. .

- .

BNL-6 56 7 7
Informal R e p o r t

SURVEY OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCERELATED MATERIALS NEEDS IN

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

MARITA L. ALLAN

JUNE 1998
RECEIVED

Prepared for:

Oflice of Geothermal Technologies

United States Department of Energy
Washington, D.C. 20585

Under Contract No. DE-AC02-98CH10886

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Upton, NY 11973-5000
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in

electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Acknowlegements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Past Relevant Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ResultsofSurvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Analysis of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Appendix A: Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

V
SUMMARY

A survey was conducted to determine operation and maintenance (O&M)-related materials

needs in geothermal power plants and to identi@ future research and development to address these
needs. A total of 44 questionnaires was mailed to geothermal plant operators and industry
consultants. The response rate was 54%. The participants were asked to describe type and frequency
of materials problems, strategies currently used to mitigate such problems, barriers to using new or
alternative materials and technologies, sources of information and give their views research and
development priorities. A wide range of opinions was obtained, reflecting each individual
respondent’s perspective and the site-specific nature of some problems. However, the consensus is
that corrosion and scaling remain major issues and that components requiring performance
improvements include pipelines, well casing, turbines, heat exchangers, condensers, valves and
cooling towers. It is recommended that appropriate research and development continue to be
directed at reducing O&M costs associated with materials failure or inadequate service. There should
be a balance between optimizing existing materials through better design and understanding of
behaviour in geothermal environments and development of new materials. Life extension of existing
equipment, service life prediction, education of plant personnel in materials and methods for
mitigating corrosion, and improvements in inhibitors and biocides would also be beneficial.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was fbnded by the U.S. Department of Energy/Office of Geothermal Technologies.
Thanks are due to Mr. Ray LaSala for his support of this activity. In addition, the assistance with
making contacts for the survey given by Ms. Pede Dorr, Mr. Larry Kukacka and Dr. John Rowley
is much appreciated. Finally, all of the survey participants are thanked for their time, cooperation and
valuable suggestions.

vii
INTRODUCTION

Increasing the competitiveness of geothermal electrical power energy requires reduction of

costs ranging fiom exploration and d&g to plant operation and maintenance (O&M). Brookhaven’s
Geothermal Materials Program focuses on research and development of durable, economic materials
for use in geothermal environments. Corrosion and scaling of power plant equipment, degradation
of well cements and lost circulation during drilling are examples of typical problems encountered in
the utilization of geothermal energy that are addressed in Brookhaven’s activities. In order to best
serve the geothermal industry, Brookhaven continually seeks input and direction to prioritize
materials research and thereby improve the efficiency and economics of energy conversion.

At the request of our Program Manager fiom the Department of Energy/O%ce of Geothermal
Technologies, Mr. Ray LaSala, Brookhaven conducted a survey to identifjr:

0 O&M-related materials needs in geothermal power plants.

0 Means of improving materials performance and reliability.

0 Means of reducing O&M costs.

0 Future research priorities.

A list of potential participants was compiled with the assistance of Ms. Perle Dorr
(Geothermal Energy Association), Mr. Larry Kukacka (BNL-retired) and Dr. John Rowley (Pajarito
Enterprises). A notice was also placed in the DOE insert of the Geothermal Bulletin inviting industry
members to participate. The total number of responses was 24 out of 44 representing a return rate
of 54%. In addition to the U.S.,responses were also received from New Zealand, The Philippines,
Costa Rica, Mexico and Indonesia. A cross-section of participants was sought in order to obtain a
variety of opinions. The respondents included personnel responsible for geothermal plant
maintenance and management as well as consultants. In order to avoid potential bias, participants
with or seeking DOE finding were excluded. The identity of the respondents is being held
confidential.

When analyzing the results it must be kept in mind that the sample is relatively small. In
addition, the responses depend on the individual’s particular role and the location of the power plant.
Different resources have different brine chemistry and temperature. Other variables, such as plant age,
also affect the type and severity of problems encountered. Hence, some problems, or their impact,
may be site-specific.

