65 Disaster Management

Unit IV: Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) - Disaster management cycle – its
phases; prevention, mitigation, preparedness, relief and recovery; structural
and non-structural measures, vulnerability and capacity assessment; early
warning systems, Post disaster environmental response

GENERAL

The concept of Disaster Management Cycle has entered disaster management

efforts over the past few years, especially since the Yokohama Conference
(1994). Till now disaster management had been perceived as a short-term relief
undertaking, which lasted till some time after a disaster. Other purposive
activities undertaken in the pre or post-disaster stages on the part of civil
society or the government towards mitigating the impact of disasters or
tackling long -term vulnerabilities were not included in disaster management
activities. They were rather classified, developmental activities or „social action‟
on the part of civil society. The concept of Disaster Management Cycle
integrates isolated attempts on the part of different actors, government and
nongovernment, towards vulnerability reduction or disaster mitigation, within
the enveloping domain of disaster management.

This has facilitated a planned approach to disaster management in that post-

disaster recovery and pre-disaster mitigation planning are perceived as
integrated activities and not separate. Thus, prevention, mitigation and
preparedness form pre-disaster activities in the Disaster Management Cycle

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and, response, comprising relief, recovery and rehabilitation are post-disaster

activities. At the same time as emergency relief and rehabilitation are vital
activities, successful disaster management planning must encompass the
complete realm (Kingdom) of activities and situations that occur before, during
and after disasters. These phases can best be represented as a cycle, which if
followed through public policy can obstruct future development of disasters by
impeding the violent cycle of cause and effect.

These activities are implemented at specific times, the length of any one phase
depending on the type of disaster, its breadth and scale. Therefore, one of the
key issues in disaster management planning is the allocation of resources at all
stages of the disaster cycle, which optimises the total effectiveness of risk
reduction activity and maximises the overall impact of disaster management.

This approach has imparted a more holistic perception to disaster management

and has served to integrate disaster management with development planning in
that most predisaster activities, involve activities for vulnerability reduction
like poverty reduction, employment provision etc. which are also mainstream
development concerns. Thus disaster management cycle implies development is
essentially related to disaster management.

STAGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management.

Disaster Risk Management “implies the systematic process of using
administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to
implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and
communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and related environmental
and technological disasters. These comprise all forms all activities including
structural and non- structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit
(mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects to hazards” (UNISDR, 2004).

There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:

1) Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or

environmental losses caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are
minimised when disaster strikes

2) During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met
and minimise suffering and

3) After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not
reproduce the original vulnerable conditions.

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Common perception of disaster management, as explained earlier, is limited to

emergency relief and post- disaster rehabilitation. This is so because these two
elements are by far the strongest in terms of high profile visibility, political
support and funding provision.

Instead of allocating funds before an event to reduce future disasters, action

normally only takes place after an event has occurred. The situation is similar
to that of preventive health care where curative medicine is relatively well
funded whilst preventive medicine is not.

The focus on emergency relief also depends on risk perception; that is, whether
there is belief that disaster could be avoided. If disasters were believed to be of
such a scale that it is believed, nothing could be done to reduce either the
phenomenon or the risk involved, and risk mitigation would not be pressed
for/attempted. However, once belief develops that disaster losses are
exacerbated by human agency, and could be curbed thereby, disaster risk
mitigation would be attempted.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE: CONCEPT

Disasters, which occur globally with regular periodicity, are either natural such
as Floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes or human-induced such as
conflicts, riots, environmental and industrial accidents. Irrespective of whether
it is an 'act of God' or human-induced, disasters create mass destruction and
impede developmental work. The approach towards management of disasters
has undergone a radical change over the last few years. The ways of tackling
the occurrence of disasters, earlier have been reactive in nature. The course of
action basically used to be emergency management and provision of relief and
rehabilitation. Efforts are always directed towards bringing back the situation
to the normal. But presently, governments all over the world are adopting a
holistic approach to disaster management.

The disaster management activity attempts to integrate several interrelated

components in, an orderly and coordinated manner, This includes activities
before or pre-disaster, during and after the occurrence of a disaster. Hence
there is a growing realization universally to operationalise and formulate
appropriate legal and institutional framework to deal with disasters. Disaster
management as an activity involves measures to:

 Reduce the risks associated with disasters through timely measures,

short-term and long-term policies

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 Provide required assistance to communities during and after the

disasters
 Ensure rapid, sustained recovery and rehabilitation after the occurrence
of disasters

Disaster Management Plan

A disaster plan involves activities under four phases, namely prevention,

preparedness, response and recovery

Phase 1: Prevention

Prevention phase is primarily concerned with such measures as are expected to

be taken at the stage of planning the building. These are to Identify and
minimise the risks posed by the building, its equipments and fitting and the
natural hazards of the area and include activities as below:

 Carry out a building inspection and alter factors which pose a

potential hazard.
 Establish routine housekeeping and maintenance measures to
withstand disaster in buildings and surrounding areas.
 Install automatic fire detection and fire extinguishing systems and
water sensing alarms.
 Take special precaution during unusual periods of increased risks
such as building renovation.
 Make special arrangements to ensure the safety of rare and archival
material when exhibited.

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 Provide security copies of vital records such as collection inventories

and store these off site.
 Protect computers and data through provision of uninterrupted power
supply.
 Have comprehensive insurance for library or archives, its contents the
cost of salvage operations and potential replacement, re-building and
restoration of damaged materials.

Phase 2: Preparedness

Preparedness is concerned with making preparations for facing an actual

occurrence of a disaster. The activities to face the situation include:

 Develop a written preparedness response and recovery plan.

 Keep the plan up-to-date with regular test.
 Keep together supplies and equipment required in a disaster and
maintains them.
 Establish and train an in-house disaster response team. Training should be
in disaster response techniques, identifying on floor plan enclosures of
irreplaceable and important materials for priority salvage.
 Prepare and keep a set of documentation including:

– Building floor plans with locations of cut-off switches and valves.

– Inventory of holdings, with priorities for salvage marked on floor plans.

– Telephone tree i.e. List of names, addresses and home telephone

numbers of

1) Personnel with emergency responsibilities

2) In-house disaster response team

3) of trained conservators who could offer various technical

supports.

– List of disaster control services, in-house supplies and equipments, of

suppliers of services and additional equipments/supplies.

– Arrangements for funding emergency needs.

– Copies of insurance policies.

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Phase 3: Response

The steps that should be taken when disaster strikes are termed as response
and include:

 Following established emergency procedures for raising the

alarms, evacuating personnel and making the disaster site safe.
 Contacting the leader of the damage response team to direct
and brief the trained salvage personnel.
 When permission is given to enter the site, make preliminary
assessment of the extent of the damage, and the equipment,
supplies and services required.
 Stabilize the environment to prevent the growth of mould.
 Photograph damaged material for insurance claim purposes.
 Setup an area for recording and packing material which requires
freezing, and an area for air drying slightly wet materials and
for other minor treatment.
 Transport water -damaged items to the available facility centre.

