Applied Physics

Course Code:SEPH0009

Dr. N.S.M.P.Laha Devi

Course Co-ordinator & Associate Professor

Department of Engineering Physics

Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation 1
 Syllabus
• Crystal Structures: Space lattice, basis, unit cell, Seven Crystal
systems, Bravais lattices, coordination number, atomic packing
fraction of SC, BCC, FCC and HCP, Miller indices, Crystal planes
directions. Crystal defects: Point Defects, Line Defects, Surface
Defects, Volume Defects, and Effects of defects on crystalline
properties
• Lasers: Introduction – Characteristics of laser – Spontaneous and
Stimulated emissions of radiation – Einstein’s coefficients –
Population inversion – Lasing action – Pumping mechanisms – Ruby
laser – He-Ne laser – Applications of lasers
• Fiber optics: Introduction –Principle of optical fiber- Acceptance
Angle – Numerical Aperture – Classification of optical fibers based on
refractive index profile and modes – Propagation of electromagnetic
wave through
29-12-2023 02:42 optical fibers –Fiber optic
Dr. Mahamuda Shaik sensors. 2
 Syllabus
• Magnetism in materials: Basic definitions of magnetism, susceptibility, origin of
magnetic moment, classification of magnetic materials, Dia, Para, Ferro, ferri and
anti-ferro magnetic material properties, Curie and Neel temperatures; Domain
theory of ferromagnetism (qualitative), Hysteresis, hard and soft magnetic
materials and their applications: Sensing of magnetic field, magnetic tape
recording, Transformers, spintronics.
• Quantum concepts: Bohr model, Black body radiation, photoelectric effect, dual
nature of matter waves, Davisson Germer experiment, Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. Schrodinger time independent wave equation, One dimensional
problem of particle in a box.
• Text Books
• William D. Callister,Jr. “Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction” 6th edition, 2007, Wiley
India Pvt.Ltd
• Charles Kittel, ” Introduction to Solid State Physics” 8th edition, 2012, Wiley India Pvt.Ltd.
• Patil. S. H., Elements of Modern Physics, Tata McGraw-Hill 1983, ISBN 10: 87933326X
• Reference Textbooks
• Arthur Beiser, Perspectives of Modern Physics - McGraw-Hill, 1968- Science. ISBN 0-07-115096-X
29-12-2023 02:42 Dr. Mahamuda Shaik 3
 Evaluation Plan Attendance – 85%

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 Chapter 1
Crystallography

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5
 Session 1

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 Classification of matter

Matter

GASES LIQUIDS SOLIDS

Quasicrysta
Amorphous Crystals
ls

Single
Polycrystals
Crystals
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 Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
• Regular arrangement of • No regular arrangement of
atoms along the 3 D. atoms.
• Have long range order. • Have short range order.
• Sharp melting point. • No sharp melting point.
• High and fixed heat of • No fixed heat of fusion.
fusion.
• They are anisotropic. • They are isotropic.
• They show all • They don’t show all
characteristic of solids. characteristics of solids.
• They have regular cut. • They give irregular cut.

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 Two dimensional representation of Single, poly
crystalline and amorphous materials
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 Basic Definitions
a
Linear
Lattice

Lattice Plane
Lattice
• An infinite array of points
• Each point will have
Space
Identical surrounding.
Lattice
y
b
Translation vector
B
→
→ → → b
OB = 2 a + b O
→ x
a
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2a 10
Basis
An atom or group of atoms (or ions) which when
attached to every lattice points produces the crystal
structure.
Basis

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Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure 11
 Unit Cell:
✓ Small geometrical figure in space lattice whose repetition in
all directions gives actual crystal structure

• Smallest repeatable unit in a point Lattice.

• Choice of unit cell is not unique
There are two distinct types of unit cell:
• Primitive unit cell
• Non-primitive unit cell

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 UNIT CELL

Primitive Non-primitive

• More than one lattice point

• Single lattice point per cell
per cell
• Smallest area in 2D, or
• Integral multibles of the are
• Smallest volume in 3D
of primitive cell

Simple cubic(sc) Body centered cubic(bcc)

Conventional = Primitive cell Conventional ≠ Primitive cell
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 Crystallographic axes
✓ Axes resulted by the intersection of the three non-coplanar
faces of the unit cell.
✓ The angles between these faces or crystallographic axes
are known as interfacial or inter-axial angles.