The questionnaire is presented in Appendix A. Participants were asked to state their role or
interest in O&M of geothermal power plants, estimate the percentage of plant operating costs that
are a direct result of materials problems and answer questions on the frequency of problems
encountered and the current means of addressing these. Participants were also requested to identifjr

1
their sources of information on materials and list what they see as future research needs.

PAST RELEVANT STUDIES

Reports on materials needs compiled in the 1980s were reviewed to form a baseline. Recent
comments on research priorities and O&M related materials problems were examined from sources
such as GEA workshops, publications in the Geothermal Resources Council Transactions and other
literature.

In 1981 the National Materials Advisory Board issued a report titled “Materials Needs for the
Utilization of Geothermal Energy”. This report included materials needs in drilling and completion,
in addition to production, utilization and reinjection. Specific long-range R&D projects that were
identified and are relevant to the current survey include:

Preparation and properties of coatings, especially on pipes, to improve corrosion and erosion
resistance

The development of new non-metallic solids including ceramics, high-temperature elastomers,

and insulation such as solid foams and composite materials

The development of new designs utilizing existing as well as new materials

The study of nucleation and growth mechanisms of scales and surface abrasion

The development of new cements, cement properties (such as high temperature rheology and
phase chemistry), and cementing adhesion

Research on the utilization and elimination of process wastes

The development of non-destructive techniques for monitoring continuing degradation and/or

catastrophic failures of materials and components

Non-destructive testing of coatings and field repair of large area coatings

The development of cheaper, high thermal conductivity, corrosion resistant materials for
condensers and cooling towers (both wet and dry types)

The education of materials engineers in the problems of geothermal energy

The National Research Council published a report in 1987 titled “Geothermal Energy
Technology: Issues, R&D Needs, and Cooperative Arrangements”. Needs identified in this report
include:
0 Corrosion prevention techniques (e.g., inhibitors, anodic and cathodic protection)

2
0 Corrosion resistant materials

0 Elastomer lined casings

0 Materials for heat exchanger tubing and well casing

0 High temperature elastomers for dynamic seals

Other literature provides insight on materials performance in geothermal environments.

ASTM STP 717 (Casper and Pinchback, 1980) includes numerous papers on corrosion and scaling.
Further examples are provided by Culivicchi et al. (1989, Corsi (1 986), Lichti etal. (1999, Celant
and Smith (1999, Bacon et. (1995), and Bracaloni et. (1995). Jung (1 997) identified corrosion
resistant liners for pipelines and casing, specifically those which can be applied in-situ as a materials
need. Dr. Norio Sanada of the Tohuko National Industrial Research Institute in Japan has conducted
a literature survey for the Materials Subtask of the E A Research Collaboration Program and kindly
supplied a list of journal and conference publications.

The April 1997 GEA Workshop produced a list of recommendations for R&D. Those
specifically related to materials included:

0 Continue to develop and demonstrate coatings, especially those that can be applied in the field

0 Develop materials for use in turbine manufacture that allow closer tolerances in rotating
equipment, leading to improvement in efficiency

0 Continue to work on monitoring and mitigating the effects of corrosion damage

0 Develop methods of integral welding of turbine blades to disks

Develop designs for condensers made of cheaper materials, perhaps with coatings, that would
allow local manufacture.

0 Consider the use of composites and titanium for turbine blades

3
RESULTS OF SURVEY

Question 1. What is your rolehnterest in O&M of geothermal power plants?

The majority of the respondents were responsible for engineering, maintenance, operation and
management of power plants. The remainder were consultants to the geothermal industry.

Question 2. What percentage of total power plant operating costs would you estimate are a
direct result of materials-related problems?

The responses are shown graphically in Figure 1. The most frequent response (i.e., the mode)
was 10-20%. One respondent noted that this is highly dependent on actual field location and could
be >30% in some fields. The one response for the 80-90% category was associated with fluid
collection and disposal systems. One respondent noted that this question was not specific enough.

Question 3. Based on your experience, what is the frequency of the following types of
materials-related problems? (Give examples of component affected if possible).