Phase 4: Recovery

Recovery phase involves activities carried out to bring back normal situation in
the library by taking the following steps:

 Draw a programme to restore both the disaster site and the

damaged materials to a stable and useable condition.
 Decide priorities for restoration,consult conservators about the
best methods for restoration and options along with cost under
each method.
 Determine item by item needs for retaining, discarding, and
rebinding or needing special treatment.
 Clean and rehabilitate the disaster site.
 Replace treated materials in the refurbished site.
 Analyse the disaster and the steps taken in its wake for needed
revision and modification of the steps for the future

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation implies activities that are undertaken to support the victims‟

return to normalcy and re-integration in regular community functions. It may
include the provision of temporary housing and public utilities as interim
measures to assist longer-term recovery through permanent housing and

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infrastructure. Besides physical elements, rehabilitation programmes also

include economic rehabilitation through livelihood recovery and support
actions and finding alternate employment options for those who cannot get
back to their original occupations due to irreparable damage. Rehabilitation
also includes psycho-social rehabilitation for those who are badly traumatized
and need support in terms of psychosocial counseling or even medication in
some cases. Rehabilitation therefore includes the provision of temporary
employment and restoration of lost livelihoods. Actual strategy adopted in
rehabilitation would be dictated by circumstances, condition of the physical
landscape, state of economic activity, whether relocation of affected
communities is necessary, or whether resumption of normal life could take
place in that region itself. It is important to incorporate past lessons in
rehabilitation. Vulnerability mapping is recommended for identifying areas
where access is to be completely restricted and the safe areas for viable
construction activity. Rehabilitation policies suffer due to short-term
perspective, in that they are pursued as unplanned, ad-hoc measures.
Rehabilitation is not factored in wider development strategy. A study
conducted by the UNDP in the 1980s which focused on disaster mitigation
efforts in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Ecuador, concluded that disaster
preparedness and prevention is most effective only when it is built into the
larger scheme of sustainable development, which enhances social opportunity
and economic growth (India Disasters Report, 2005). Desired approach was
followed in Marathwada with conspicuous benefits. Those affected by the later
Uttarkashi earthquake, or the even more recent Jabalpur earthquake suffered
for lack of policy in this regard. (India Disasters Report, 2005) Also, people are
expected to access regular government welfare schemes for relief in disaster
situations, which is difficult, given the exigent circumstances. Crucial factor in
rehabilitation as borne out by experiences from past disasters is training of
personnel in various aspects of rehabilitation, such as, special concerns of
widows and orphans, with respect to health and livelihood requirements
besides community participation in damage and loss assessment and
vulnerability analysis

Reconstruction

Reconstruction attempts to return communities to improved pre-disaster

functioning. It includes the replacement of buildings, infrastructure and lifeline
facilities such as roads, bridges and communication links, so that long-term
development prospects are enhanced rather than reproducing the same
conditions which made an area or a population vulnerable in the first place.

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Mitigation measures can effectively be incorporated into reconstruction since

there is generally “openness” to change and improved safety following a
disaster event. Hence, this is mainly the technocrat‟s arena of function/action.
Post-modern thinking, as also referred earlier, is impacting urban planning in a
major way. Instead of „modernist‟ emphasis on uniformity, diversity is being
lauded as the desired virtue. Accordingly, indigenous knowledge is being
incorporated in modern engineering technology to produce viable structures in
earthquake, flood and cyclone prone areas. Physical vulnerability of structures
causes maximum disaster casualties. Hence, stress is also on retrofitting old
structures with a view to making them disaster-resistant besides making new
ones with disaster-resistant technology. Also, instead of the old cluster
approach to housing which, as more in consonance with industrialisation would
be changed for more differentiated housing and open spaces, which would
provide for more aesthetic and safer cities. From a social perspective, modern
cities have increased isolation and alienation of human beings. This has led
theorists in the West to talk about „social capital‟ as it is increasingly getting
scarcer in modern societies that are getting „atomised‟. Social capital is an
intangible resource that invests in social ties, which proves an invaluable
resource in recovery during emergences. In simple terms, it means people
reaching out to each other and helping rebuild lives. Isolation is counter-
effective of social capital.

Development

The inclusion of development as a phase in the disaster cycle is intended to

ensure that following the natural disaster, societies factor hazard and
vulnerability considerations into their development policies and plans in the
interest of overall progress. The rationale behind the use of the expression
„disaster management cycle‟ is that disaster and its management is a continuum
of inter-linked activities. It is sometimes also referred to as the „disaster-
development cycle‟, implying that disasters are periodic phenomena and occur
regularly in such a way that there is development, followed by a disaster, then
back to development till the next disaster. Yet, such expressions are slightly
deceiving in that they suggest that the periodic occurrence of disasters is
something inevitable, always requiring the same response. On the contrary, if
effective prevention and preparedness measures are implemented, natural
disasters may be avoided by limiting the adverse impact of inevitable natural
phenomena. Sustainable development is another term that is useful in this
context, implying development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It

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contains within it two key concepts of „needs‟ in particular, to the essential

needs of the world‟s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the
idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation
on the environment‟s ability to meet the present and the future needs.

Illustration of Disaster Cycle through Case Study

The processes covered by the disaster cycle can be illustrated through the case
of the Gujarat Earthquake of 26 January 2001. The devastating earthquake
killed thousands of people and destroyed hundreds of thousands of houses
and other buildings. The State Government as well as the National Government
immediately mounted a largescale relief operation. The help of the Armed
Forces was also taken. Hundreds of NGOs from within the region and other
parts of the country as well as from other countries of the world came to
Gujarat with relief materials and personnel to help in the relief operations.
Relief camps were set up, food was distributed, mobile hospitals worked round
the clock to help the injured; clothing, beddings, tents, and other commodities
were distributed to the affected people over the next few weeks.

By the summer of 2001, work started on long-term recovery. House

reconstruction programmes were launched, community buildings were
reconstructed, and damaged infrastructure was repaired and reconstructed.
Livelihood programmes were launched for economic rehabilitation of the
affected people. In about two year‟s time the state had bounced back and many
of the reconstruction projects had taken the form of developmental
programmes aiming to deliver even better infrastructure than what existed
before the earthquake. Good road networks, water distribution networks,
communication networks, new schools, community buildings, health and
education programmes, all worked towards developing the region.

The government as well as the NGOs laid significant emphasis on safe

development practices. The buildings being constructed were of earthquake
resistant designs. Older buildings that had survived the earthquake were
retrofitted in large numbers to strengthen them and to make them resistant to
future earthquakes. Mason and engineer training programmes were carried out
at a large scale to ensure that all future construction in the State is disaster
resistant. Since the state is also drought and cyclone affected, building
construction for cyclone resistant housing was propagated in the coastal areas,
and water harvesting systems were given a thrust for drought mitigation. A
preparedness programme was taken up in earnest by the government and the
NGOs.

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Community awareness campaigns were carried out on dos and don‟ts for
different kinds of disasters. These told people what to do and what not to do
before, during and after a disaster. School safety programmes were taken up
under which, teachers, students and parents were trained on how to prepare for
a disaster and how to respond to one. Disaster management plans were
prepared for the state, districts, local areas and schools. A system of drills and
plan updating was established. All of this contributed to a higher level of
preparedness in the state.