Lattice parameters
✓ The translational vectors (or primitives) a, b, c of a unit cell
along X, Y, Z axes and inter-axial angles α, β, γ

 : Angle between the axes Y and Z

 : Angle between the axes Z and X
 : Angle between the axes X and Y

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 Session 2

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 Crystal systems

1. Cubic Crystal System

12/29/2023 a=b=c  =  =  = 90° 16

2.Tetragonal system

a=bc  =  =  = 90°
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3. Orthorhombic system

abc  =  =  = 90°
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4. Monoclinic system

abc  =  = 90°,   90°

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5. Triclinic system




abc       90°
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6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) system

a=b=c  =  =   90°

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7. Hexagonal system

a=bc =  = 90°,  = 120°

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 Summary of crystal systems

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12/29/2023 Click here Crystal systems 24
 Bravais Lattice
✓ An infinite array of discrete points generated by a set of discrete
translation operations described by
R = n1a1 + n2 a2 + n3a3
where ni are integers and ai are primitive vectors
✓ 14 Bravais lattices are possible in 3-dimentional space.
✓ These are obtained by combination of lattice system with lattice
types
✓ Lattice system (crystal system): gives the information regarding
the lattice parameters
✓ Lattice types: Gives the information about lattice points present
in the unit cell.

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 Lattice types

Primitive Body Face Base

(P) centered (I) centered (F) centered (C)

1  1
n =  8   + (1) = 2 n =  8   +  6   = 4 n =  8   +  2   = 2
1 1 1 1
n = 8 = 1
8  8  8  2  8  2

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Lattice types (animation)
 14 Bravais lattices
Body Face Base
Primitive
Crystal system centered centered centered
(P)
(I) (F) (C)

Cubic ✓ ✓ ✓ 
Tetragonal ✓ ✓  
Orthorhombic ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Monoclinic ✓   ✓
Triclinic ✓   
Rhombohedral ✓   
Hexagonal ✓   
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Click here for animation for 14 Bravais lattices
 Session 3 & 4

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 Atomic Packing Factor or Packing Fraction
✓ It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the
total volume of the unit cell.
Volume of packed ions
Packing fraction (%) =
Volume of primitive unitcell
Volume of packed ions
= ×Z
Volume of unitcell
4 3
r
= 3 3 Z
a
where, r = radius of atoms
a = unit cell edge
Z = no. of lattice points per unit cell
✓ Now, we are going to apply this for three crystal structures
having cubic symmetry
• Simple cubic
• Body centered cubic
• Face centered cubic
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 Relation between atomic radius and edge length

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 Simple cubic Body centered Face centered
cubic cubic

r =a/2 Z=1 r = 3a / 4 Z=2 r =a/2 2 Z=4

4 3 4 3
4 3
r r r
PF = 3 3  Z PF = 3 3  Z PF = 3 3  Z
a a a

PF = 52% PF = 68% PF = 74%

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 Session 5,6 & 7

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 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS

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 CRYSTAL PLANES

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 Inter-planar spacing in
Crystals
✓ The inter-planar spacing between any crystallographic planes
belonging to the same (h,k,l) family is denoted by (dhkl).
✓ Distances between planes defined by the same set of Miller
indices are unique for each material.

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 Inter-planar spacing in different crystal systems

✓ Inter-planar spacing in other crystal system is more complex

in nature
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 Miller Indices
✓ A notation of planes in Bravais lattices
✓ Miller Indices are the reciprocals of the fractional intercepts
(with fractions cleared) which the plane makes with the
crystallographic x, y, z axes of the three nonparallel edges of the
cubic unit cell.
✓ The orientation of planes or faces in a crystal can be described
in terms of their intercepts on the three axes.
✓ Miller introduced a system to designate a plane in a crystal.
✓ He introduced a set of three numbers to specify a plane in a
crystal.
✓ This set of three numbers is known as ‘Miller Indices’ of the
concerned plane.
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✓ Different lattice planes in a crystal

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 Procedure for finding Miller Indices
✓ Determine the coordinates of the intercepts made by the plane
along the three crystallographic axis.
✓ Express the intercepts as multiples of unit cell dimensions or
lattice parameters along the axes.
✓ Determine the reciprocals of these number.
✓ Reduce these reciprocals into the smallest whole numbers by
multiplying each with their L.C.M to get the smallest whole
number.
✓ Enclose the smallest whole numbers in ( )
✓ This give the Miller indices (h k l) of the plane.

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 Crystal planes

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 Important features of Miller indices

✓ If a plane is parallel to any of the coordinate axis, then its

intercepts will be infinity.
✓ All the parallel equidistant planes have the same Miller Indices.
✓ Miller Indices define a set of equidistant parallel planes.
✓ If the Miller Indices of two planes have the same ratio then the
planes are parallel to each other.
✓ If (hkl) are the Miller Indices of a plane, then the plane cuts the
axis into h, k and l equal parts.

