Bicol University Chem 100.
1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2021-2022
Notes on MEASUREMENT:
Significant Figures, Rounding Off Numbers, Scientific Notation
To understand certain aspects of chemistry, it is necessary to set up and solve problems. Problem solving
requires an understanding of the elementary mathematical operations used to manipulate numbers. Numerical
values or data are obtained from measurements made in an experiment.
There is some degree of uncertainty in every experimental measurement due to limitations inherent in the
measuring instrument and in the skill of the experimenter. The value recorded for a measurement should give some
indication of the reliability (precision). To express maximum precision, this value should contain all the digits that
are known plus one digit that is estimated. These digits, used to express a measured quantity are known as
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES or SIGNIFICANT DIGITS. The last estimated digit introduces some uncertainty. Because of
this uncertainty, every number that expresses a measurement can have only a limited number of digits.
Suppose the length of a block of wood is measured with the two rulers shown. Using ruler A, it is certain
that the block is over 2 cm long and the total length can be estimated to the nearest tenth of a centimeter: 2.7 cm.
Estimating how much the length exceeded 2 cm, a value of 2.6 and 2.8 cm can be reported. Therefore, the recorded
value of 2.7 cm is uncertain by 0.1 cm. The number of significant figures in this measurement is two (one digit that
is known for certain and one that is uncertain).
ruler A ruler B
Using ruler B, the block is at least 2.6 cm long and the total length can be estimated to the nearest
hundredth of a centimeter: 2.68 cm. This measurement is uncertain by about 0.01 cm, so the measurement of 2.68
cm has three significant figures.
Once data are collected, precision can neither be gained nor lost during arithmetic operations on the data.
Keeping track of significant figures is therefore very important in chemical calculations, especially when a calculator
is used.
Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Measurement
The following guidelines can be used to determine the number of significant figures in a given
measurement.
1. The digits 1 through 9 are all significant; therefore the number 27 has two significant figures and 3.584
has four significant figures.
2. The particular placement of the digit zero in a number determines whether or not the zero is significant.
(a) The zero is significant if it is located between two nonzero digits. (Captive zeros)
For example, 1003 has four significant figures and 1.03 has three significant figures.
(b) The zero is significant if it is the final digit to the right of the decimal point. (Trailing zeros)
For example, 39.0, 3.90, and 0.390 all have three significant figures.
(c) The zero is not significant when it is used to mark the position of the decimal point in a
number less than 1. (Leading zeros)
For example, both 0.178 and 0.00178 have three significant figures.
(d) A zero used to mark the decimal place in a number greater than 1 is usually not significant.
(Final zeros)
Specifically, if such zeros are used simply as place markers for the decimal point rather than being
part of the actual measurement, they are not significant.
To eliminate confusion about whether the zero is significant or not, the number is written
in exponential form. For example, the number 4800 can be written as
Notes on MEASUREMENT: Significant Figures, Rounding Off Numbers, Scientific Notation |1
Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2021-2022
4.8 x 103 2 significant figures
4.80 x 103 3 significant figures
4.800 x 103 4 significant figures
A convention will be used in this course that final zeros in a whole number that is reported are
always significant. Thus if we record the weight of an object as 2200 g, we mean that there are four significant
figures. If only two figures are actually significant we must write 2.2 x 10 3 g.
Exact Numbers
Not all numbers used in chemical calculations come from measurements. Numbers that are given in
definitions (1 liter equals 1000 milliliters) or that result from counting objects (1 dozen eggs equals 12 eggs) are
called EXACT NUMBERS. When using exact numbers in calculations, they have an infinite number of significant
figures. Therefore, exact numbers are not considered when determining the number of significant figures in the
answer.
Rules for Determining the Correct Number of Significant Figures in a Calculated Answer
Rule 1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
When numbers are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the answer equals the smallest
number of decimal places among all the numbers added or subtracted. Thus, the answer indicates the first decimal
place in which uncertainty exists in any of the measurements.
Example 1: Add the following numbers: 25, 1.278, 127.1, and 5.45.
25
1.278
127.1
+ 5.45
--------------------------
158.828 calculator answer
Uncertainty begins in the ones column (as indicated by the number 25); the answer should be rounded off
to the ones place. Rounded off, the answer with the correct number of significant figures is 159.
Example 2: Subtract 1.286 from 19.57.
19.57
– 1.286
--------------------------
18.284 calculator answer
Uncertainty begins in the hundredths place, so the answer should be rounded to four significant figures:
18.28.