Subsequently, hazardous events struck the state again. There was a cyclone
warning in 2004, which was responded to with a very efficient evacuation
implemented by the government and the NGOs. The community was already
aware of the evacuation plan and was trained how to react. Similarly, major
floods hit the state in June-July 2005. Once again, the role allocation was clear
to all the concerned stakeholders in the government as well as the NGOs and
the community too knew how to help the relief teams help them. Losses were
minimised, and the relief and rehabilitation process went off smoothly. This
case study shows how there was a disaster event during the earthquake,
followed by immediate response and relief, then by recovery including
rehabilitation and retrofitting, then by developmental processes. The
development phase included mitigation activities, and finally preparedness
actions to face future disasters. Then disaster struck again, but the impact was
less than what it could have been, primarily due to better mitigation and
preparedness efforts. The disasters were again followed by response and
recovery, and the cycle goes on.

Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness

The Risk Reduction is chronologically the latest paradigm for mitigating the
impact of disasters. The precursor to the Risk Reduction approach is the Total
Disaster Risk Management Approach (TDRM). Guzmann (2005) explains the
essentials of the approach. The TDRM approach is the immediate forerunner of
the Risk Reduction Framework, which is currently being emphasised. In the
Isephan Typhoon in 1959, Japan suffered heavy losses. A ferryboat sank in
Bangladesh in a cyclone on May 3, 2002, killing 450 passengers. These disasters
could have been prevented if close cooperation between concerned
organisations had been achieved Risk reduction can take place in two ways:

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1) Long-term Mitigation

Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard
itself and the vulnerable conditions in order to reduce the potency of a future
event. Therefore, mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the
elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures which are
hazard specific, include; modifying the occurrence of the hazard, for example,
water management in drought prone areas, avoiding the hazard by siting
people away from the hazard and strengthening structures to reduce damage
when a disaster occurs. In addition to these physical measures, mitigation
should also be aimed at reducing the physical, economic and social
vulnerability to threats and the underlying causes for the same. Therefore,
mitigation may incorporate addressing issues such as land ownership, tenancy
rights, wealth distribution, etc. Some common mitigation measures are:

 Hazard Assessment Vulnerability Analysis

 Risk Assessment
 Vulnerability Reduction/mitigation strategies (structural and non-
structural)
 Integration of disaster risk reduction activities in all development
activities
 Disaster-resistant buildings and infrastructure
 Awareness among the community
 Preventing habitation in risk zones.

2) Short-term Preparedness

This protective process embraces measures, which enable governments,

communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope
with them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation of viable
emergency plans, the development of warning systems, maintenance of
inventories and training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue
measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be „at risk‟ from a
recurring disaster. Preparedness, therefore, encompasses those measures that
are taken before a disaster event, which are aimed at minimising loss of life,
disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs. All
preparedness planning needs to be supported by appropriate legislation
specifying clear allocation of responsibilities and budgetary provisions for
specific activities. Some common preparedness measures are:

 Forecasting and warning systems for different disasters

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 Emergency management plans for responsible agencies (for monitoring,

alert and evacuation, immediate disaster assistance, deployment of
search and rescue teams and distribution of relief material, etc.)
 Community awareness and education
 Preparation of disaster management plans for the community
 Mock drills, training and rehearsals.
TYPES OF MITIGATION: STRUTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL

The mitigation measures that are employed to achieve the first two goals of
mitigation process, a reduction in the likelihood or acceptance of hazard, are
grouped into two primary categories: structural and non-structural.

Though these terms are almost universally used to differentiate between the
various options available to disaster managers, much disagreement exists
concerning the actual delineation of what makes structural or non-structural.
Here the structural mitigation is defined as a risk reduction method performed
through the construction or altering of physical environment by using
engineered solutions. Non-structural mitigation is defined as a measure that
reduces risk through the modification of human behavior or natural processes
without requiring the application of engineered solutions. It must be noted
that, while there are several mitigation measures that will clearly fit into one
category or the other regardless of the definition of the terms, there are also
many that could go either way, and may appear as one form in this text and
another form elsewhere.

Structural Mitigation

Structural mitigation measures are those that involve or dictate a necessity for
some kind of construction, engineering, or other mechanical changes or
improvements aimed at reducing hazard risk likelihood or consequence. They
often are considered at “man controlling nature” when applied to natural

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disasters. Structural measures are generally expensive and include a full range
of regulation, compliance, enforcement, inspection, maintenance, and renewal
issues. Though, each hazard a unique set of structural mitigation measures that
may be applied to its risk, these measures can be grouped across some general
categories. The general structural mitigation groups to be described are:

 Resistance construction
 Building codes and regulatory measures
 Relocation
 Structural modification
 Construction of community shelters
 Construction of barrier, deflection, or retention systems
 Detection systems
 Physical modification
 Treatment systems
 Redundancy in life safety infrastructure

Non-structural Mitigation

Non-structural Mitigation, as defined previously, generally involves a reduction

in the likelihood or consequence of risk through modifications in human
behavior or natural processes, without requiring the use of engineered
structures. Non-structural mitigation techniques are often considered
mechanisms where man adapts to nature.” They tend to be less costly and
fairly easy for communities with few financial or technological resources to
implement. The following section describes several of the various categories
into which nonstructural mitigation measures may be grouped, and provides
several examples of each:

 Regulatory measures
 Community awareness and education programs
 Nonstructural physical modification
 Environmental control
 Behavioral modification

EARLY WARNING

Natural and technological hazards often result in disastrous events that can
profoundly impact societies. Hazards such as Flood, Cyclone, Tsunami,
Epidemics etc. or human made events such as industrial accidents, gas
leakages, and terrorism etc. have not only caused huge loss of life but also

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resulted in large properties damages. Regardless of how or where a hazard

originates, warning are the means of reducing the risk of a disaster.

The expression „early warning‟ is used in many fields to mean the provision of
information on an emerging dangerous circumstance where that information
can enable action in advance to reduce the risks involved. Early warning
systems exist for natural geo-physical and biological hazards, complex socio-
political emergencies, industrial hazards, personal health risks and many other
related risks. Nearly a million of people have been killed over the last decade in
disasters caused by storms, drought, floods etc. While some material losses
seem to be unavoidable especially in the case of large and infrequent disasters,
in many cases the loss of life could have been avoided. This was amply evident
during the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 which killed more than a quarter of
million of people in many countries.

Forecast and Warning

The forecast generally is about predicting a future event such as rainfall, cloudy
conditions, intensification of a low pressure system, stock market etc. A
warning is different from the forecast in the sense that it carries a certain
amount of risk information that requires protective actions. Thus each forecast
need not necessarily be treated as a warning. For example a forecast such as
moderate rainfall on the next day does not automatically qualify to be a
warning its own. However if already the rivers are in spate and a flood like
situation is prevailing, forecast of a heavy Early Warning rainfall can imply a
warning. In essence, warning signifies a definite amount of risk to life and
properties and therefore merit urgent attention. There have been some debates
recently about qualities which are essential for a risk message to qualify as a
warning. For example, general forecast such as prediction of heavy rainfall,
flooding or possibility of a terrorist attack etc. unless sufficiently backed up
with more specific details such as which area, probable time of occurrence etc.
very little action can be taken. In such a case should such risk information be
considered as warning? This argument is mainly drawn from the usability
perspective of risk information i.e. can action be taken on the basis of a
warning. It also highlights the broad scope of the warning concept which often
can go beyond the event forecasted or warned.