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 SUMMARY OF MEANINGS OF PARENTHESES

(q,r,s) represents a point – note the exclusive use of

commas

[hkl] represents a direction

<hkl> represents a family of directions

(hkl) represents a plane

{hkl} represents a family of planes

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 Crystal planes

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 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
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 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 •
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3 • y
•
3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices (634) x

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

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 Q3: Determine the miller indices for the planes shown in
the following unit cell

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Q4: What are Miller Indices? Draw (111) and (110) planes in a
cubic lattice.

Q5: Sketch the following planes of a cubic unit cell (001), (120),
(211)

Q6: Obtain the Miller indices of a plane which intercepts at a, b/2

and 3c in simple cubic unit cell. Draw a neat diagram showing the
plane

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 Session 8

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 CONTENTS
❑ Introduction

❑ Crystal Defects

❑ Types Of Crystal Defects

❑ Effects Of Crystal Imperfections

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 Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
• Regular arrangement of • No regular arrangement of
atoms along the 3 D. atoms.
• Ex: Diamond, NaCl, KCl, • Ex: Glasses, Plastic, Rubber,
Copper, Iron, etc. ceramics

Poly Crystalline

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 Ideal crystal
The crystal in which the atomic arrangement is
perfectly regular and continuous throughout the
crystal
Real crystals are not perfect
The "right" atoms in "wrong" places

"Wrong" atoms in "right" or "wrong" places

Missing atoms

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 Why study of Defects in Solids is
important ?
1. A better understanding of them and how
they affect the materials

2.Exploration of possibilities of minimizing

or improving these defects for achieving
desired applications in materials

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 Imperfection or Defect

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 Depending upon the Geometry
Imperfections /
Defects

Point Line Surface Volume

Defects Defects Defects Defects

Edge Grain
Vacancies cracks
Dislocation Boundaries

Screw Tilt Voids or Air

Interstitials Dislocation Boundaries Bubbles

Twin
Impurities Boundaries

Stacking
Electronic Faults
Defects

Ferromagnetic
Domain Walls

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 They are also known as
Zero Dimensional Imperfections

Size: one / two atomic diameters

 Point Defect – 1:Vacancy
A Vacancy refers to an atomic site from where the
atom is missing

If one or two or three atoms are missed referred as

single or double or triple vacancies respectively

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 Vacant atomic sites in materials cause
Distortion in Lattice Planes

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

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 A pair of cation and anion missing from an ionic
crystal resulting in a pair of vacant ion sites is called
schottky imperfection

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Point Defect –2:
An Interstitial defect arises when an atom occupies a
definite position in the lattice that is not normally
occupied in the perfect crystal.

By giving enormous stress or compressive force to a

crystal , some of the atoms dislodge from their lattice
sites and occupy the voids or interstitials present in the
lattice. These type of imperfections are known as Self
Interstitial Imperfections

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Frenkel imperfection:
An ion displaced from a regular site to an
interstitial site is called frenkel imperfection.
A vacancy + An interstitial site

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 Intrinsic Defects

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 Point Defect – 3: Impurities
1. They give rise to compositional defects
2. They occur in Metallic, Ionic and covalent Solids

They are Two types

✓ Substitutional Impurity
✓ Interstitial Impurity

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 Substitutional impurity
A Substitutional impurity refers to a foreign atom
that has replaced a parent atom

Compressive stress Tensile Stress

fields Fields

Ex: During the production of brass alloy, Zinc atoms are doped in copper
lattice
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Interstitial Impurity
An Interstitial impurity refers to small sized atom
occupying the void space in the parent crystal without
replacing the parent atoms

Relative
size

Compressive
Stress
Fields

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Point Defects-4: Electronic Defects
Non uniform charge distribution in solids are called
electronic defects. These defects are produced when the
composition of an ionic crystal does not correspond to the
exact stoichiometric formula.

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 Effect of crystal imperfections and their
applications
Substitutional Impurity
A crystal of pure alumina is transparent and colorless,
but when we add a small amount of chromium, it
creates a defect resulting in a beautiful red ruby
crystal

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 Mixture of impurities (Fe2+, Fe3+, and Ti4+) gives
the deep blue of sapphire

• 24K gold - pure gold -100 per cent gold -

99.9 % - Bright yellow color.
• 22K gold - 91.6 % gold - 8.33% metals
like silver, zinc, nickel and other alloys-
texture of gold harder
• 18K gold, 18K gold is 75% gold mixed with
25 per cent of other metals like copper or
silver etc.
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 ALLOYING
Pure iron is soft. Addition of small amount of
carbon increases its strength.
1. Steel:
Carbon atoms added in small amounts as interstitial impurities to
Iron makes Steel, which is stronger than Pure Iron.

2. Sterling silver:
Pure silver when alloyed with 7.5% copper gives sterling silver
is 92.5% silver which is stronger than pure silver.