In this question participants were asked to rate the frequency of different forms of failure or
other problems. Both broad (e.g., all forms of corrosion) and specific (e.g., stress corrosion cracking)
problems were included. The results are given in Figure 2. The most frequent problems were
corrosion (all forms), scaling, microbiologically influenced corrosion, erosion corrosion, and stress
corrosion cracking. The latter three also received responses in the “Rarely” category, hence there
is some divergence. One respondent commented that scaling is the number one cause of shutdown
and that microbiologically influenced corrosion is the major reason for using stainless steel and fibre
reinforced plastic circulating pipes instead of carbon steel.

Table 1 lists the examples of components affected by the specific problems that the
respondents gave.

4
Table 1. Examples of components involved

Problem I, Components
Corrosion (all forms) Turbine blades/nozzles/rotor, pipelines, vessels, expansion bellows, NCG pipelines,
wells, fluid collection and disposal systems, all components, valves, condensers,
electrical systems

Scaling Turbine blades, first stage nozzle box, wells, pipelines, reinjection pumps, separators,
condenser tubes, valves, let down valves at well heads, pumps

Stress corrosion craclung Turbine bladedrotor, stamless steel vessels, piping, pipe elbows, heat exchangers,
3 16/304 stamless steel rupture disks, security valves, wherever 300 series stainless
steel used, duplex stainless steel, some higher Ni alloys, condensers, valve shafts

Erosion corrosion Turbine bladedrotor, LP blades last stage, steam separators, production piping,
reinjection piping, process piping, gland seal system, valve seats

Microbiologically Cooling towers (including concrete above vapour space), heat exchangers, pipelines,
influenced corrosion tube and shell main condenser, condenser tubes, valves

Fatigue Turbine blades/rotor, pipelines, condensers, heat exchangers, rotating equipment

Corrosion fatigue Turbine bladeshotor, pipelines, condensers, condenser tubes, rotating equipment

Solid particle erosion First stage nozzle box, turbine blades/nozzles/seals, well components, pipelines

Wear (all forms) Turbine bladedrotor, valve stem, steam seals, steam scrubbers, valves, steam
equipment exhaust, compressors

Coating failure Turbine casing, pipelines, welMine valves, silencers, epoxy coating on mild steel
condenser, cooling tower fan gear boxes, miscellaneous plant structural steel, Teflon
linings, circulating water pipes, Sulfatreat pressure vessels

Creep Teflon linings

Yielding Wells

Fracture Well casing, turbine blades, stainless steel vessels, pipelines, welds
Combination Turbine blades

Question 4. Indicate the extent of use of the following materials and strategies to mitigate
materials-related problems.

This question was divided into four parts:

a. Materials
b. Treatments
c. Inspectionhdaintenance
d. Basis for materials selection

5
 Figures 3 to 6 show the results for this question. For part a), the most fiequent response was
corrosion resistant ferrous alloys, followed by coatings and linings. The most commonly used
treatment (part b) was biocides. The most common form of inspection (part c) was visual followed
by non-destructive testing. The overall responses for preventive and corrective maintenance were
similar. With regard to materials selection (part d), 100% of respondents said that prior experience
was often the basis. In-house evaluation and combination of different factors were the other most
frequent responses. Life cycle cost analysis, minimum cost and minimum failure tended to be used
only sometimes or rarely.

Question 5. Based on your experience, indicate the extent of use of different coatingsflinings
and application methods in geothermal power plants.

This question was designed to provide information on what types of coatings and application
methods are most commonly used. The percentages of “Don’t know” and “No response” were
relatively high for this question. The responses are given in Figure 7. Of the four generic coating
materials, metal appeared most often. Brushholler or spray painting were the most common
application methods. Chemical vapour depositiodphysical vapour deposition (CVDPVD) did not
receive many responses.

Question 6. Typically, what are the greatest bamers to using new or alternative materials and
technologies to mitigate materials-related problems?

Figure 8 presents the results for this question. Unfavourable life cycle cost analysis was oRen
rated as a barrier to using new or alternative materials and technologies. However, there was also
a sizeable percentage of responses in the “Rarely” category. In Question 4d it appeared that life cycle
cost analysis is not used extensively. Insufficient performance data and high initial cost also appear
to be barriers. For the “High risk” option the percentage responses for the “Often” and “Rarely”
categories were equal. S d a r findings were obtained for the “Requires special expertise/equipment”
option. This indicates high variability in viewpoints.