Early Warning

Early warning conceptually is the provision of early and relevant risk

information on potential or actual disasters or their impact to vulnerable

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population. This constitutes one of the key elements of any disaster risk
reduction strategy. It is important to note here that the ultimate goal of hazard
forecasting and early warning is to protect lives. An important debate in early
warning studies centers around how early is early enough? Such questions arise
mainly because of inadequate lead time available in case of some disasters
which have severe consequences such as earthquake and landslides. For
example, there have been some initiatives recently in establishing an
earthquake early warning system in Japan by taking advantage of the travel
time difference of primary and secondary seismic waves. Though there are
reports of success in such initiative, there are also questions such as if a small
available lead time can be useful for general public e.g. those who are in high
rise buildings to take protective measures like evacuation.

Early Warning: A System Approach

A system is a set of interacting component parts that acts as a whole to

produce an outcome. Systems thinking and methods have been very influential
in improving the design and operation of many elements of modern society.
Early warning systems can be likewise examined and improved from this
perspective. The first step calls for a comprehensive framework of early
warning system - of its desired outcomes, component parts, internal
relationships, inputs and outputs - along with measures of its performance,
preferably in relation to appropriate benchmarks or norms. The following four-
element framework provides a good basis for defining early warning systems.

EARLY WARNING FOR CYCLONE, TSUNAMI AND FLOOD

Cyclone Warning System in India

India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides Cyclone Warning Services for

the country. The cyclone warning organization of IMD has a three tier system to
cater to the needs of the maritime States and union territories. These are,
Cyclone Warning Division set up at IMD Head Quarters New Delhi to co-ordinate
and supervise cyclone warning operations in the country. Area Cyclone Warning
Centers Early Warning at Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata and Cyclone Warning
Centers at Visakhapatnam, Ahmedabad and Bhubaneswar. The cyclone warning
services is also supported by the Forecasting Division at Pune.

Monitoring of Cyclones: IMD has a network meteorological observatories

consisting of automatic weather stations (AWS), radar and satellite systems
covering the entire coastline. The satellite techniques (INSAT imagery obtained
at hourly interval) are used to find out the centre and intensity of the system.

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The radar can be utilized to find out the location of the cyclonic storm more
accurately when the system comes within radar range (approx. 400km). In
addition, the radar data also helps in estimating other parameters such as
convective cloud cluster, wind distribution, rainfall rate etc.

Track and intensity prediction: Tropical Cyclones move as a whole. The

average speed is 15-20 kmph (360-480 km per day). The cyclonic system may
change their direction of movement and intensity. Various Techniques are
available for Track Prediction of the storm such as; methods based on
climatology, persistence Synoptic Techniques Satellite Techniques, Statistical
Techniques using climatology, persistence and synoptic, Analogue Techniques,
Numerical weather prediction models etc. Similarly techniques like Climatology,
Synoptic and Satellite (Dvorak) techniques and radar techniques are used for
predicting intensity. Numerical Weather Prediction models are also used for
intensity prediction.

4-stage warning system for Tropical Cyclones:

Since pre-monsoon cyclone season of 1999, IMD has introduced a 4-Stage

warning system to issue cyclone warnings. They are as follows:

(1) Pre-Cyclone Watch- Issued when a depression forms irrespective of its

distance from the coast and is likely to affect Indian coast in future. The pre-
cyclone watch is issued at least 72 hours in advance of the commencement of
adverse weather

(2) Cyclone Alert: Issued at least 48 hours before the commencement of the
bad weather and when the cyclone is located beyond 500 Km from the coast

(3) Cyclone Warning: Issued at least 24 hours before the commencement of the
bad weather when the cyclone is located within 500 Km from the coast.
Information about time /place of landfall is indicated in the bulletin.
Confidence in estimation increases as the cyclone comes closer to the coast.

(4) Post landfall outlook: It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone landfall, when
the cyclone is located within 200 Km from the coast. More accurate and specific
information about time /place of landfall and associated bad weather indicated
in the bulletin. In addition, the interior distraction likely to be affected due to
the cyclone is warned in this bulletin.

Disaster Management: In a case a depression develops over north Indian Ocean,

Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea special bulletins at-least three times a day are
issued to Control Room of National Disaster Management Division (NDM),

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Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi. When the system intensifies into a
cyclonic storm, the cyclone warning bulletins are issued every three hour. When
the system weakens or not going to affect Indian coast, a de-warning is also
issued to NDM Control Room. The cyclone warning bulletins are also passed on
to All India Radio, Television channels, Central/State Government
Authorities/District Collectors who are in constant touch with Cyclone Warning
Centers.

Flood Forecasting and Warning in India

A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system is developed by Central

Water Commission (CWC) and this initiative has also been supplemented by
various States/UT that make special arrangements for strategically important
locations in their states. The forecasts can be of different types such as forecast
for water level (stage forecast), discharge (flow forecast) and area to be
submerged (inundation forecast). The forecast when carries definite risk
information is called warning. The flood forecasting services involve collection
of hydrological data (gauge, discharge), meteorological data; rainfall. In India
hydrological and meteorological data from over 945 stations in 62 river basins
are collected and analyzed. While most of the hydro-metrological data are
collected from the CWC field stations, IMD provides the rainfall data from their
rain gauge stations besides providing synoptic situation for heavy rain fall for
the next 24 hours. The various data from different locations are communicated
to CWC flood forecasting stations on real time basis using wireless
communication such as Very High Frequency/High Frequency sets in addition
to telephone/telex/Fax/V-Sat/ Internet etc. During the flood situation, data is
transmitted two to three times a day but the frequency is increased to every
hour if the flood situation so demands. Historical data like gauge, discharge
and rainfall are used in conjunction with computer based models and
sophisticated mathematical models to issue two types of forecasts; stage and
inflow with time of occurrence. These two types of forecasts are issued
whenever the river stage at the flood forecasting site exceeds or is likely to
exceed a specified level called warning level which is decided in consultation
with concerned state government. The warning level is generally one meter
below the danger level at the site although there is no common format designed
for this purpose. The final forecasts are then communicated to different user
agencies such as concerned administrative and engineering department of
Central/State government, District Administration, Public, Media e.g. All India
Radio, Television channels etc.

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Tsunami Warning System in India

In the wake of massive loss of life during the Indian ocean tsunami of 2004, a
tsunami warning system has been now established by the Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) in collaboration with Department of Science and Technology
(DST), Department of Space (DOS) and the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR). The National Tsunami Early Warning Centre has been set up at
Indian National Centre of Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad.
Tsunamigenic zones that threaten the Indian Coast have been identified by
considering the historical tsunamis, earthquakes, their magnitudes, location of
the area relative to a fault, and also by tsunami modeling. The tsunami early
warning system comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, Bottom
Pressure Recorders (BPR) and tide gauges to detect tsunamigenic earthquakes
and to monitor tsunamis.