3. Steel:
The inclusion of one or more transition metals or semimetals
can improve the corrosion resistance of steel.
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 Semi conductors

To improve the electrical conductivity

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 Session 9

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•Line Defects / Linear Defects / Dislocations: A disturbed
region between two substantially perfect parts of a crystal

• These are one dimensional imperfections in the geometrical

sense.

•Dislocations are areas were the atoms are out of position in the
crystal structure.

•They arise due to

✓ Growth Accidents
✓ Thermal Stresses
✓ External stresses causing plastic flow
✓ Phase transformations
✓ Segregation of solute atoms causing mismatches
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 Line
Defects

Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

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 Edge Dislocation
• In perfect crystal atoms are arranged in both vertical and
horizontal planes parallel to the side faces.

• If one of these planes does not extend to the full length but
ends in between within the crystal it is called edge
dislocation.

• Edge dislocation are caused by the termination of a plane of

atoms in the middle of the crystal.

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 Edge dislocation

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 ✓ Edge dislocation moves parallel to the direction of
stress.

✓ It can be easily visualized as an extra half-plane of

atoms in a lattice.

✓ The locus of defective points produced in the lattice

by the dislocation lie along a line.

✓ The inter-atomic bonds are significantly distorted only

in the immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
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 Screw Dislocation
✓ It results from a displacement of the atoms in one part of
a crystal relative to the rest of the crystal forming a spiral
ramp around the dislocation line.

✓ The motion of a screw dislocation is a result of shear

stress.

✓ But the defect line movement is perpendicular to direction

of the stress and the atom displacement, rather than
parallel.

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Screw
Dislocation Slip Planes

Slip Direction

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 Burger’s Vector

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 Malleability and Ductility

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 Session 10

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 Grain boundaries

Tilt boundary

Surface or Interfacial
Defects Twist boundary

Twin boundary

Stacking defects

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 ✓ These are two dimensional defects.
✓ Arises due to change in stacking of atomic planes
during mechanical and thermal treatments.
✓ The change may be of orientation or the stacking
sequence of the planes.
✓ Surface defects refer to regions of distortions that lie
about a surface having thickness of a few atomic
diameters

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 Grain Boundaries (or) Crystal
•
Boundary
Crystalline solids are made up of grains.
• Grain boundaries are several atoms distances wide, and
there is mismatch of orientation of grains on either side of
the boundary.
• Chemically more reactive.
• When the mismatch in the
orientation is less than 10°
it is called low angle
boundaries.
• When the mismatch in the
orientation is larger than
15° it is known as high
angle boundaries
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 Tilt Boundaries
❑ If the low grain boundary is formed by edge
dislocations, it is called tilt boundary.
❑ A tilt boundary, between two slightly mis-aligned
grains as an array of edge dislocations.
❑ Rotation axis is parallel to the boundary plane.

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 ✓ If the low grain boundary is formed by screw
dislocations, it is called twist boundary .
✓ Rotation axis is perpendicular to the boundary plane.

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 Twin Boundaries
❖ It is a special type of grain boundary.
❖ These are the boundaries in the grains at which the
atomic arrangement on one side of the boundary is the
mirror image of the atoms on the other side.
❖ Twins result from
❖ atomic displacements that are produced by shear
deformation.
❖ During annealing heat treatments
❖ The region between the pair of boundaries is called
the twinned region.

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✓ Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in
a specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal
structure.
✓ Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have
FCC crystal structure.
✓ While mechanical/deformation twins are observed in BCC
and HCP metals.
✓ Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter
sides than mechanical twins.
✓ Twins do not extend beyond a grain boundary.

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▪ Formed by fault in the staking sequence of atomic planes
in crystals
▪ In FCC crystal we have three different stacking layers
ABC while in HCP stacking we have only two different
layers BC hence when FCC crystal grows we have the
stacking as ………ABCABCABCABC……
▪ While growing if the plane A indicated by arrow above
missing then we get the sequence
………ABCABCBCABC……
▪ Thus we find that the stacking in the missing region be
comes HCP. This thin region is a surface imperfection and
is called a stocking fault.
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 Applications
• It is known that most materials are polycrystalline and contain
grain boundaries and that grain boundaries can act as sinks and
transport pathways for point defects.

• They are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep

• In metal oxides it has been shown theoretically that at the grain

boundaries in Al2O3 and MgO the insulating properties can be
significantly diminished.

• They can affect the electronic properties with a reduction in

the band gap
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 Volume Defects
❑ Presence of a large vacancy (crakes) or void such as
clusters of atoms missing is also considered as a volume
defect. While crystal is grown there is every possibility
of inclusion of non-crystalline regions of dimensions of at
least 10 to 30°A. This is also called Volume
imperfection.

❑ Affect mechanical, electrical and optical properties.

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 Pores in ceramics

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 Identify the Defects

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