Rule 2. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
When numbers are multiplied and divided, the number of significant figures in the answer can be no more
than the smallest number of significant figures among all the numbers multiplied and divided.
Example 3: Multiply 13.6 by 0.004.
13.6 x 0.004 = 0.0544 calculator answer
The number 13.6 has three significant figures and 0.004 has one significant figure. The answer must have
one significant figure. Rounded off, 0.0544 becomes 0.05 having one significant figure.
Example 4: Divide 67.0 by 563.
67.0
------------ = 0.1190053 calculator answer
563
Notes on MEASUREMENT: Significant Figures, Rounding Off Numbers, Scientific Notation |2
Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2021-2022
Both the dividend and the divisor have three significant figures. The answer must be rounded to three
significant figures: 0.119.
Rule 3. ROUNDING OFF
To obtain the correct number of significant figures in a calculated result, the nonsignificant digits in the
calculator answer are rounded off.
(a) If the nonsignificant digit is less than 5, the digit is dropped leaving the remaining number
unchanged.
For example, 32.233 to four significant figures is 32.23.
(b) If the nonsignificant digit is equal to or greater than 5, the digit is dropped and the last
significant digit is increased by one.
For example, 32.236 to four significant figures is 32.24.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Chemistry deals with very large and very small numbers. The number of atoms in about 12 grams of carbon
is represented by 6 followed by 23 zeros. Atoms typically have dimensions of parts of nanometers, i.e. 10 decimal
places. These numbers can be simplified and conveniently written using a power of 10. Writing a number as a
power of 10 is called SCIENTIFIC or EXPONENTIAL NOTATION.
A number expressed in scientific notation is a number between 1 and 10 which is then multiplied by 10
raised to a whole number power. The number between 1 and 10 is called the coefficient, and the factor of 10 raised
to a whole number is called the exponential factor.
To write a number in scientific notation, move the decimal point in the original number so that it is located
after the first nonzero digit. This new number is multiplied by 10 raised to the proper power (exponent). If the
decimal point was moved to the left, the power of 10 will be a positive number. If the decimal point was moved to
the right, the power of 10 will be a negative number.
General Form of a Scientific Notation
N x 10 n
where: N (coefficient) = any number between 1 and 10
10n (exponential factor)
n (exponent) = number of places the decimal point was moved
Examples:
Velocity of light in air = 300,000,000 m/sec = 3.0 x 108 m/sec
Mass of electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000910 g = 9.10 x 10-28 g
Notes on MEASUREMENT: Significant Figures, Rounding Off Numbers, Scientific Notation |3
Bicol University Chem 100.1–Principles of Chemistry Lab (BS Chemistry 1)
College of Science LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY Sem 1 2021-2022
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
ACCURACY
Denotes the nearness of a measurement to its accepted value
It refers to the correctness of measurement data.
Expressed in terms of absolute or relative error
Absolute Error, Ea
The difference between an observed value (measured) value and the accepted value of a physical quantity.
Absolute Error = │Observed Value ─ Accepted Value │
In laboratory experiments, absolute errors are referred to as experimental errors.
If the absolute error is compared to the accepted value, the resulting ratio is called the relative error which
is ordinarily expressed as a percentage.
│Observed Value ─ Accepted Value │
% Error = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Accepted Value
PRECISION
The agreement between the numerical values of a of measurement that have been made in the same way
It refers to the reproducibility of measurement data or to the amount of measurement detail.
It relates to the ± uncertainty in a set of measurements.
Expressed in terms of absolute or relative deviation.
Absolute Deviation, Da
The difference between an observed value and the arithmetic mean for a set of identical measurements
Absolute Deviation = │Observed Value ─ Mean (Average) │
Table 1. Average Deviation of a Set of Measurements
Sample Mass of Oxygen Deviation (Da)
1 3.92 g 0.02 g
2 3.97 g 0.03 g
3 3.93 g 0.01 g
Average 3.94 g 0.02 g
The average of these deviations provides a measure of the precision of the experiment.
The uncertainty in measurement is ± 0.02 g.
The mass of oxygen derived from the experimental data can be expressed as
3.94 ± 0.02 g.
This measurement indicates that there is uncertainty in the second decimal place of the recorded
measurement. The digit occupying this place could be as low as 2 and as high as 6.
Notes on MEASUREMENT: Significant Figures, Rounding Off Numbers, Scientific Notation |4