The tsunami early warning centre receives real-time seismic data from the
national seismic network of the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and
other International seismic networks. The system detects all earthquake events
of more than 6 Magnitude in the Richter scale occurring in the Indian Ocean
within less than 20 minutes of its occurrence. Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPR)
installed in the Deep Ocean are the key sensors to confirm the triggering of a
Tsunami. The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has installed 4
such BPR in the Bay of Bengal and the 2 BPR in Arabian Sea. In addition, NIOT
and Survey of India (SOI) have installed 30 Tide Gauges to monitor the progress
of tsunami waves. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM)
has customized and ran tsunami model for historical earthquakes to predict
inundation areas. These community-level inundation maps are extremely useful
for assessing the population and infrastructure at risk. INCOIS has also
generated a large database of model scenarios for different earthquakes that
are being used for operational tsunami early warning. Communication of real-
time data from seismic stations, tide gauges and BPR to the early warning
centre is very critical for generating timely tsunami warnings. Host of
communication methods are employed for timely reception of data from Early
Warning the sensors as well as for dissemination of alerts. Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO) has made an end-to-end communication plan
using INSAT. A high level of redundancy is being built into the communication
system to avoid single point failures.

The early warning centre established at INCOIS is equipped with necessary

computational and communication infrastructure that enables reception of
real-time data from all the sensors, analysis of the data, generation and

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dissemination of tsunami advisories following a standard operating procedure.

Seismic and sea-level data are continuously monitored in the Early Warning
Centre using a custom-built software application that generates alarms/alerts
in the warning centre whenever a pre-set threshold is crossed. Tsunami
warnings/watches are then generated based on pre-set decision support rules
and disseminated to the concerned authorities for action, following a Standard
Operating Procedure. The efficiency of the tsunami warning system was proved
during the large under-sea earthquake of 8.4 M that occurred on September 12,
2007 in the Indian Ocean.

The National Tsunami Early Warning Centre is to communicate Advisories to

the Control Room of the Ministry of Home Affairs for further dissemination to
the Public. For the dissemination of alerts to control room at MHA a satellite-
based virtual private network for disaster management support (VPN DMS) has
been established. This network also enables early warning centre to
disseminate warnings to the State Emergency Operations Centers. In addition,
Messages are also to be sent by Phone, Fax, SMS and e-mails to concerned
authorized officials.

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Unit V: Institutional mechanism for Disaster Management, Roles and

responsibilities of government, community, local institutions, NGOs and other
stakeholders; Policies and legislation for disaster risk reduction, Disaster
Management Policy Environment and local Action, Funding for Disaster
Management, Capacity Building, Disaster Management Act 2005.

1. GOVERNMENT / DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

The District Administration is the focal point for field level organizations and
implementation of all government contingency plans related to disaster
management. Considerable powers have therefore been vested in the District
Collector to carry out operations effectively in the shortest possible time. The
District Administration is required to prepare in advance a contingency district
disaster management plan depending on the type of disasters likely in the
district. Contingency Plans are required to keep into account the type of
preparedness and the relief material required to be mobilized. The concerned
departments need to work together in a coordinated manner and provide an
efficient feedback and monitoring system to the District Collector.

ROLE OF RELEVANT DISTRICT ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES

India is a Parliamentary Democracy with a federal structure. Both the Union

Government and the State Governments are run by elected representatives. The
framework within which the government is run is laid down in a written
Constitution. The country has a well established administrative set up both in
the States and in the Central Government. The country's day-to-day
administration centres around the District Collector (also known as the District
Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner in some States) who heads the
administrative organization in a District. The country is divided into Districts of
varying sizes each headed by a District Collector.
In some States a number of Districts are grouped together to form Divisions
headed by Divisional Commissioners. The head of the State's) administrative
set-up is the Chief Secretary. The State Headquarters has, in addition, a number
of Secretaries heading the various Departments handling." specific subjects
under the overall supervisions and co-ordination of the Chief Secretary. At the
level of the State Government, natural disasters are usually the responsibility of
the Revenue Department or the Relief Department where the State Relief
Commissioner, usually a senior officer of Secretary's rank, is the nodal officer.
While important policy decisions -are taken at the State Headquarters by the
Cabinet of the State headed by the Chief Minister, day-to day decisions
involving policy matters, or exercise of financial powers which have not been

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delegated to the Divisional Commissioners or Collectors, are taken or exercised

by the Secretary in the Department.
The actual day-to-day work of administering relief or implementing contingency
plans for disaster mitigation at the field level is the responsibility of the District
Collector. The Collector exercises coordinating and supervisory powers over
functionaries of all the Departments at the district level. During actual
operations for disaster mitigation or relief, the powers of the Collector are
considerably enhanced, generally, by standing instructions or orders on the
subject, or by specific Governments orders, if so required. Sometimes, the
administrative culture of the state concerned permits, although informally, the
collector to exercise higher powers in emergency situations and the decisions
are later ratified by the competent authority. The Collector or Deputy
Commissioner is the focal points at the district/field level for directing,
supervising and monitoring relief measures for disasters and for preparation of
the district level plans.
Contingency plans:
At the district level, the disaster relief plans are prepared which provide for
specific tasks and agencies for their implementation in respect of areas in
relation to different types of disasters. While the District disaster relief plans
exist, all the districts are now preparing district disaster management plans
that include the preparedness aspects as well. A contingency plan for the
district for different disasters is drawn up by the Collector Deputy
Commissioner and approved by the State Government. The Collector/Deputy
Commissioner also coordinates and secures the input from the local defence
forces unit in the preparation of the contingency plans. These contingency
plans lay down specific action points, and identify key personnel and contact
points in relation to all aspects.

INTERACTION WITH OTHER AGENCIES

Interaction with other government and non-governmental bodies is done at the

district level by various district level mechanisms which are:

District Relief Committee: The relief measures are reviewed by the district
level relief committee consisting of official and non-official members including
the local legislators and the members of parliament.
District Control Room: In the wake of natural disasters, a Control Room is set
up in the district to function as the district emergency management centre for
regular monitoring and coordination of the rescue and relief operations on a

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continuing basis. It works round the clock and has very good communication
facilities.
Coordination: The Collector maintains close liaison with the Central
Government authorities available in the districts, such as, the Army, Air Force
and Navy, Ministry of Water Resources, Health etc. who supplement the efforts
of the district administration in the rescue and relief operations.
The Collector/Deputy Commissioner coordinates voluntary efforts by
mobilizing the non-government organizations capable of working in such
situations and also oversees proper distribution of the aid and relief material
received from outside the District.

ROLE OF SUB-DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

A District is sub-divided into sub-divisions and further into Tehsils or Talukas.

The head of a sub-division is called the Sub-Division Officer (SDO) while the
head of a Tehsil is generally known as the Tehsildar (Talukdar or Mamlatdar in
some States). Contact with the individual villages is through the village Officer
or Patwari who has one or more villages in his charge. When a disaster is
apprehended, the entire machinery of the District, including officers of
technical and other Departments, swings into action and maintains almost
continuous contact with each village in the disaster threatened area. The entire
hierarchy right from the Central Governmental to the District level, and. the
subDivisional Tehsil level becomes alert to the situation.

