ.
• 𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 cos ∅
The use of standard expressions is common if a number of 𝐴𝑃 𝑁𝐵 −𝑁𝐴
points are to be located from A and B. • 𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝑄
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵

 From similar triangles ARP and ASB; • But AP=PQ Cot a and AB=PQ Cot a + PQ Cot b
𝑃𝑄 cot 𝑎 𝑁 −𝑁
• 𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴 𝑃𝑄 cot 𝑎+𝑃𝑄 cot 𝑏 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄 cot 𝐵𝑎+𝑃𝑄𝐴 cot 𝑏

𝑬𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒂+𝑬𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒃+𝑵𝑩 −𝑵𝑨 Intersection with Known Bearings

• 𝑬𝑸 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒂+𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒃
𝐸3 −𝐸1
• tan 𝐴1 = … … (𝑖)
𝑁3 −𝑁1
𝐸3 −𝐸2
• tan 𝐴2 = … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑁3 −𝑁2
Similarly, Rearranging (i) and (ii) to make E3 the
subject:
• 𝐸1 + 𝑁3 − 𝑁1 tan 𝐴1 = 𝐸3 … … (𝑖𝑎)
𝑵𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒂+𝑵𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒃+𝑬𝑨 −𝑬𝑩
• 𝑵𝑸 = • 𝐸2 + 𝑁3 − 𝑁2 tan 𝐴2 = 𝐸3 … … (𝑖𝑏)
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒂+𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒃
• Equating (ia) and (ib)
• 𝐸1 + 𝑁3 − 𝑁1 tan 𝐴1 = 𝐸2 +
ABQ is lettered in a clockwise direction and care must be 𝑁3 − 𝑁2 tan 𝐴2
Making N3 the subject;
taken to ensure that the data is presented in a similar 𝑬𝟐 −𝑬𝟏 +𝑵𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨𝟏 −𝑵𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨𝟐
• 𝑵𝟑 =
manner. 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨𝟏 −𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨𝟐
• Similarly;
𝑵𝟐 −𝑵𝟏 +𝑬𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑨𝟏 −𝑬𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑨𝟐
• 𝑬𝟑 =
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑨𝟏 −𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑨𝟐

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Intersection with Distances-Trilateration • cot 𝛼1 =

cos 𝛼1 1
= 4𝐴 𝑙22 + 𝑙32 − 𝑙12
From cosine rule, sin 𝛼1
cos 𝛼2 1
• cos 𝛼1 =
1
𝑙32 + 𝑙22 − 𝑙12 • cot 𝛼2 = = 𝑙32 + 𝑙12 − 𝑙22
sin 𝛼2 4𝐴
2𝑙2 𝑙3
1 Recall that (from intersection with angles)
• cos 𝛼2 = 𝑙32 + 𝑙12 − 𝑙22 𝐸2 cot 𝛼1 +𝐸1 cot 𝛼2 +𝑁2 −𝑁1
2𝑙1 𝑙3
• 𝐸3 = cot 𝛼1 +cot 𝛼2
Area of the triangle is given by,
𝑁2 cot 𝛼1 +𝑁1 cot 𝛼2 +𝐸1 −𝐸2
•
1
𝐴 = 𝑙3 𝑙2 sin 𝛼1 • 𝑁3 =
2 cot 𝛼1 +cot 𝛼2
1 Substituting in for cot1 and cot2 we obtain,
• 𝐴 = 2 𝑙1 𝑙3 sin 𝛼2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝑨
2𝐴 • 𝑬𝟑 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑵𝟏 − 𝑵𝟐
• sin 𝛼1 = 𝑙 𝑙 𝟐 𝟐𝒍𝟐
𝟑 𝒍𝟐
𝟑
2 3
2𝐴
• sin 𝛼2 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝑨
𝑙1 𝑙3 • 𝑵𝟑 = 𝑵𝟏 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝟏 − 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
𝟐 𝟐𝒍𝟐
𝟑 𝒍𝟐
𝟑

The area of the triangle is computed using the three sides

Resection
Analytical Solution
 locates a single point by measured between stations A
measuring horizontal angles and B, and B and C. Let BAP be , then
from it to three visible stations • BCP=(360o---)-
whose positions are known.  is computed from coordinates A,
Also called three-point problem B and C
(special case of simple Therefore S is known (360o---)
triangulation.)
• From PAB,
 weaker solution compared to PB=BAsin/sin…………(i)
intersection.
• From PCB, • co-ordinates of P solved with
 It is extremely useful technique
PB=BCsin(S-)/sin…….(ii) the three values; distances and
for quickly fixing position
where it is best required for • Equating (i) and (ii) bearings of AP, BP and CP.
setting-out purposes • method fails if P lies on the
 The theodolite occupies station circumference of a circle
P and angles  and  are passing through A, B, and C,

Danger Circle Best position for station P

 computations will always give the E and N coordinates of the

resected station
 these co-ordinates will be suspect in all probability. In choosing
resection station, care should be exercised such that it does not lie
on the circumference of the "danger circle".

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Tienstra Formula
• standard formula if horizontal The coordinates of point P are then given by:
coordinates of several points
have to be determined by the 𝑲 𝟏 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑲 𝟐 𝑬𝑩 + 𝑲 𝟑 𝑬𝑪
method of resection. 𝑬𝑷 =
𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑
• The stations are
lettered/numbered in a
clockwise direction. 𝑲𝟏 𝑵𝑨 + 𝑲𝟐 𝑵𝑩 + 𝑲𝟑 𝑵𝑪
𝑵𝑷 =
•  is clockwise angle between 𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑
directions PB and PC;
•  is clockwise angle between Where:
directions PC and PA; K1(cot a - cot )=1; K2(cot b - cot )=1; K3(cot c - cot )=1
•  is clockwise angle between
directions PA and PB

Worked Examples Worked Examples…

Example 1: Angles have been observed at station F  From the coordinates of points P, W and D, the angles a,
between the coordinated stations P, W and D so that the b and c can be deduced as 62o49’29.82”, 47o14’33.8”
position of the station can be determined. Calculate the and 69o55’56.38” respectively.
coordinates of F given the coordinates of P, W and D as: 1 1 1
 𝑘1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼; 𝑘2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑏−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽; 𝑘3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛾 : this
P(2876.24mE, 8754.11mN); W(3810.80mE, 7997.25mN);
and D(2959.39mE, 7487.09mN). Angles PFD and WFD gives k1, k2 and k3 as 0.572268109, 1.261908095 and
are 136o32’55” and 82o28’14” respectively. 0.703788871 respectively.
𝐾1 𝐸𝐷 +𝐾2 𝐸𝑃 +𝐾3 𝐸𝑊 𝐾1 𝑁𝐷 +𝐾2 𝑁𝑃 +𝐾3 𝑁𝑊
Solution:  𝐸𝐹 = 𝐾1 +𝐾2 +𝐾3
; 𝑁𝐹 = 𝐾1 +𝐾2 +𝐾3
: these
 Let angles WDP, DPW, PWD, PFW, WFD and DFP be equations give the coordinates of point F as
a, b, c, ,  and  respectively; this implies that angles , (3154.15mE, 8258.54mN)
 and  are 140o58’51”, 82o28’14” and 136o32’55”
respectively.