Question 7. What sources of information do you use to keep up to date with materials-related
research and development?

The purpose of this question was to identlfjl where the geothermal industry seeks information
so that these sources can be targeted in the interests of technology transfer. Figure 9 shows that
industry publications, published conference proceedings and technical journals received the most
frequent responses. Research reports by national laboratories and universities were not frequently
used. The responses for electronic databases and the World Wide Web were vaiied. Some
respondents noted that they are not yet connected to the Web or do not have access to these two
sources. One respondent noted use of the GRC Online Library.

6
Question 8. How would you rate the importance of the following in reducing O&M materials-
related costs?

This question posed several options that could assist in reduction of O&M costs associated
with materials problems. The results are presented in Figure 10. Optimization of currently available
materials and technologies, life extension of existing equipment and service life prediction were rated
of high importance. Education and training were also important. Development of new materials and
technologies and better methods for in-situ coating applications were of lower importance than other
options. It is sigmficant that the respondents viewed optimization of currently available technologies
and materials of greater importance than new materials.

Question 9. List O&M materials-related research needs in order of priority that you believe
would have the greatest impact on improving materials performance, enhancing efficiency and
reducing O&M costs.

The suggestions received are listed below in no particular order. A new style of bullet
indicates the start of the list for a new respondent.

Better understanding and prediction of material behaviour through modelling

Better inspection and maintenance scheduling through performance prediction and correlation
with condition assessment and nondestructive tests
Emphasis on effectively utilizing existing materials and protective measures rather than
developing new materials
More consideration to design aspects
Applications and introduction of modern coatings technology to geothermal industry
Organize a special seminar on O&M cost reduction potentials via materials advances already
known
R&D on instrumentation for corrosion monitoring and inspections
Provide materials R&D information and advanced work on duaVclad components
R&D for introduction of special corrosion resistant alloys in critical corrosion
areas/components
Analyses of typical two-phase flow situations that cause enhanced corrosion in critical flow
areas
Conduct R&D on improved chemicals for injection for corrosion inhibitions specific to
geothermal application
Dual hnction scale/corrosion inhibitors
Improved bonding of coatings to carbon steels
Improved biocides, more environmentally safe biocides
Non-fouling packings in condensers and cooling towers
Cheaper H,S abatement chemicals/more effective systems
Corrosioderosion resistant turbine nozzles and blades
Service life prediction of materials and coatings in geothermal environments
Non-destructive testing for damage

7
 High performance corrosion and wear resistant coatings that can be applied in-situ
Better biocides for cooling towers
Protection of concrete from microbiological attack in cooling towers
Coatings resistant to biocorrosion
Refbrbishment of worn and corroded equipment
Engineering analysis and modeling of equipment/materials, including coated materials, to
calculate effects of thermal and mechanical stresses
Prediction of remaining life from non-destructive evaluation, especially turbine blades and
rotors
Lower cost materials for well casing in corrosive fields
Prevention of turbine blade and rotor failures
Lower cost methods for protecting carbon steel pipelines in geothermal production gathering
systems
Prevention of calcium carbonate and silica scaling in production and injection systems
Better methods of turbine washing while online
Improved non-destructive testing methods
Improved methods for descaling pipelines and wellbores
Know materials of construction
Know type of geothermal fluids
Know the chemistry of steam supply
Establish factors promoting material failures
Material selection suitable to geothermal environment
Research to focus and address impact of corrosive compounds in geothermal fluids (i.e., H,S,
Cl-, NH3, CO,, SiO,)
Corrosion resistant coatings to enable use of lower cost materials on NCG and condensate
pipelines
Reduced capital cost of plant in order to make geothermal more cost competitive
Research into effects of geothermal service conditions on polymeric materials
Prevention of corrosion problems with equipment parts exposed to geothermal gases in wet
and dry cycle conditions. This is related with the barometric condenser legs discharging in
the hot well. This leg is exposed to the H,S associated with wet and dry cycles, accelerating
corrosion and loss of vacuum in the main condenser.
Prevention of corrosion problems in concrete structures. We have experience with
degradation of the concrete and attack of steel exposed to H,S.
Prevention of corrosion in the fans of cooling towers when the NCG are dispersed in the top
of the tower.
Preventiodremoval of mineral deposits on turbine blades
In-situ placement of repair linerdcoatings in pipelines and well casing
Scale inhibitors
Control of microbiological attack
Good, stable coatings on carbon steel in the condensing flow systems of the power plant to
reduce capital cost
Good permanent coatings in carbon steel well casings