RELEIF MEASURES
 Establishment of Control
 Military Assistance
 Medical Services
 Epidemics
 Rescue and Salvage
 Corpse Disposal
 Deployment of Resources
 Outside Relief

2. MILITARY AND PARA-MILITARY FORCES

Basically, it is the duty of the civil administration to be prepared for and to
manage disasters (natural or manmade) when they occur. There is a structured
organisation in which the district administration under the charge of the
District Collector plays the vital role. The Police, which is a civilian service,
assists in disaster management in the efforts related to law and order,

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87 Disaster Management

evacuation, search, rescue, wireless communication, disposal of dead, and

general security. Non-governmental organisations and community based
organisations render help according to their capability and capacity. In most
situations, this combined civilian effort is able to manage. However, when the
disaster and its effects are of such severity and suddenness that is beyond the
combined capacity of civilian agencies, the military and para military forces
have to be summoned and they always rise to the occasion.

ROLE OF ARMED FORCE

The military forces or defence forces or armed forces play a very important role
during disaster situation and also in the post-disaster scenario. Their main
assets are discipline, training, professionalism, specialized equipment,
resources and above all a minimum response time. Generally, they are called
upon to manage the following tasks:

 Evacuation
 Maintenance of essential services
 Distributing of essential supplies in remove and marooned areas.
 Transport of relief material
 Medical aid
 Management of relief camps

ROLE OF PARA-MILITARY FORCES

In the earlier days, Military i.e., the Armed Forces used to take care of the
outside enemies and conventional police used to look after internal security
and law and order. With the growth of population and new activities resulting
in the need for specialized security services to valuable sectors such as the
borders, the industry, vital installations etc., it became necessary to create a
variety of paramilitary forces under the Govt. of India. More prominent of these
paramilitary forces are:

a. Border Security Force (BSF)

b. Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)
c. Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
d. Indo Tibet Border Police (lTBP)
e. Railway Protection Force (RPF)
f. Assam Rifles
g. National Security Guard (NSG)
h. Coast Guard
i. Rapid Action Force (RAF)

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88 Disaster Management

j. Territorial Army

Important point to note is that the Police Force is under control of the
respective State Administration while all the para-military Forces including the
"Civil Defence Organisation" are under the control of Government of India and
these are deployed to assist the local police whenever necessary. Apart from
their primary role as their name implies-e.g. BSF guards the borders, CISF takes
care of Central Public Sector undertakings including their security and fire
fighting, all the Para-Military Forces are deployed in the troubled areas or
during major national event like General/State Elections. The Coast Guard is a
special duty force for guarding the coasts and to deal with undesirable
activities such as smuggling on the coasts.

SPECIAL ROLES OF AIRFORCE, ARMY AND NAVY

Armed Forces and para-military forces play important roles in disaster

situations as described below:

Special Role of air Force: During emergencies for heavy troop movement be it
Army Personnel or para-military forces - the Transport wing of Air Force is
called in, in a big way, The helicopters of Air Force are used for survey and
dropping of food packets together with rescuing of stranded people, especially
in flood situations. Air Force also has the responsibility of VIP/vVIP movement.

Special Role of Army: The local Army commander, anywhere in the country
has orders from Ministry of Defence, to assist the civil authorities during any
contingency. For this, however, only the District collector has-the authority to
requisition the aid of military, and that too in extreme emergencies, on a
written request. In riot-affected cities, places, Army Flag March - only parading
is arranged in order to deter anti-social elements indulging in further trouble
and to pacify common population by boosting their morale for peace and
assurance of their safety and security

Special Role of Navy: The Navy has a special role in the event of a disaster on
the sea or on coasts or in ports. Cyclones, storm surge or oil spill are the most
prominent among the disastrous events that could occur in these locations. In
discharge of their duties, the Navy is assisted by the Coast Guards.

3. MINISTRIES AND DEPARTMENTS AT CENTRE AND STATE LEVELS

Disasters due to the scale and extent they affect the population are a national
calamity and it becomes imperative that action to mitigate their adverse effects

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be initiated quickly at the national level. It has been observed that over the past
few decades the frequency of disasters and their devastating effects have
increased manifold. Apart from other causes the burgeoning population,
growing infrastructure and the increased industrial activity have contributed
largely to this situation. Among the important reasons for the increased
vulnerability is the lack of coordinated efforts to manage disaster situations.
Precious time is lost in the authorities getting their act together to intervene. A
well organized predetermined structure becomes a prerequisite for a prompt
and comprehensive action to face disasters. Considerable progress has been
made in the recent past in government organization and division of
responsibilities in this regard.

1. National Level

At the national level, depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry is

responsible for the task of coordinating all activities of the state and district
administration and the other support departments/Ministry. This is shown in
the table below. The organisational pattern of the Natural Disaster Management
Division of the Ministry of Agriculture Govt. of India is depicted in the
following figure. The nodal ministries form part of the National Crisis
Management Committee. Part of their tasks is to prepare detailed Contingency
Plans for each type of disasters falling in areas of their responsibility.

2. State Relief Organization and Response

In the federal set-up of India, the responsibility to formulate the Government's
response to a disaster situation is essentially that of the concerned State
government. However, the Central Government, with its resources (physical and
financial) does provide the needed help and assistance to buttress relief efforts

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90 Disaster Management

in the wake of major disasters. The dimensions of the response at the level of
National Government are determined in accordance with the existing policy of
financing the relief expenditure and keeping in view the factors like:
1. The gravity of the situation,
2. The scale of the relief operations necessary, and
3. The requirements of Central assistance for augmenting the financial
resources at the disposal of the State Government.
Most of the States have Relief Commissioners who are in charge of the relief
measures in the wake of natural disasters in their respective States. In the
absence of the Relief Commissioner, the Chief Secretary or an Officer
nominated by him is in overalI charge of the Relief operations in the concerned
State.

4. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
Disaster Management is a multi-disciplinary and multi-dimensional effort
requiring massive, large-scale and often long-term intervention at short notice.
In a vast and populous country like India, it is not feasible for only the
governmental machinery to undertake disaster management programmes
satisfactorily. Active and willing participation of the people is essential.
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) including the community based
organisations (CBOs) play an important effective role as a bridge between the
government and the people. The non-governmental sector, due to its linkages
with the community base and its flexibility in procedural matters, has an
advantage over governmental agencies in invoking the involvement of the
people at community level

TYPES OF NGOs, THEIR OBJECTIVES AND IMPORTANCE WITH REGARD TO

DISASTER
NGOs can be of different sizes, with different areas of operation and different
fields of expertise. The Non Governmental Sector covers a whole range of
activities, through its various types of Organisations. Some major types of
NGOs are as given under:

1) NGOS with dedicated field operations and resource backup

These are large Organisations, such as the International Red Cross Society, that
have specific areas in which they carry out field operations. They have access to
large resource bases, and have the capability to extend material, financial, as
well as technical support. In times of disaster, their roles are very laudable as
they garner support and resources from all over the world and come to the
rescue of the affected persons almost immediately.