Worked Examples… Worked Examples…

Example 2: A new control point F is to be established Solution:
from existing control points T and D as shown in figure.
The horizontal clockwise angles at T and D have been t=44o52’36”
observed as DTF=44o52’36” and TDF=284o26’38”
respectively. Determine the horizontal coordinates of
station F. d=360o-284o26’38”=75o33’22”

𝑬𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕 +𝑬𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒅 + 𝑵𝑫 − 𝑵𝑻

𝑬𝑭 =
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒅

𝑵𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕+𝑵𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒅+𝑬𝑻 −𝑬𝑫

𝑵𝑭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕+ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒅

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Worked Examples… 3. Curves

• The center line of a road consists of series of
straight lines interconnected by curves that
are used to change the alignment, direction,
or slope of the road.
• Those curves that change the alignment or
direction are known as horizontal curves,
and
• Those curves that change the slope are
vertical curves.

Horizontal Curves Horizontal Curves…

• When a highway changes horizontal direction, • curves are circular curves; that is, curves that
making the point where it changes direction a form circular arcs. The smaller the radius of a
point of intersection between two straight lines is circular curve, the sharper the curve.
not feasible. • horizontal curves are computed after the route has
• The change in direction would be too abrupt for been selected, the field surveys have been done,
the safety of modern, high-speed vehicles. It is and the survey base line and necessary topographic
therefore necessary to interpose a curve between features have been plotted.
the straight lines. • The principal consideration in the design of a
• The straight lines of a road are called tangents curve is the selection of the length of the radius or
because the lines are tangent to the curves used to the degree of curvature.
change direction.

Types of Horizontal Curves

• Simple: The simple curve is an arc of a circle. The radius
of the circle determines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve.
• Compound: This curve normally consists of two simple
curves joined together and curving in the same direction.
• Reverse: A reverse curve consists of two simple curves
joined together, but curving in opposite direction.
• Spiral/transition/easement: is a curve that has a varying
radius. It is used on railroads and most modern highways.
Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound
curve.

–12
 –11/24/2023

Elements of Horizontal Curves

• Point of Intersection, PI: point where the back and
forward tangents intersect.
• Intersecting Angle, I: deflection angle at the PI. Its value
is either computed from the preliminary traverse angles or
measured in the field.
• Central Angle, Δ: angle formed by two radii drawn from
the center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of
the central angle is equal to the I angle.
• Radius, R: radius of the circle of which the curve is an
arc, or segment. The radius is always perpendicular to
back and forward tangents.
• Point of Curvature, PC: point on the back tangent where
the circular curve begins. BC or TC

Elements of Horizontal Curves… Elements of Horizontal Curves…

• Point of Tangency, PT: point on the forward tangent • Full chord, C: distance between adjacent stations (full,
where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC half, quarter, or one tenth stations) along a curve.
(end of curve) or CT (curve to tangent). • Subchord, C1: distance between the PC and the first station
• Point of Curve, POC: POINT OF CURVE. The point of on the curve.
curve is any point along the curve. • Subchord, C2: distance between the last station on the
curve and the PT.
• Length of Curve, L: distance from the PC to the PT,
measured along the curve. • External distance, E: distance from the PI to the midpoint
of the curve. The external distance bisects the interior angle
• Tangent distance, T: distance along the tangents from at the PI.
the PI to the PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a
• Middle ordinate, M: distance from the midpoint of the
simple curve.
curve to the midpoint of the long chord. The extension of
• Long Chord, LC: straight-line distance from the PC to the middle ordinate bisects the central angle.
the PT.
• Degree of curve, D: defines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve.

Horizontal Curve Formulas Horizontal Curve Formulas…

Tangent, T is the distance along tangents from PI to PC

or PT; Chord, C is straight line distance from PC to PT

–13
 –11/24/2023

Horizontal Curve Formulas… Degree of Curve

• Curvature may be expressed by simply
stating the length of the radius of the curve.
curve length, L is the Stating the radius is a common practice in
distance from PC to PT land surveying and in the design of urban
measured along a curve
roads.
• For highway and railway work, however,
curvature is expressed by the degree of
curve.
• Two definitions are used for the degree of
curve- arc definition and chord definition.

Degree of Curve… Degree of Curve…

Degree of Curve (Arc Definition)
used in highway design. is the central angle formed by two radii that
extend from the center of a circle to the ends of an arc measuring 100
feet long (or 100 meters long if you are using metric units). Therefore,
if you take a sharp curve, mark off a portion so that the distance along
the arc is exactly 100 feet, and determine that the central angle is 12°,
then you have a curve for which the degree of curvature is 12°; it is
referred to as a 12° curve.

Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)

used in railway practice and in some highway work. is the central In both the arc definition and the chord definition, the radius of curvature is inversely proportional to
angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle to the the degree of curvature. In other words, the larger the degree of curve, the shorter the radius; for
ends of a chord 100 feet (or 100 meters) long. If you take a flat curve, example, using the arc definition, the radius of a 1° curve is 5,729.58 units, and the radius of a 5°
mark a 100-foot chord, and determine the central angle to be 0°30’, curve is 1,145.92 units. Under the chord definition, the radius of a 1° curve is 5,729.65 units, and the
then you have a 30-minute curve (chord definition). radius of a 5° curve is 1,146.28 units.

Setting Out Horizontal Curves Setting Out Horizontal Curves…

• process of establishing the centre-line of the curve
on the ground by means of pegs at 10 m to 30 m 1+010
intervals. 2+000
• the tangent and intersection points must first be 1+10
fixed in the ground, in their correct positions. 3+00
• Through Chainage is the horizontal distance from
the start of a scheme for route construction.
• Consider figure below. If the distance from the
start of the route (Chn 0.00 m) to the tangent point
T1 is 2115.50 m, then it is said that the chainage of
T1 is 2115.50 m, written as (Chn 2115.50 m).

–14
 –11/24/2023

Setting Out Horizontal Curves… Setting Out Horizontal Curves…

• If the route centre-line is being staked out at 20-m • if the chainage at I1 is known, then the chainage at
chord intervals, then the peg immediately prior to T1 = Chn I1 − distance I1T1, the tangent length.
T1 must have a chainage of 2100 m (an integer However the chainage at T2 = Chn T1 + curve
number of 20 m intervals). The next peg on the length, as chainage is measured along the route
centre-line must therefore have a chainage of 2120 under construction.
m. It follows that the length of the first sub-chord • The straights OI1, I1I2, I2I3, etc., will have been
on the curve from T1 must be (2120 − 2115.50) = designed on the plan in the first instance.
4.50 m. appropriate curves will now be designed to
• Similarly, if the chord interval had been 30 m, the connect the straights.
peg chainage prior to T1 must be 2100 m and the • The tangent points of curves will then be fixed,
next peg (on the curve) 2130 m, thus the first sub- making sure that the tangent lengths are equal, i.e.
chord will be (2130 − 2115.50) = 14.50 m. T1I1 = T2I1 and T3I2 = T4I2.