8
 Coatings to prevent scaling in separators
Corrosion resistant ferrous alloys
Cladding
Non-ferrous alloys
Polymers
Coatings and linings
Ceramics
The materials, at least in terms of metals and alloys, are available. It is a matter of proper
application, knowledge and experience.
Lower cost, more corrosion resistant pipeline materials than carbon steel
Turbine material problems may best be handled by keeping steam clean. Use existing
technology rather than developing new turbine materials due to complexity and issues
unrelated to geothermal corrosion such as operating stresses, vibration, cost etc.
Cathodic protection
Corrosion resistant alloys
Polymers for repair and protection
Corrosion irhbitors
Reducing capital cost: -less expensive cooling water pipes
Reducing maintenance cost: -improved turbine blade materialdcosts
-turbine coatings
Well completions for acid-sulfate wells
Effect of NCG content on plant equipment life (0.5-5% NCG)

Question 10. Do you have any other comments?

The various comments received are quoted below

0 “Education and awareness must be improved”.

0 “I’d like to see better use’of computer modeling of materials and components to analyze
stresses and response, predict performance and identi@ the controlling parameters”.
. “We need expertise on corrosion engineering, process chemistry, process design engineering
and quality assurance engineering”.
0 “To become cost-effective in today’s competitive power generation environment, the capital
cost of geothermal plants must be reduced. The successhl use of polymeric materials and
new coatings to enable cheaper materials to be used in the construction could be one way of
achieving such cost reductions”.
0 “It does not matter what you do as long as it is cheap for industry to implement and will make
them money. Cost-effective results!”
0 “.... a series of on-site seminars or workshop for the operational and maintenance personnel

would be most valuable. They would stress the items noted from this survey, and in addition
would introduce the modem trends in corrosion and materials related R&D being conducted
currently. ........ it would be of great benefit to set up some sort of ‘advisory panel’ from
among the geothermal O&M supervisory personnel”.

9
0 “The ability to develop good, stable, permanent coatings to prevent corrosion, erosion and
scaling will have great value in reducing the basic cost of geothermal power. These coatings
will reduce capital cost as well as O&M costs”.
0 “....very little usage of organic corrosion inhibitors; too expensive”.
0 “The major problems I have encountered have been due to corrosion effects associated with
failure to use existing technology to assure optimum purity of steam to the power plant
components during plant operation and proper care during shutdown. In some cases with
steam resources, the situation is complicated by changes in steam chemistry as the field ages.
However, since geothermal turbines have been in operation for over 50 years, considerable
technology has been developed and reported to handle most of these problems as long as
personnel associated with the design and operation of the geothermal power plant people are
aware of them”.
0 “Ifthe findings of R&D are to be implemented in geothermal plants they need to be presented
in a language that plant engineers can understand”.

10
F l j p e 8 Great.est barrrers to using new or altcrnatlvt: rnntcllals and tccl~rlologrcsto x~lxtrgatc
nnaterinls-related problems, (
Frg~ireI0 Irnpor-tance o f example areas in rect~xcirlgO&M-related niatcrinls costs {
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The survey provided valuable insight on the major areas of concern and how these might be
addressed. Gwen that the sample was relatively small, the survey was qualitative and that opinions
are diverse, several inferences can be made. These are based on the responses received.

Corrosion (including microbiologically influenced corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and

erosion corrosion) and scaling are still the leading problems that must be tackled to reduce O&M
materials-related costs. The components typically affected are turbine blades, nozzles and rotors,
pipelines, cooling towers, condensers, valves, well casings and heat exchangers. Microbiological
attack of concrete and metal in cooling towers was listed by several respondents. Hence, it is not
only geothermal fluids that are causing corrosion in plants.

Corrosion resistant ferrous alloys appear to be used frequently to combat problems, where
as non-metallic materials (polymers, ceramics and composites) are less widely used. Non-metallics
have potential for use in aggressive environments provided that the mechanical properties, practicality
and economics are appropriate, in addition to chemical resistance. Coatings and cladding see some
use and could possible be extended. The use of coated low cost construction materials (e.g., carbon
steel), use of modern coatings and technology, engineering analysis of coated materials, and in-situ
application and repair of coatings were listed as research needs by several respondents. In particular,
coatingsfliners for pipelines and well casing appear to have strong interest.

The responses for treatments used were diverse. Of these, biocides were most frequent.
Some of the suggestions in Question 9 for research needs referred to improved biocides,
environmental safe biocides and protection of concrete in cooling towers. Modification of fluid
chemistry (e.g., pH control) received a high response for the "Sometimes" category. The responses
for "Rarely" outweighed those for "Often" for the use of corrosion inhibitors. Improvements in
inhibitor performance and reduction in cost could possibly increase the usage and benefits of
inhibitors. Corrosion and scale inhibitors were mentioned several times as research needs, including
suggestions for dual hnction inhibitors and corrosion irhbitors specifically for geothermal
applications.

Visual inspection is apparently used often as well as non-destructive testing. Several

respondents noted the need for improved non-destructive testing and predicting
performancelremaininglife fiom such tests. Preventive maintenance to avoid failures or deterioration
received a similar distribution of responses as corrective maintenance.

The unanimous response for often using prior experience as the basis for materials selection
indicates a strong reliance on past performance data. In-house evaluation is rated higher than
research by others. This, together with using prior experience, implies that first hand knowledge of
a material's performance is very important in materials selection for the respondents. Different fluid
chemistry and plant operating conditions may contribute to this strategy since what is reported to
work well in one case may not be uniformly applicable. Also, the required data in geothermal
environments to justifL selecting a particular material or to conduct life cycle cost analysis of
alternative materials may be unavailable or limited.

The scatter in responses on coatings and linings prohibits identification of strong preferences.
Metal and inorganic coatings appear favoured over organic and composite. Coatings were listed as
research needs, particularly for corrosion protection of carbon steel. Suitable coatings for wear and
biocorrosion resistance were also mentioned. The use of coatings to reduce capital costs in addition
to O&M costs is also important.

Responses were also varied on the issue of barriers to using new or alternative materials and
technologies. High initial costs, unfavourable life cycle cost analysis and insufficient performance
data need to be addressed in R&D on materials for geothermal applications to remove these barriers.
Consideration should also be given to the practical aspects of implementing alternatives.

The respondents preferred technical journals, industry publications and published conference
proceedings as sources of information on materials R&D. Therefore, greater effort should be made
to publishing the findings of R&D in these forms. The low apparent usage of university or national
laboratory research reports is possibly due to insufficient distribution to interested parties. Also, one
respondent commented that the findings of R&D need to be in a language that plant engineers can
understand and this should be taken more into account when writing reports. The usage of electronic
databases and the World Wide Web may increase in the hture as more information is available from
these sources and access increases. Brookhaven is in the process of making reports available in PDF
format. Ensuring that research publications are listed on the GRC On-line Library would also be
usehl.

Life extension of existing equipment, service life prediction, optimization of currently available
materials and technology, and education were of relative importance to the respondents in reducing
O&M costs. The research needs and additional comments in Questions 9 and 10 also identified these
areas. The need for predicting performance and relating this to non-destructive tests was noted as
was rehrbishment of worn and corroded equipment. Respondents commented that existing materials
should be used more effectively through appropriate application, design, knowledge and experience.
One respondent felt that problems encountered with turbines could be handled by keeping the steam
clean rather than developing new materials. Therefore, it is clear that effort should not be solely
directed towards new materials. A balance between optimizing currently available materials and
technologies and taking advantage of new advances in materials and damage mitigation strategies
must be maintained.

Question 8 saw a varied response for better non-destructive testing methods'. However,
several respondents listed this in research needs under Question 9. Education of plant personnel in
materials advances, coating technologies and control of corrosion, erosion and scale is a logical and
effective way of increasing awareness of how problems can be addressed. The suggestion of
seminars or workshops should be pursued.
 The research needs and comments listed by the respondents were numerous and diverse. On
some issues there is a consensus, whereas divergence occurs with others. The most
significant/fiequent needs and comments are summarized below in no particular order:

Service life prediction by modelling and correlation with condition assessment and non-
destructive tests
Effective utilization of existing materials and technologies through appropriate selection,
design, application, knowledge and experience
Coatings for corrosion, wear, scale and biocorrosion control. Coatings for carbon steel, well
casings and pipelines and methods for in-situ placement
Improved instrumentatiodnon-destructive testing for monitoring damage
Performance of corrosion resistant alloys, clad materials, polymers
Improved biocides
Protection of concrete in cooling towers
Improved scale and corrosion inhibitors
Prevention of corrosion, erosion and scaling in turbines
Prevention of corrosion in condensers
Protection from corrosive effects of NCG
Reduction of capital costs
Keeping steam clean to prevent problems in turbines
Seminars and educational activities for plant personnel

RECOMMENDATIONS

Corrosion, including microbiologically influenced corrosion, and scaling remain the major
sources of materials-related O&M costs and should continue to be addressed in R&D. This R&D
should not be solely directed towards new materials. Optimization of existing materials and
technologies through better design and enhanced understanding of response to the conjoint action of
environment and operational stresses is of great importance. Integration of modelling materials
performance and service life with pertinent experimental and operational data would expedite this
objective and be an efficient use of time and resources.

Research should be directed at detecting, mitigating and preventing problems in components

such as pipelines, well casings, turbines, heat exchangers, valves, condensers and cooling towers.
Improvements in scale and corrosion inhibitors and biocides are also required. Life extension is likely
to become an increasingly important issue as plants age.

Since the survey found that materials selection is largely based on previous performance data
it is important for the geothermal industry that this data be readily available and that collection of long
term performance data for new and alternative materials be included in R&D on such materials. Joint
commitment by plant operators and researchers to monitor new and alternative materials exposed to
operating conditions over extended periods and thereby generate useful performance data for future
use and life cycle cost analysis would just6 selection of particular materials. This type of data would
also be usefbl when expanding existing or constructing new plants.

Dissemination of research findings needs to be improved. Research reports appear to be a

relatively ineffective form of technology transfer with the current distribution system. Greater
emphasis should be placed on publication in journals and conference proceedings, in addition to
improving the ease of understanding by end users. Electronic sources of information may find greater
use in the future. Continued education of geothermal plant O&M personnel in the optimal use of new
and existing materials and technologies for mitigating corrosion and scaling is key to implementation
of research.
REFERENCES

Bacon, L., Jordan, J. and Pearson, W., Microbiology and Corrosion in Geothermal Natural Draft
Cooling Towers, Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress, Florence, pp. 2387-2390, 1995.

Bracaloni, M., Culivicchi, G. and Fornari, B., Erosion and Corrosion Problems Experienced During
the Operation of Geothermal Turbines in Italy, Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress,
Florence, pp. 2427-2432, 1995.

Casper, L.A. and Pinchback, T.R., Geothermal Scaling and Corrosion, ASTM STP 717, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1980.

Celant, M. and Smith, L., On the Economic Benefit of Using Components Internally Clad with
Corrosion Resistant Alloys, Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress, Florence, pp. 23 8 1-2386,
1995.

Corsi, R., Scaling and Corrosion in Geothermal Equipment: Problems and Preventive Measures,
Geothermics, V. 15, No. 516, pp. 839-856, 1986.

Culivicchi, G., Palrnerini, C.G. and Scolari, V., Behaviour of Materials in Geothermal Environments,
Geothermics, V. 14, No. 1, pp 73-90, 1985.

Jung, D.B., Making Geothermal Cost Competitive: Production Equipment and Facilities Cost
Reduction, GRC Transactions, V. 21, pp 547-553, 1997.

Lichti, K.A., Johnson, C.A., McIlhone, P.G.H. and Wilson, P.T., Corrosion of Iron-Nickel Base and
Titanium Alloys in Aerated Geothermal Fluids, Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress,
Florence, pp. 2375-2380, 1995.

National Materials Advisory Board, Materials Needs for the Utilization of Geothermal Energy,
NMAB-375, 198 1 .

National Research Council, Geothermal Energy Technology: Issues, R&D Needs and Cooperative
Arrangements, National Academy Press, 1987.
 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What is your rolelinterest in O&M of geothermal power plants?

2. What percentage of total power plant operating costs would you estimate are a direct result
of materials-related problems?
0 <lo% 0 10-20% 020-30% 0 30-40% 0 40-50% 0 50-60%
60- 70% 70-80% 80-90% >90% q Don't know/Not applicable

3. Based on your experience, what is the frequency of the following types of materials-related
problems? (Give examples of component affected if possible).

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Examples of Components

Know
Corrosion (all forms)
. Scaling
Stress corrosion
craclung

Erosion corrosion

Microbiologically
d u e n c e d corrosion

Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue

Solid particle erosion

Wear (all forms)

Coating failure
Creep

Yielding
Fracture
Combination
Unexplained
Other (describe)
4. Indicate the extent of use of the following materials and strategies to mitigate materials-related
problems:

+
a: Materials

I Often I Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know

Corrosion resistant ferrous alloys (e.g., stamless

steels)

Non-ferrous alloys (e.g., Ti- and Ni-base alloys)

I I
I polymers I I
Ceramics

Composites
I I
Coatings and linings

Cladding

I Other (describe) I I
b: Treatments

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know

Corrosion Inhibitors
Scale Inhibitors

Cathodic protection

Mod~ficationof fluid chemistry

Biocides
Other (describe)
 Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know
Visual inspection
On-line monitoring
Non-destructive testing
Corrective maintenance
Preventive maintenance

d: Basis for materials selection

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know

Prior experience
In-house evaluation
Research by others
Supplier data

Life cycle cost analysis of alternative materials

Mmmum cost (use of least expensive material
followed by periodic replacement)

Mmmum failure (use of best material regardless of

cost)

Combination of one or more of above

Other (describe)
 Based on your experience, indicate the extent of use of different coatingsllinings and
application methods in geothermal power plants:

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know

Organic

Metal

Inorganic

Composite

Brush or roller applied

Spray painted

Thermal spray

CVDPVD
Hot dip or electroplated

Electrostatic or fluidized bed

Bonded sheethape

Other (describe)

6. Typically, what are the greatest barriers to using new or alternative materials and technologies
to mitigate materials-related problems?

High initial cost

I Life cycle cost analysis unfavourable I
Often

I
Sometimes

I
Rarely

-I
Never Don't Know

I Insufficient performance data

IGgh risk
I Requires shutdown to implement I I I
Requires special expertise or equipment
I I I
I Not readily available
- -
I I I
Resistance to change
Other (describe) 1 I I
 What sources of information do you use to keep up to date with materials-related research
and development?

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Don't Know

Technical journals

Books

Industry publications

Published conference proceedings

Conference/workshop oral presentations

National laboratory/university research reports

In-house research

Trade exhbitions

Supplier mformation

Electronic database (e.g., Compendex, Current

Contents)

World Wide Web

Other (describe)

8. How would you rate the importance of the following in reducing O&M materials-related
costs?

High Moderate Low None Don't Know

Life extension of existing equipment
Service life prediction

Better methods for in-situ coating application

Better non-destructive testing and monitoring
techmques

Optimization of currently available materials and

technologies

Development of new materials and technologies

Educationltraining
 List O&M materials-related research needs in order of priority that you believe would have
the greatest impact on improving materials performance, enhancing efficiency and reducing
O&M costs.

10. Do you have any other comments?