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2) Development Technology related NGOs

These are NGOs involved in developing and propagating development
technologies, such as Sulabh International, which has renowned activities in the
field of low sanitation. These NGOs are active in times of peace, carrying out
their developmental projects, and can be called in at times of emergency due to
natural disaster for providing the affected community with immediate physical
infrastructure that may be required. Even in non-disaster times their services
are useful for retrofitting in areas of building technology, So as to minimize
death and destruction in future disasters.

3) Interest Groups

These are also NGOs, formed with the objective of sharing interests and
community service, such as the Rotary Club. However, such interest groups are
very active, and have come forward to help disaster victims in times of need.
Most of these groups have good financial resources. They can play a major role
in resource mobilization for relief aid land rehabilitation purposes.

4) Associations of local occupation groups

Such associations are formed on the basis of common occupational

backgrounds, and could include groups such as doctors' associations, traders'
associations, Army wives associations etc. Such groups, as with interest groups,
can play a major role in resource mobilization, and also in providing
specialized services to the disaster victims.

5) Local Residents' Associations

These associations are formed by the local residents to look into the interests
of those living a shared community life in the area which may be rural or urban
or in big towns. As such, these associations are highly concerned about the
welfare of the local community, and need no external motivation to take active
part in disaster reduction. Thus, they can be a very useful tool for getting
across the message of community participation at the ground level and to
muster community's willing participation. They are very useful coordinating
disaster management efforts such as distribution of essential supplies or
providing local volunteers.

6) Religious and Charitable Bodies

Religious bodies are one of the most important NGOs groups that come to the
immediate rescue and relief of the disaster victims. These bodies have a large

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and dedicated following in the community. They also have control of the local
places of worship, which are usually strong structures built on high and safe
ground, and can serve as ideal shelters during disasters. Besides, they often
have infrastructure to feed mass gatherings, which becomes very useful in
times of disaster.

7) Educational Institutions

Educational institutions such as schools and colleges are also NGOs that play a
crucial role in disaster management. Their prime responsibility in this regard is
to spread awareness on natural disasters and preventive action needed to
minimize damage due to them, as well as on immediate relief and rescue
methods. Besides, these institutions have large buildings which can be used as
shelters for the victims in times of disaster.

8) Media

Most of the media, such as newspapers or the radio/TV channels that are not
owned by government come in the category of NGOs and they perform prime
function before, during and after disasters.

The various other functions that the NGOs may be expected to perform are
briefly enumerated below:-

Pre-Disaster Stage:

 Awareness and information Campaigns

 Vulnerability analysis of communities
 Training of local volunteers
 Inventory of resources available in the community and nearby
 Advocacy and planning

During Disaster:

 Immediate rescue and first-aid including psychological counselling

 Supply of food, water, medicines and other immediate need materials
 Ensuring sanitation and hygiene
 Damage and death assessment
 Help in disposal of the dead

Post-Disaster Stage:

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 Technical and reconstruction material aid

 Assistance in seeking financial aid
 Monitoring

5. INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES

There are four major categories of International agencies active in disaster

mitigation.

Category I: Core Agencies of the U.N.

Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-DHA), Office of Disaster Relief

Coordinator, Geneva. The agency assists in disaster assessments and relief
management. It also advises on hazard risk assessment, mitigation planning
and implementation. It provided the secretariat for the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) and now houses the secretariat for its
successor programme viz., the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR).

FAO-Food and Agriculture Organisation

It offers technical advice on the reduction of vulnerability and monitors and

advises in food production. It is headquartered in Rome.

United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), Nairobi

It advises on settlement planning that will reduce risk and on post-disaster

reconstruction.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with headquarters in New

York incorporates disaster mitigation in developmental planning and also
provides financial aid for technical assistance for disaster management. It
offers administrative support to resident coordinator and advises on flood loss
prevention, mitigation and management through agencies such as UN Economic
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP, Bangkok). UNDP has
sanctioned the project to the Ministry of Agriculture (Govt. of India) on
“Strengthening Disaster Management capacity” for the country.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO)

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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

in Paris funds research in disaster mitigation and strengthening of heritage
structures against flood and earthquake damage. It is supportive of flood
management programmes and runs a publications programme.

Category II: United Nations Agencies with Support Roles in Disaster

Mitigation

The United Nations Centre for Regional Development provides training and
research in regional development and planning and related fields, for
developing countries. Its projects focus primarily on research and training, but
include advisory services and information dissemination components. Its
operation units include the Regional Disaster Prevention Unit (RDPU).

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) perceives and includes

disaster mitigation in its environmental programming. It has a working
relationship with the UN Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) (Habitat) and
has its own publications programme.

The UNICEF (United Nations Children's Emergency Fund) attends to the

wellbeing of women and children including that at the time of disaster. It
collaborates with the World Health Organization (WHO) and World Food
Programme (WFP) in social programmes, including improvement of water
supply, sanitation and health. Besides running its own publications
programmes, it is now entering, into disaster preparedness, planning and
mitigation work in alliance with other agencies.

The UNIENET or United Nations International Emergency Network through a

network of computers, places members of the world-wide disaster management
community in direct communication with each other and provides them
instantaneously with both background and operational disaster related
information.

The UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) assists

refugees through camps, financial grants and other assistance.

The WFP or World Food Programme provides targeted food aid, sometimes
linked to 'food for work' programme for construction of flood protection
structures and coordinates pre and post disaster emergency food aid. It also
runs its own publications programme.

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The WHO or World Health Organisation provides assistance in post-disaster,

rapid response. It promotes 'health cities' programmes and is supportive of
disaster mitigation measures. It also has its own publications programme.

Category Ill: Major International Agencies (outside the UN System)

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) located in Manila finances projects in

Asia and the Pacific. It is committed to ensuring disaster mitigation which is
included in programming of its projects. It publishes mitigation handbooks.
Publishing programme and advisory work is being done as part of technical
assistance.

The Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre in Bangkok provides training and

information services for countries in the Asia and the Pacific region to
formulate policies and develop capabilities in all areas of disaster management.

The European Community Humanitarian Office is newly founded, but active

in the development of disaster mitigation strategies. Its parent body, the
Commission of European Communities organises funding of mitigation
structures such as cyclone shelters in Bangladesh.

The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) of USA

promotes and disseminates results of research on the development of
tenements and squatter settlements in urban area, social factors which cause or
aggravate natural disasters and interventions that can limit their impact on the
poorest sectors of society. It provides technical assistance to national and
international agencies.

Organisation for Economics Cooperation & Development (OECD) of Europe

has issued guidelines, through its Development Assistance Committee, to aid
agencies on disaster mitigation.

The World Bank (IBRD-International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development) offers loans for structural adjustment and projects. It plays a
catalytic role in the development of mitigation strategies. It funds large-scale
flood control and water management projects, as well as running its publication
programme. The Bank has recently funded the Maharashtra Earthquake
rehabilitation programme in India by providing loan.