Setting Out Horizontal Curves… Setting-Out Methods

• coordinates of the origin, O, and all the intersection points  Linear Methods:
only will now be carefully scaled from the plan. Using
a) Off-sets from long chord;
these coordinates, the bearings of the straights are
computed and, using the tangent lengths on these b) Successive bisection of chord;
bearings, the coordinates of the tangent points are also c) Off-sets from tangents-perpendicular or radial;
computed.
d) Off-sets from chords produced
• The difference of the bearings of the straights provides the
deflection angles (Δ) of the curves which, combined with  Angular Methods:
the tangent length, enables computation of the curve a) Rankine method of tangential (deflection)
radius, through chainage and all setting-out data. angles;
• Now the tangent and intersection points are set out from
b) Two theodolite method;
existing control survey stations and the curves ranged
between them using the methods detailed below. c) Tacheometric method

Off-sets from Long Chord Successful Bisection of Chord

–long chord is divided points on a curve
into an even number
of equal parts with are located by
centre of long chord as bisecting the
origin;
chords and
–for various values of
x, the perpendicular erecting the
offsets are computed perpendiculars at
to the curve and the
curve is set in the field
the mid-point.
by driving pegs at
those offsets.

R – radius of the curve Ordinate at distance x = Ox= EÓ-DO Perpendicular offset at middle of long perpendicular offset
L – length of long chord chord (D) is
2 ∆
Oo – mid-ordinate = 𝑅 2 − 𝑥 2- 𝑅 2 − (𝐿Τ2) ∆ ∆ –𝐶1 𝐷1 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
4
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
Ox – ordinate at distance x from 2 2 –𝐶2 𝐷2 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 8)
∆
the mid-point of long chord Let D1 be the middle of T1C. Then

–15
 –11/24/2023

Off-sets from Tangents-Perpendicular/Radial Theodolite and Tape

• circular curve deflections are used to locate curves
 if the centre of curve O is
accessible from the points on by use of steel tape and theodolite
tangent, this method of curve • theodolite set up at BC and deflection angles are
setting is possible
turned from tangent line
 Let D be a point at distance x
from T1. Now it is required to • consider a curve where BC=0+196.738;
find radial EC=0+286.448
–ordinate Ox = DE, so that the
point C on the curve is located. • then L=89.710m; T=45.044m; Δ/2=6o25’30”
–From D OT1D, we get • if the layout is to proceed at 20m intervals the
Perpendicular offset at middle of long perpendicular offset
chord (D) is
procedure is as follows:
∆
∆ ∆ –𝐶1 𝐷1 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
4
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
2 2 –𝐶2 𝐷2 = 𝑅(1 −
∆
𝑐𝑜𝑠 8)
Let D1 be the middle of T1C. Then

Theodolite and Tape… Theodolite and Tape…

prepare a list of appropriate stations and cumulative deflection angles:

Chord Chord Chainage Deflection Setting out Remarks

No. length angle angle

0 0 0+196.738 00 00 00 00 00 00 BC

1 3.262 0+200 00 14 01 00 14 01 Peg 1

2 20 0+220 01 25 57 01 39 58 Peg 2

3 20 0+240 01 25 57 03 05 55 Peg 3

4 20 0+260 01 25 57 04 31 52 Peg 4

5 20 0+280 01 25 57 05 57 49 Peg 5

6 6.448 0+286.448 00 27 42 06 25 31 Peg (EC)

Theodolite and Tape… Theodolite and Tape…

• the deflection angle for station 0+200 is 0 14’ 01”
• 0+200 can be located by placing a stake on
theodolite line at 0 14’ 01” and at a distance
3.262m from BC;
• station 0+220 can be located by placing a stake on
theodolite line at 01 39’ 58” at a distance of 20m
along arc from stake that locates 0+200
• other stations located in a similar manner

–16
 –11/24/2023

Theodolite and Tape… Theodolite and Tape…

Chord Computations Chord Computations
• The above technique has errors because distances • first chord: C=2*400*sin 0 14 01=3.262m
measured are not arc distances, they are • even station chord: C=2*400*sin 01 25
cords/subcords. Subcords can be computed using 57=19.998m
the cord equation derived earlier. Any subcord can • last chord: C=2*400*sin 0 27 42=6.448m
be calculated if the deflection angle is known and
for the last example, the relevant chords are • using these chord distances, curve layout proceeds
computed using the equation below as: without error.
• for short distances and large radius curves, arcs
and chords often appear equal

Theodolite and Tape… Vertical Curves

Chord Computations  connect stretches of road that go up or down at a
constant slope
 grade tangents: lines of constant slope
 Gradient/grade: rate of slope (1/20; 1:20; 2%)
 summit curves/oververticals: Vertical curves at a
crest or the top of a hill
 sag curves/undervertical: Vertical curves at the
bottom of a hill or dip
 grades-given as a %: number of feet of rise/fall in 100
foot horizontal stretch of the road
 +ve grade: ascend in direction of stationing
 -ve grade: descend in direction of stationing

Vertical Curves… Computing Vertical Curves

 engineer designs or  Horizontal curves are generally arcs of circles.
fixes (sets) the grades.  Vertical curves are usually parabolic. provides a
 factors considered: transition and, also, lends itself to computational
intended use of road; methods
existing topography.  Designing consists principally of deciding on the
 too steep, comfort and proper length of the curve-horizontal distance
safety, fuel consumption from the beginning to the end of the curve
adversely affected;  The longer a curve is, the more gradual the
 design criteria specifies transition will be from one grade to the next; the
maximum grades. shorter the curve, the more abrupt the change

–17
 –11/24/2023

Computing Vertical Curves Elements of a Vertical Curve

 Point of vertical curvature, PVC: the place where the
curve begins.
 Point of vertical intersection, PVI: where the grade
tangents intersect.
 Point of vertical tangency, PVT: where the curve ends.
 Point on vertical curve, POVC: applies to any point on the
parabola.
 Point on vertical tangent, POVT: applies to any point on
either tangent.
 g1 -Grade of the tangent on which the PVC is located;
measured in percent of slope.
 g2 -Grade of the tangent on which the PVT is located;
measured in percent of slope.

Elements of a Vertical Curve… Elements of a Vertical Curve…

 G - algebraic difference of the grades: G = g2 –g1
plus values are assigned to uphill grades and minus
values to downhill grades.
 L - Length of the curve: the horizontal length measured in
100-foot stations from the PVC to the PVT.
may be computed using L = G/r, r is the rate of
change (usually given in the design criteria).
 When the rate of change is not given, L can be computed
as follows: summit curve, L = 125 x G/4; for a sag curve,
L = 100 x G/4. If L does not come out to a whole number
of stations using these formulas, then it is usually extended
to the nearest whole number. Formulas for length are for
road design only.

Elements of a Vertical Curve… Elements of a Vertical Curve…

 l1- Horizontal length of the portion of the curve from PVC
to the PVI
 l2-Horizontal length of the portion of the curve from the
PVI to the PVT
 e- Vertical (external) distance from the PVI to the curve.
computed using the formula e = LG/8, where L is the total
length in stations and G is the algebraic difference of the
grades in percent
• x- Horizontal distance from the PVC to any POVC or
POVT back of the PVI, or the distance from the PVT to
any POVC or POVT ahead of the PVI, measured in feet.
• y- Vertical distance (offset) from any POVT to the
corresponding POVC, y=(x/l)2(e)

–18
 –11/24/2023

Elements of a Vertical Curve… Vertical Curve Computation

 takes place after the grades have been set and the curve
designed.
 at the beginning the following are known: g1, g2, l1, l2, L,
and the elevation of the PVI.
 general procedure:
compute the elevations of certain POVTs; compute G,
then e, and then the ys that correspond to the selected
POVTs.
 When the y is added or subtracted from the elevation of
the POVT, the result is the elevation of the POVC. The
Vertical curves are used at changes of grade other than at the
POVC is the finished elevation on the road, which is the
top or bottom of a hill; for example, an uphill grade that
end result being sought.
intersects an even steeper uphill grade will be eased by a
vertical curve

Vertical Curve Computation… Symmetrical Vertical Curves

 y is subtracted from the elevation of the POVT to get the  l1 equals l2.
elevation of the curve; but in the case of a sag curve, the y
 Assume that you know the following data:
is added to the POVT elevation to obtain the POVC
elevation. g1 = +9%
 selection of the points at which to compute the y and the g2= –7%
elevations of the POVT and POVC is generally based on L = 400.00´, or 4 stations
the stationing.
 The horizontal alignment of a road is often staked out on
The station of the PVI = 30 + 00 (3000 ft)
50-foot or 100-foot stations. Customarily, the elevations The elevation of the PVI = 239.12 feet
are computed at these same points so that both horizontal Problem: compute the grade elevation of the curve
and vertical information for construction will be provided
to the nearest hundredth of a foot at each 50-foot
at the same point. The PVC, PVI, and PVT are usually set
at full stations or half stations. station.

Symmetrical Vertical Curves… Symmetrical Vertical Curves…

 Step 1:
Prepare a table as the one below. column 1 shows the
stations; column 2, the elevations on tangent; column 3,
the vertical offsets [(x/l)2(e)]; column 4, the grade
elevations on the curve.
 Step 2:
Compute the elevations and set the stations on the PVC
and the PVT. Knowing both the gradients at the PVC and
PVT and the elevation and station at the PVI, you can
compute the elevations and set the stations on the PVC
and the PVT.

–19
 –11/24/2023

Symmetrical Vertical Curves… Symmetrical Vertical Curves…

The gradient (g1) at the PVC is given as +9 percent. Since L is
400.00 feet and the curve is symmetrical, l1 equals l2 equals Elevations on Vertical Grade elevation
Stations
200.00 feet; therefore, there will be a difference of 9 x 2, or 18, Grade Tangent Offsets (y) on Curve
feet between the elevation at the PVI and the elevation at the 28+00 (PVC) 221.12 0 221.12
PVC. The elevation at the PVI in this problem is given as
28+50 225.62 -0.50 225.62
239.12 feet; therefore, the elevation at the PVC is 239.12 – 18
= 221.12 feet. 29+00 230.12 -2.00 228.12
the elevation at the PVT in a similar manner is 239.12 – 14 = 29+50 234.62 -4.50 230.12
225,12 feet. 30+00 (PVI) 239.12 -8.00 231.12
the station at the PVC is 30 + 00 minus 2 + 00, or 28 + 00. 30+50 235.62 -4.50 231.02
The station at the PVT is 31+00 232.12 -2.00 230.12
30 + 00 plus 2 + 00, or 32 + 00. 31+50 228.62 -0.50 228.12
32+00 (PVT) 225.12 0 225.12
List the stations under column 1.

Symmetrical Vertical Curves… Symmetrical Vertical Curves…

 Step 3:  Step 5:
Calculate the elevations at each 50-foot station on the Compute grade elevation at each of the 50-foot stations.
tangent. From PVC to PVI there is 9% rise in slope thus When the curve is on a crest, the sign of the offset will be
for every 50 feet of horizontal distance, there will be a rise negative; therefore, subtract the vertical offset from the
of 4.50 feet in elevation. From PVI to PVT there is 7% elevation on the tangent e.g the grade elevation at station
fall in slope thus for every 50 feet of horizontal distance, 29 + 50 is 234.62 – 4.50 = 230.12 feet.
there will be a fall of 3.50 feet in elevation. List computed Enter the results under column 4.
elevations under column 2 Note: When the curve is in a dip, the sign will be positive;
 Step 4: therefore, you will add the vertical offset to the elevation
Compute the vertical offsets at each 50-foot station, using on the tangent
the formula (x/l)2e. List the results under column 3

Symmetrical Vertical Curves… Symmetrical Vertical Curves…

 Step 6:  Step 6:
Find the turning point on the vertical curve. When the curve is xt= distance of turning point from PVC or PVT
on a crest, the turning point is the highest point on the curve. g = lesser slope (ignoring signs)
When the curve is in a dip, the turning point is the lowest point
on the curve. L = length of curve in stations
The turning point will be directly above or below the PVI only G = algebraic difference of slopes.
when both tangents have the same percent of slope (ignoring  The vertical offset for the turning point is found by the
the algebraic sign); otherwise, the turning point will be on the formula yt=(xt /l)2e
same side of the curve as the tangent with the least percent of
slope.
Compute the elevation on the curve for the turning point
The horizontal location of the turning point is either measured
from the PVC if the tangent with the lesser slope begins there
or from the PVT if the tangent with the lesser slope ends there.
The horizontal location is found by the formula: xt=gL/G

–20
 –11/24/2023

Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves…

 l1 does NOT equal l2. Unsymmetrical curves are
sometimes described as having unequal tangents and are
referred to as dog legs. Figure below shows an
unsymmetrical curve with a horizontal distance of 400 feet
on the left and a horizontal distance of 200 feet on the
right of the PVI.
 The gradient of the tangent at the PVC is –4 percent; the
gradient of the tangent at the PVT is +6 percent. Note that
the curve is in a dip
 let’s assume you are given the following values:
Compute the grade elevations on the curve to the nearest
– Elevation at the PVI is 332.68 hundredth foot.
– Station at the PVI is 42 + 00  Set four 100 foot stations on left side of PVI
– l1 is 400 feet; l2 is 200 feet; g1 is –4%; g2 is +6%  Set four 50 foot stations on the right of PVI

Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves… Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves…

 solving an unsymmetrical curve problem is essentially the  an unsymmetrical curve is really two parabolas, one on
same as that used in solving a symmetrical curve. each side of the PVI, having a common POVC opposite
 There are, however, important differences: the PVI;
First, you use a different formula for the calculation of the  the turning point is not necessarily above or below the
middle vertical offset at the PVI. For an unsymmetrical tangent with the lesser slope. The horizontal location is
curve, the formula is as follows: found by the use of one of two formulas as follows:
𝑙1 𝑙2 (𝑙1 )2 𝑔1
𝑒= (𝑔2 − 𝑔1 )  From PVC 𝑥𝑡 = 2𝑒
2 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
(𝑙2 )2 𝑔2
 In this example, then, the middle vertical offset at the PVI  From PVT 𝑥𝑡 = 2𝑒
is calculated in the following manner:
 procedure is to estimate on which side of the PVI the
e = [(4 x 2)/2(4 + 2)] x [(+6) - (–4)] = 6.67 feet. turning point is located and then use the proper formula to
find its location.

Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves… Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves…

Elevations on Vertical Grade elevation Compute the elevation on the curve for the turning point
Stations
Tangent Offsets (y) on Curve
38+00 (PVC) 348.68 0 348.68
39+00 344.68 0.42 345.10
40+00 340.68 1.67 342.35
41+00 336.68 3.75 340.43
42+00 (PVI) 332.68 6.67 339.35
42+50 335.68 3.75 339.43
43+00 338.68 1.67 340.35
43+50 341.68 0.42 342.10
44+00 (PVT) 344.68 0 344.68

–21
 –11/24/2023

4. Principles of Least Squares Adjustments Error Types…

 Systematic errors: they arise due to some physical

Error Types
phenomena, the instrument or environment. eliminated by
 Gross errors: mistakes that are due to the carelessness of the observer. The laws governing these contributory factors. They are caused
gross errors must be detected and eliminated from the survey measurements by incorrect calibration or failure to standardize
before such measurements can be used. Identification can be through equipment; imperfect measurement techniques; failure to
verification of recorded data, use of common sense or having independent make necessary corrections; bias by observer;
repeated checks. constructional faults in equipment and environmental
conditions.

Error Types… Most Probable Value (MPV)

Difference between measured quantity and its
 Random errors: after all mistakes and systematic errors
true value is referred to as error
have been detected and removed from the measurements,
𝜀 = 𝑥−𝜏
there will still remain some errors in the measurements,
𝜏-true value (cannot be determined)
called the random or accidental errors. They have no
𝑥- measured value
known functional relationship and are quantified by
𝜀 – error ( can never be found)
repeated measurements. The random errors are treated
𝑥-ҧ best estimate of 𝜏 (MPV). Used to express
using probability models. Theory of errors and Least
variations in 𝑥
Squares Adjustment deals only with such type of
𝜐 = 𝑥ҧ − 𝑥 (residual)
observational errors.

Precision & Accuracy Precision & Accuracy…

 Discrepancy: algebraic difference between two  Accuracy: is the measure of the absolute nearness of a
observations of the same quantity. small discrepancies measured quantity to its true value. Since the true value of
between repeated observations, small errors exist. a quantity can never be determined, accuracy is always an

 Precision: degree of consistency between observations unknown.

based on the sizes of the discrepancies in a data set.

dependent on the stability of the environment during the
time of measurement, the quality of the equipment used to
make the observations, and the observer’s skill with the
equipment and observational procedures.

–22
 –11/24/2023

Redundant Observations Observations and their Analysis

• measurements made in excess of the minimum number  Population: all possible measurements that can be made
on a particular item or procedure. Often, a population has
that are needed to determine the unknowns. an infinite number of data elements.
 Sample: is a subset of data selected from the population.
• permits an assessment of the size of the errors in the
 Range/dispersion: difference between the highest and
observations. lowest values. It provides an indication of the precision of
the data.
• the redundant observation permits an adjustment to be  Median: for ordered data set, it is possible to determine
made to obtain a final value for the unknown, and that quickly the data’s middle value or midpoint. When there is
an even number of values, the median is given by the
final adjusted value will be more precise statistically average of the two values closest to (which straddle) the
midpoint.
than either of the individual observations.

Observations and their Analysis…

Histogram
 Bar graph with
frequency/relative
frequency on ordinate and
classes on abscissa
Symmetry of data,
range,
frequency of occurrence
Steepness of histogram-
precision
 Constructing histogram

Observations and their Analysis…

 Mode: most frequent occurring value
 Arithmetic Mean:
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖
𝑦ത = for y1, y2,……..,yn
𝑛
𝑦ത sample mean
 (a) & (b) Symmetric histogram; common in surveying; normal
µ population mean
distribution. (b) more precise than (a)
 Variance: value by which precision of a set of data is
 (c) bimodal histogram. given
 (d) skewed to the right; (e) are skewed to the left. Population variance, σ2: mean of squares of errors
σ𝑛 𝜀 2
 In surveying, the varying histogram shapes result from 𝜎 2 = 𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑛
variations in personnel, physical conditions, and equipment.

–23
 –11/24/2023

Observations and their Analysis… Observations and their Analysis…

 Variance: value by which precision of a set of data is
given  Standard Deviation of Mean: error in mean from
sample set of measured values
Sample variance, S2: mean of squares of residuals
𝑆
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝜐𝑖2 Σ𝑦𝑖2 − 𝑛𝑦ത 2 𝑆𝑦ത = ; 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑆𝑦ത → 0
𝑆2 = = 𝑛
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 This implies that the 𝑦ത ,sample mean approaches µ
 Standard Error: square root of population variance population mean
σ𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝜀𝑖
𝜎= 𝑛
Note: 𝜎 2 , 𝜎 indeterminate-true values and
errors indeterminate
 Standard Deviation: square root of sample variance
σ𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝜐𝑖
𝑆= ; n-1 are degrees of freedom, estimates of
𝑛−1
standard error of population

Observations and their Analysis… Error Propagation

Precision Indices:
a) Location Indices
 Median
AB=X; BC=Y; AC=X+Y=U
 Mode
 Mid-Range  Consider two quantities measured whose sum is
 Mean equal to value required for one quantity.
b) Dispersion Indices
 The sections have been measured severally;
 Range
 Average error X1=Xm+x1 Y1=Ym+y1
 Standard error
X2=Xm+x2 Y2=Ym+y2
 variance

Error Propagation… Error Propagation…

X1=Xm+x1 Y1=Ym+y1 Best estimate
X2=Xm+x2 Y2=Ym+y2 Um=Xm+Ym
. U1=Um+u1= Xm+x1 + Ym+y1
. U2=Um+u2 = Xm+x2 +Ym+y2
. .
Xn=Xm+xn Yn=Ym+yn Un=Um+un = Xm+xn + Ym+yn
Where: From the equations;
Xm- best estimate for AB u1=x1+y1
Ym- best estimate for BC u2=x2+y2
xi,yi (i=1,2,….,n)- difference between estimates and .
observed values un=xn+yn

–24
 –11/24/2023

Error Propagation… Error Propagation…

Squaring both sides; Thus:
𝑢12 = 𝑥12 + 2𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑦12 –Σ𝑢𝑖2 = Σ𝑥𝑖2 + Σ𝑦𝑖2
𝑢22 = 𝑥22 + 2𝑥2𝑦2 + 𝑦22
Dividing both sides by n-1;
Σ𝑢2𝑖 Σ𝑥𝑖2 Σ𝑦𝑖2
𝑢𝑛2 = 𝑥𝑛2 + 2𝑥𝑛 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛2 –
𝑛−1
=
𝑛−1
+
𝑛−1
Sum of squares of residuals
Σ𝑢𝑖2 = Σ𝑥𝑖2 + 2Σ𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 + Σ𝑦𝑖2 – 𝝈𝒖 = 𝝈𝟐𝒙 + 𝝈𝟐𝒚
The measurements AB and BC are independent and
–For 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑛 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜎𝑢 = 𝜎 𝑛;
uncorrelated. If xi is a residual, Ʃxi=0 (probability of –ve
or +ve error occurring is the same) Thus, the standard error of sum of (difference
between) two quantities is equal to square root of sum
Similarly if yi is a residual, Ʃyi=0; Because measurements
of squares of standard errors of individual quantities.
are uncorrelated, Ʃxiyi tends to zero.

Error Propagation… Error Propagation…

Standard error of mean: Example 1:
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛 A line is measured in six sections and the length of the
𝑦ത =
𝑛 sections together with the standard errors are given below.
Calculate the standard error of the length of the line
Applying this equation: 𝜎𝑢 = 𝜎𝑥2 + 𝜎𝑦2 we get
292.980±0.013m 108.326±0.006m
1ൗ
𝑠𝑦1 2 𝑠𝑦2 2 𝑠𝑦𝑛 2 2 132.015±0.009m 381.774±0030m
𝑆𝑦ത = + +⋯+ 471.190±0.018m 97.658±0.023m
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
If observations 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 have same standard deviation, Solution:
then

𝑛𝑠 2 𝑠 Σ𝜐𝑖2 Σ𝜐𝑖2 𝜎= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + ⋯ + 𝜎𝑛2

𝑆𝑦ത = = = ; 𝑠=
𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−1 = [0.0132 + 0.0092 + 0.0182 + 0.0062 + 0.0302 + 0.0232]
=±0.045

Error Propagation… Weight of Observations

Example 2:  Measure of relative worth of an observation
What is the standard error of the difference in elevation for compared to other observations; also measure
a 2.0km line obtained by spirit leveling taken with level of degree to which an observation is reliable
and staff with which the backsight and foresight readings
in relation to other observations
are observed with standard error of ±0.006 at equal
distance of instrument set-ups from stave of 40m  Control size of corrections applied to
Solution: observations in adjustment
Number of instrument set-up stations 2000/80=25  High precision=>small variance=>good
Error in difference in height for one set-up observation=>relatively small portion of overall
correction
𝜎= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 = 0.0062 + 0.0062 = ±0.0085𝑚
 Low precision=>larger variance=>observation
Error for computed difference in height for 25 set-ups will with large error=>larger portion of correction
be given by 𝜎𝑢 = 𝜎 𝑛 = 0.0085 25 = ±0.0042𝑚

–25
 –11/24/2023

Weight of Observations… Weight of Observations…

For correlated observations;
For uncorrelated observations:  𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 ∝
1
𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝟏
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔 ∝  Co-variance of observation is the measure of how an
𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔 observation affects another different kind of
observation taken at the same or different time e.g.
𝟏 when measuring distances and angles in a traverse
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔 ∝ survey, the relation between the angle measured
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
and the distance is called covariance.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔 ∝ 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
 In most cases, no relation and covariances between
observations taken as zero.

Weight of Observations… Approximate Adjustments in Survey

Weighted Mean:
Computations
 Consider distance measured by tape and EDM
Tape: 151.9 ft 1-weight Why adjustments?
EDM: 152.5 ft 2-weight
 Errors inevitable in survey measurements
151.9+152.5+152.5
Mean of Observations=
3
= 152.3𝑓𝑡  Probability and statistics needed to analyze the errors
and logically distribute them
1 151.9 +2(152.5)
Also = = 152.3𝑓𝑡
1+2
 Imperative to check the quality of results if they lie
𝑚 𝑧
Generally: 𝑧ҧ =
Σ𝑖=1 𝑖
(all with equal standard error-mean)
within limits
𝑚
 Obtain unique (MPV or best estimate) values close to
Σ𝑤𝑧
Σ= (different standard errors of uncorrelated observations) true values
Σ𝑤

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

Equal Weight e.g. observed angles of a plane triangle are A=51o37’40”;

 Same quantity under identical conditions, best estimate is B=71o18’45”; C=57o 03’50”. The sum is 180o00’15” and
mean total error is 15”. The observed angles are adjusted by
 Related measurements taken under same conditions, sum of
reducing each by 5”
which must equal an exact mathematical quantity, best
 Related measurements taken under same conditions, sum of
estimates are observed values corrected by an equal part of
the total error
which should equal one single measurement taken under same
conditions

–26
 –11/24/2023

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

 Related measurements taken under same conditions, sum e.g. A, B, C are points on straight line and tape measurements

of which should equal one single measurement taken give value of AB=65.34m, BC=90.81m and AC=156.21m all
observations free from systematic errors. The discrepancy is
under same conditions.
0.06m. Since size of errors is assumed independent of length of
Best estimate obtained by dividing the discrepancy equally
line, the discrepancy is divided into three equal parts for the three
among all measurements, including sum. If correction is observations. The correction of 0.02m is added to AB and BC and
added to each of related measurements, it is subtracted from subtracted from AC. Adjusted lengths: AB= 65.36m; BC=90.83m;
the measurement that represent the sum and vice-versa AC=156.19m

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

1
Weighted Observations Solution: 𝑤 ∝ ; 𝜎1 = 0.02; 𝜎2 = 0.04; 𝜎3 = 0.06; 𝜎4 = 0.08
𝜎2

 Same quantity, best estimate for which measurements of 𝑤1 = 2500; 𝑤2 = 625; 𝑤3 = 277.778; 𝑤4 = 156.25

different reliability have been made is the weighted mean. e.g.

2500𝑋721.05 + 625𝑋720.97 + 277.778𝑋721.17 + 156.25𝑋721.20
𝑀𝑃𝑉 =
lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 + 𝑤4

four different routes. The observed elevations are 721.05±0.02m, =721.052m

720.96±0.04m, 721.17±0.06m and 721.20±0.08m. Determine the 𝑤1 𝑣12 + 𝑤2 𝑣22 + 𝑤3 𝑣32 + 𝑤4 𝑣42
𝜎2 =
Σ𝑤(𝑛 − 1)
mean elevation of the point. Weights are inversely proportional to
σ=±0.03; => Elevation=721.052±0.03m
squares of standard errors

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

Weighted Observations… Solution:

 Related quantities, sum of measured values with different weights must equal Discrepancy=AOC-(AOB+BOC)=00 00 40

a known value (measured/exact). Best estimate are the observed values Weights proportional to number of observations

each corrected by an appropriate portion of discrepancy/total error. Corrections are inversely proportional to weights
Angle Weight A
Corrections are inversely proportional to weights. e.g. Angles observed at O
AOB 1
and mean values are BOC=59 14 27 (mean of 4 observations); AOB= 23 46 BOC 4 B
AOC 6 O
00 (mean of 1 observation); AOC= 83 01 07 (mean of 6 observations). 𝑣1 𝑝2
= ⇒ 𝑣1 𝑝1 = 𝑣2 𝑝2 = 𝑣3 𝑝3
Weights are proportional to number of observations 𝑣2 𝑝1
C
𝑣1 = 4𝑣2 = 6𝑣3

–27
 –11/24/2023

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 00 00 40 Exercises
2
𝑣2 + 4𝑣2 + 𝑣2 = 00 00 40 ⇒ 𝑣2 = 00 00 07 1. Three angles about a point are observed as
3
𝑣1 = 4𝑣2 = 00 00 28 A=130 15 20 ±2”; B=142 37 30 ±4”; C= 87 07
2 40 ±6”. Determine the best estimates for the
𝑣3 = 𝑣2 = 00 00 05
3 A
three angles
AOB= 23 46 00 + 00 00 07 = 23 46 07

BOC=59 14 27 + 00 00 28 = 59 14 55 C B

AOC=83 01 07 – 00 00 05 = 83 01 02

Approximate Adjustments… Approximate Adjustments…

2. Determine the best estimate for line EG 3. A distance is measured as 625.79ft using a cloth
tape and given a weight 1; it is measured again
as 625.71ft using a steel tape and assigned
weight 2; and finally it is measured a third time
as 625.69ft with EDM and given a weight 4.
Calculate the MPV and the standard deviation of
weighted mean.

Approximate Adjustments… CAT (2020/2021)-30 Minutes

1. Discuss four linear methods of setting out horizontal
4. In levelling from BM A to BM B, four different
curves in highway engineering (10 Marks)
routes of varying lengths are taken. The data in
2. Outline five characteristics of first order triangulation
table are obtained: networks (5 Marks)

Route Length Elevation Weight 3. What are redundant observations in surveying

1 1 25.35 6
2 2 25.41 3 measurements? Use practical examples to explain the
3 3 25.38 2
use redundant observations (10 Marks)
4 6 25.30 1

4. What do you understand by the term weight of survey

Calculate the most probable elevation difference measurement? (5 Marks)

–28
 –11/24/2023

Least Squares Adjustment Least Squares Adjustment…

Principles Principle…
 residuals v1, v2, …vn
1. MPV of quantity obtained from repeated observations
of equal weight is value that renders sum of residuals  Σ𝜐 2 = 𝜈12 + 𝜈22 + ⋯ + 𝜈𝑛2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

squared minimum.  But

 Calculus-Minimum value of a function found by taking its first derivative
and equating the resulting function to zero

 Consider n independent equally weighted measurements, z1, z2, . . . , zn, of

 σʋ𝟐 = 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 𝟐
the same quantity z, which has a most probable value denoted by M.

Least Squares Adjustment… Least Squares Adjustment…

Principle… Principle…
 taking first derivative with respect to M and set resulting  equation represents mean of observations
equation to zero
 when quantity observed independently several times, the
𝝏(σʋ𝟐 ) MPV is the arithmetic mean
= 𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝝏𝑴

 Dividing both sides by 2 and simplifying For weighted observations

𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 = 𝟎  Consider a set of measurements z1, z2, . . . , zn having
relative weights w1, w2, . . . , wn and residuals v1, v2, . . . , vn.
𝒏𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 − ⋯ − 𝒛𝒏 = 𝟎

𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒛𝒏  Denote the weighted MPV as M

𝑴=
𝒏

Least Squares Adjustment… Least Squares Adjustment…

For weighted observations  differentiating the equation and equating to zero
 Consider a set of measurements z1, z2, . . . , zn having relative weights w1, w2,
. . . , wn and residuals v1, v2, . . . , vn. 𝝏(σ𝒘ʋ𝟐 )
= 𝟐𝒘𝟏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒘𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝟐𝒘𝒏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝝏𝑴

 Denote the weighted MPV as M  Dividing by 2 and rearranging the equation

𝒘𝟏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 𝟏 = 𝟎
2. Condition: sum of the products of the weights times
their respective residuals squared must be minimum 𝒘𝟏 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 𝒛𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒏 𝒛𝒏 = 𝒘𝟏 𝑴 + 𝒘𝟐 𝑴 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒏 𝑴

σ𝒘ʋ =𝟐
𝒘𝟏 ʋ𝟐𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 ʋ𝟐𝟐 + 𝒘𝟑 ʋ𝟐𝟑 + ⋯+ 𝒘𝒏 ʋ𝟐𝒏 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒏 σ𝒘𝒛
𝑴=
σ𝒘
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒘𝟏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒛𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒏 𝑴 − 𝒛𝒏 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎

–29
 –11/24/2023

Least Squares Adjustment… Least Squares Adjustment…

Mathematical Model: Equations formed to relate and fulfill the Conditional Functional Model: geometric conditions are enforced on
conditions relating the observed measurements and their best observations and their residuals e.g. sum of internal angles of a
estimates polygon (n-2)180. Used by Condition Equation Methods of LSA.

Stochastic Model: determination of variances and subsequently Parametric Model: observations expressed in terms of unknown
weights of observations parameters that were never observed e.g. determining coordinates

Functional Model: Equations defining an adjustment e.g. sum of from angles, directions and distances observed

internal angles of plane triangle add up to 180 00 00. the model Stochastic and functional models must be correct in order to yield
could be known or assumed MPV of unknowns

Observation Equations Method Observation Equations Method…

Consider the following three equations
Relate observed quantities to residuals and unknown parameters
x+y=3.0 (i)
One equation relates each observation for a unique number of 2x-y=1.5 (ii)
unknowns x-y=0.2 (iii)

Number of equations must equal number of unknowns for a unique x,y unknowns
3, 1.5, 0.2 are observations
solution
One redundant observation
More observations/equations than unknowns to permits
x=1.5; y=1.5 from i and ii
determination of MPV for the unknowns
x=1.3; y=1.1 from ii and iii
x=1.6; y=1.4 from i and iii

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

The observations contain errors, hence the inconsistency. 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = Σ𝑣 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3.0 2
+ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1.5 2
+ 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 0.2 2

Observation equations written that include residuals. They

relate unknown parameters to observations and their errors To minimize a function, its derivatives must be equal to zero

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3.0 = 𝑣1 (iv) 𝛿𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
= 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3.0 + 2 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1.5 (2) + 2 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 0.2 = 0
2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1.5 = 𝑣2 (v) 𝛿𝑥

𝑥 − 𝑦 − 0.2 = 𝑣3 (vi)
𝛿𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
= 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3.0 + 2 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1.5 (−1) + 2 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 0.2 (−1) = 0
𝛿𝑦
Possible to select v1, v2, v3 that yield same values for x and y.
e.g. v1=0; v2=0; v3=-0.2; x=1.5, y=1.5 6x-2y-6.2=0
-2x+3y-1.3=0; these are referred to as Normal Equations
There are other values for vs that will produce a smaller sum of
squares Solution: (x=1.514; y=1.442); (v1=-0.044; v2,=0.085; v3=-0.128)

–30
 –11/24/2023

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

Matrix Notation 𝑉 𝑇 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
Linearized observation equations are given in matrix form as
𝑉 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 ⇒ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 (ii)
V=AX+L (i)

Where V is the matrix of residuals i.e. From (i) 𝑉 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑇

𝑣1 From (ii) 𝑉 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑇P[AX+L]

𝑋 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑃 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿
𝑉 = 𝑣2 𝑋 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑃 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑃 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿
𝑣3
𝑋 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋 + 𝑋 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑃𝐿 (iii)
Gaussian condition where sum of squares of residuals should Equation (iii) is the squares of residuals expressed in
be minimum in matrix form is given as: terms of unknowns

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

But 𝑋 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋 (show!) 2𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋+2𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 = 0

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
⇒ 𝑉 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑋 𝐴 𝑃𝐴𝑋 + 2𝐿 𝑃𝐴𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 (iv) 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋+𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 = 0
Let (iv) be ϕ
𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋 = −𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿
𝛿ϕ
= 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋+𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋+2𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝑃𝐿 (vi)
𝛿𝑥

= 2𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴𝑋+2𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 (v) If there is no information about reliability, the weight matrix P
Set equation (v) to zero to give minimum value of 𝑉 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 is taken as unity

⇒ 𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 (vii)

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

Examples: Solution

1. The observed angles of a plane triangle are A=51 37 40; 𝑣1 = 𝑎 − 51 37 40 = 1𝑎 − 51 37 40

𝑣2 = 𝑏 − 71 18 45 = 1𝑏 − 71 18 45
B=71 18 45; C=57 03 50. Use observation equations
𝑣3 = 𝑐 − 57 03 50 = 180 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 57 03 50
method to find the best estimates of the three angles.
= −𝑎 − 𝑏 + 122 56 10 = −1𝑎 − 1𝑏 + 122 56 10

V=AX+L
b=71 18 45

1 0 𝑎 −51 37 40
a=51 37 40
c=57 03 50 𝑉= 0 1 𝑏 + −71 18 45
−1 −1 122 56 10

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Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝑃𝐿 1 2 −1 −174 33 50 51 37 35
− 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝐿=− =
𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 3 −1 2 −194 14 55 71 18 40
𝑎 51 37 35
𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝐿= =
1 0 𝑏 71 18 40
1 0 −1 2 1
−𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = − 0 1 =
0 1 −1 1 2 c=180-(a+b)=57 03 45
−1 −1
1 2 −1
−𝐴𝑇 𝐴 −1
=−
3 −1 2

−51 37 40
1 0 −1 −174 33 50
𝐴𝑇 𝐿 = −71 18 45 =
0 1 −1 −194 14 55
122 56 10

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

2. What are the MPV for the observations a1, a2, a3 below Solution

V=AX+L
a1 𝑣1 = 𝑎1 − 134 38 56
𝑣2 = 𝑎2 − 83 17 35
a3 a2 𝑣3 = 𝑎3 − 142 03 14 = 360 − 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 − 142 03 14
134 38 56 ± 6.7” = a1 = −𝑎1 − 𝑎2 + 217 56 46
83 17 35 ± 9.9” = a2
𝑣1 1 0 −134 38 56 𝑎1
142 03 14 ± 4.3” = a3 𝑉 = 𝑣2 ; 𝐴 = 0 1 ; 𝐿 = −83 17 35 ; 𝑋 = 𝑎
2
𝑣3 −1 −1 217 56 46

Observation Equations Method… Observation Equations Method…

𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝑃𝐿
𝑣1 1 0 −134 38 56 𝑎1
𝑉 = 𝑣2 ; 𝐴 = 0 1 ; 𝐿 = −83 17 35 ; 𝑋 = 𝑎 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴 =
0.07636 0.05408
2
𝑣3 −1 −1 217 56 46 0.05408 0.06429

14.7867721
𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐿 =
12.6370848
𝑋 = − 𝐴𝑇 𝑃𝐴 −1 𝑇
𝐴 𝑃𝐿
134 39 00.2
𝑋=
83 17 44.1
1ൗ 0 0
6.72 𝑎3 =360-(134 39 00.2+83 17 44.1)=142 03 15.7
𝑃= 0 1ൗ 0
9.92
0 0 1ൗ
4.32

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 –11/24/2023

Condition Equations Method Condition Equations Method…

 Observations can also be adjusted using condition  Condition:
equations (𝑎 + 𝑣1 ) + (𝑏 + 𝑣2 ) + (𝑐 + 𝑣3 ) − 180 00 00 = 0

1. demonstrated by using the condition that the sum of Writing the condition in the form of BV+W=0
interior angles of plane triangle must equal 180 00 00 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 180 00 00) = 0
Observations: 3
Unknowns: 2
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 00 00 15 = 0

b=71 18 45 ConditionEquations:3-2=1
𝑣1
a=51 37 40 1 1 1 𝑣2 + 15 = 0
c=57 03 50 𝑣3

Condition Equations Method… Condition Equations Method…

BV+W=0
1 −5 𝑣1
𝑽 = −𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻(𝑩𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 )−𝟏𝑾 for weighted -1 3 −1
15 = −5 = 𝑣2
1 −5 𝑣3
observations

=−𝑩𝑻 (𝑩𝑩𝑻)−𝟏𝑾 for equal weight

 a=51 37 35
b=71 18 40
1 −5 𝑣1 c=57 03 45
−1
-1 3 15 = −5 = 𝑣2
1 −5 𝑣3

Condition Equations Method… Condition Equations Method…

2. What are the MPV for the observations a1, a2, a3 below Solution
 demonstrated by using the condition that the sum of the
angles in the horizon at a single station must equal 360 00
a1 00
 Observations=3
a3 a2 Unknowns=2
Condition equations=3-2=1
134 38 56 ± 6.7” = a1
𝑎 + 𝑣1 + 𝑏 + 𝑣2 + 𝑐 + 𝑣3 − 360 = 0
83 17 35 ± 9.9” = a2
Writing the condition in the form of BV+W=0
142 03 14 ± 4.3” = a3
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 360) = 0

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 –11/24/2023

Condition Equations Method… Condition Equations Method…

𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 − 15 = 0 𝑽 = −𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 (𝑩𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 )−𝟏 𝑾

𝑣1 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟑
1 1 1 𝑣2 − 15 = 0 𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟐
𝑣3 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟏
(𝑩𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 )−𝟏= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟐𝟔

1ൗ 0 0
6.72 −𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟗
𝑃= 0 1ൗ 0 𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻(𝑩𝑷−𝟏 𝑩𝑻 )−𝟏 𝑾 = −𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟕
9.92
−𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟒
0 0 1ൗ
4.32

Condition Equations Method… Condition Equations Method…

−𝟏 𝑻 −𝟏 𝑻 −𝟏 𝑬𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝑽 = −𝑷 𝑩 (𝑩𝑷 𝑩 ) 𝑾

𝑣1 4.17
𝑉 = 𝑣2 = 9.11 𝑙1 =83242±5”
𝑣3 1.72 𝑙1 𝑙2 =134174±5”
𝑙4
𝑙2
𝑎 134 38 56 𝑣1 134 39 00.2 𝑙3 =154639±5”
𝑏 = 83 17 35 + 𝑣2 = 83 17 44.1 𝑙5 𝑙3 𝑙4 =2174430±10”
𝑐 142 03 14 𝑣3 142 03 15.7
𝑙5 =288815±10”

Condition Equations Method… EXERCISES

The diagram above shows observed 1. Different observers measured an angle six times and the following

angles 𝑙1 𝒕𝒐 𝑙5 in seconds. Use the values obtained 42°25’10’’ (2), 42°25’08’’ (1), 42°25’09’’ (3),
42°25’07’’ (2), 42°25’11’’ (3), and 42°25’09’’ (2). The values
observation equations method to
given in the parentheses are the weights of the observations.
determine the best estimates for the
Determine the most probable value of the angle.
observed angles. Confirm your results
2. The same operator using the same instrument observed angles in a
using the condition equations method. plane triangle ABC, but the number of repetitions for each angle
varied. The results were A = 45o15’25”, n = 4; B= 83o37’22”, n =
8; and C=51o07’39”, n = 6. Adjust the observations to get the most
probable values for the three angles.

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CAT (2021/2022)-30 Minutes

3. The following observations have been made to determine the length 1. Briefly explain steps in generating data for setting out vertical curves in
of line EG. Determine the most probable value for the line EG by:
highway engineering (10 Marks)
Observation Equations Method; Condition Equations Method.
2. Discuss four reasons why adjusting survey measurements is necessary (10
Line Length (m)
Marks)
EF 250.06
FG 399.95 3. Use practical examples to describe five applications of triangulation in
EG 650.04 engineering works (10 Marks)

4. Tabulate data needed to set out by theodolite and tape a circular curve of radius
600m to connect two straights having a deflection angle 18o24’, the chainage
of the intersection point being 2140m (10 Marks)

CAT (2022/2023)
1. Explain steps in generating data for setting out horizontal curves in highway
engineering by the Rankine method (10 Marks)

2. What are redundant observations in surveying measurements? Use practical

examples to explain the use redundant observations (10 Marks)

3. Lines of levels to establish elevation of a point are run over four different
routes. The observed elevations are 721.05±0.02m, 720.96±0.04m,
721.17±0.06m and 721.20±0.08m. Determine the mean elevation of the point
(10 marks)

4. How is the turning point located in unsymmetrical vertical curve? (5 marks)

–35