The International Federation of Red cross and Red crescent Societies (IFRS)
assist programmes of the national Red-cross societies of various countries. In

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96 Disaster Management

India, they assist and work with the Indian Red Cross Society. IFRS also publish
a 'World Disaster Report' from its Geneva office.

Category IV: National Bodies Assisting Overseas

ODA Overseas Development Administration (UK) operates a disaster

response unit and undertakes advice and studies in disaster mitigation. It
finances consultancy and construction work for post-disaster and pre-disaster
preparedness. It also has its own publications programme.

OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (USA) holds regional seminars on

mitigation strategies. It also offers consultancy and issues publications.

NCDM/lndia - The National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM)

established by Government of India at the Indian Institute of Public
Administration in New Delhi provides training, research and consultancy in
different areas of disaster management in India and to countries in the South
Asian region.

International agencies provide assistance at various stages as follows:

Pre-Disaster Assistance

Pre-disaster assistance from international sources takes on a variety of forms.

(i)Assistance in prevention/mitigation

a) Assistance in building a system of dams, aimed to prevent flooding.

b) Development of monitoring and warning systems.

(ii) Assistance in Preparedness

a) Provision of assistance in the formulation of plans at national and

regional levels

b) Provision of assistance in establishing and developing disaster

management structures or key points; for instance, the establishment of
a national disaster management centre, office or section.

c) Provision of systems and facilities in the form of warning systems,

communication systems, emergency operations centres, emergency
broadcasting systems

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97 Disaster Management

d) Stockpiling of emergency items, such as generators, chain saws,

shovels, water purification plank, cooking equipment, shelter materials,
medical equipment.

Assistance in Response Operation

As with pre-disaster circumstances, assistance in response operations can also

take various forms, like;

a) Monitoring and warning of potential disaster impact.

b) Post impact survey for instance, aerial photographic or visual

reconnaissance.

c) Provision of emergency assistance teams; for instance medical teams,

other specialist teams.

d) Provision of emergency· equipment and supplies; for instance

communications, power generator, clothing, shelter materials, food
transport and medical supplies.

e) Provision of specialist personnel; for instance, to install and operate

water purification plant.

f) Temporary provision of major response capabilities for instance,

helicopter capability for various emergency roles (including survey and
assessment and food distribution, shipping capability for movement of
heavy/bulky supplies, offroad vehicle capability.

Assistance in Recovery Programmes

The post-disaster recovery process usually consists of a series of distinct but

inter-related prgorammes, for instance, covering infrastructure, medical and
health system, education facilities, and so on. lnternational assistance may
therefore be directed towards a specific recovery programme, or comprise
some form of contribution to overall recovery. Therefore, they may take the
form of:

a) Financial grants or credits

b)Building Materials
c) Technical Equipment
d) Agriculture rehabilitation

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati

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e) Extended feeding programmes

f) Specialists or specialist teams
g) Food for work
Assistance in Future Development
In many cases, international assistance in post-disaster recovery may develop
or merge into long-term development programmes, for instance, development
of transport systems, building of dams and embankments. Pre-disaster
assistance and assistance in future development tend to be of a routine nature
and can be processed in a routine manner. Assistance in response operations
and recovery programmes usually has a high degree of urgency, which
necessitates quick processing. In some circumstances, problems can, arise
locally. For example, the affected community may become totally or over-
dependent on aid. In such a case, original and traditional customs of combating
disaster have been eroded. In these circumstances self-coping mechanisms of
rehabilitation have to be strengthened.
Rapid injection of aid especially food items can upset a local economy. This
particularly applies when local markets and rural production are
interdependent. Such a situation adds considerably to the problem in
immediate post-impact conditions.
Over supply of aid is another well known problem area which can particularly
apply to severe and widely publicised disasters. The Maharashtra Earthquake
(1993), the Andhra Cyclone (1996) and the Gujarat earthquake (2001) are good
examples of over supply of aid by international agencies. It may result in aid of
unsuitable varieties being showered on a stricken people with little or no regard
for its usability or the amount of aid already received.
The work of international agencies depends very significantly on the
understanding between the agencies and recipient nations. Most of the major
problems in international assistance can be avoided if a few basic factors are
recognized. Assistance agencies need to exercise a sensitive approach and
practice.
When assistance is needed, the recipient nation is usually in some form of post-
impact shock. In such a situation, the recipient may have difficulty in
identifying assistance needs.
The desirable concept is one of a mutual relationship throughout the whole
process of preparedness, response and recovery. In this way, when assistance
needs to be applied, it is merely one phase of an ongoing dialogue, rather than
a sudden shock response to an already traumatised recipient country.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati

99 Disaster Management

6. ROLE OF FAMILY AND INDIVIDUALS

During the disasters, the people have to act instantly. If a disaster occurs
without any warnings or predictions or at a large scale than predicted, the first
activity for an individual is to save the lives of dear and near ones, protect the
valuable documents and properties, and later should join others in rendering
all possible help to the unfortunate and the needy ones. All concerted action
should be taken together to prevent the loss of lives and property of the society
as a whole.

An individual is a basic unit of society, whose family comes next. If individuals

and families are well prepared for disaster, the nation will be prepared for
disasters. It is the individual attitude towards disaster preparedness which
could reduce the risk to life and property. Each family should have a family
disaster plan and family disaster supplies kit, ready at all the times. We give
below guidelines for preparation of family disaster plan and a list of family
disaster supplies kit. These are just guidelines arid families‟ should modify
according to their special needs.

Family Disaster Plan

 Be familiar with the types of disasters that are most likely to happen in
your area and discuss with your family.
 Evolve ways of preparing for each type of disaster and discuss with your
family.
 Find out how to help the elderly, expectant mothers, physically
challenged or children, if needed.
 Enquire about the disaster plans at your work place, your children school
and other places where your family spends time.
 If they do not have plans, persuade them to have. Fix two places to meet:
1. Right outside home in case of sudden emergency, like
a fire.
2. Outside neighbourhood in case you can't return home.
 Keep the addresses and phone numbers of important places.
 Have a friend from a place other than your place of living as "family
contact"
 Discuss what to do in an evacuation.
 Always keep emergency contact numbers.
 Teach children how and when to call 100 or emergency medical service.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati

100 Disaster Management

 Show each family member how and when to turn off water, gas, and
electricity at the main switches.
 Have adequate insurance coverage.
 Have fire extinguishers and demonstrate its use.
 Conduct periodically a home hazard hunt.
 Get trained in first aid.
 Collaborate with your neighbours, and share information special skills.

Family Disaster Supplies Kit

1) Water: Store in plastic containers. Keep at least a three-day supply of water

for each person in your household.

2) Food: Store at least a three-day supply of non-perishable food, that requires

no refrigeration, preparation or cooking and little or no water. Select foods that
are compact and are of light weight

3) First Aid Kit, including medication

4) Tools and Supplies:

Battery operated small radio and extra batteries.

 Cash
 Compass
 Screw Driver
 Sanitary items
 Tape
 Matches in Waterproof Container
 Plastic Sheeting
 Flash Light.

5) Clothing and Bedding: One complete change of clothing per person.

6) Special Items for

 Women and children

 Old persons
 Physically challenged.

7) Important family documents in a waterproof portable container.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati