MECHANICS

FORCES

What is a What is the What can a What if more

force? unit of force? force do? than one
force acts on
a body?

calculate the
a push change shape, resultant (the
or Newton size, direction, one force with
a pull speed etc the same effect
as all the others
together)

Forces need to be described in terms of magnitude and direction, therefore they are
VECTORS.

A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude only.

Vector quantities are represented by lines of exact length including an arrowhead to

represent direction.

E.g. 4 km
A B AB = 4 km east

If the vectors lie along the same straight line we can indicate their directions by means of +
and – signs. Usually left to right (W to E) is taken as positive (+) and right to left (E to W) as
negative (-).

The RESULTANT of a number of vectors is the single vector which has the same effect as
the original vectors acting together.
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Maximum vs. Minimum resultant

1. The resultant vector is a maximum when the angle between the vectors is 0º (i.e. they
are acting in the same direction) and the vectors are added.
E.g.

2. The resultant of two vectors is a minimum when the angle between them is 180º (i.e.
they are acting in opposite directions) and the vectors are subtracted. E.g.

3. How do you think the angle between the vectors (from 0o to 180o) affects the
resultant?

____________________________________________________________________
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Multiple choice - Min/Max resultant

1. Which of the following values can NOT represent the resultant of 2 vectors of
magnitude 3 N and 7 N?
A 4N B 12 N C 5N D 10 N

2. The resultant of 2 forces of magnitude 13 N and 6 N, is 7 N. The angle between the

forces is:
A 0º B 60º C 90º D 180º

3. Two forces act on a point if the angle between them is increased from 30º to 150º.
The magnitude of the resultant force will:
A increase
B decrease
C increase then decrease
D not change

4. Two forces, X and Y, have a resultant of 6 N. If the magnitude of X is 11 N then the

magnitude of Y could be:
A 2N B 4N C 6N D 18 N

Bearings
°
Bearings are used to describe the direction of a vector.
All bearings are measured clockwise from north, with one
revolution being equal to 360º.
When giving direction, a BEARING (angle in degrees)
must be given and NOT just a general compass
direction.
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Addition of Vectors
Draw a rough diagram and then do an accurate scale diagram (rulers and protractors
needed.)

Note: All vector diagrams must have ARROWS

NO arrows = NO marks

1. Head to Tail method of vector addition

This method is used when each vector starts where the previous one ended, i.e.
the vectors act in 2 or more different directions one after the other.
It is often used to represent successive displacements, and is the most common
method for scale diagrams.

2. Parallelogram method of vector addition

This method is used when 2 vectors act from the same point. In this case the vectors
represent the sides of a parallelogram and the diagonal acting through the same
starting point as the original vectors represents the resultant vector. i.e. all 3 vectors
must act away from the same point.
It is often used to represent force vectors. It is not normally used for a scale
diagram, but is useful for working out forces and angles using trigonometry.

Equilibrium of forces
If an object is stationary then the forces acting on it are balanced.
Such an object is said to be in equilibrium and it experiences zero resultant force.

Example 1
Two boys push on a box from the same side with
forces of 100 N and 200 N each. With what force
must a third boy push in order to keep the box in
equilibrium?
Solution
The third boy needs to push with a force of 300 N in the opposite direction to the first two
boys.

Note:
The 300 N force is at 180º to the resultant force of the first two boys and is called the
equilibrant force.

The equilibrant of a number of vectors is the single vector which will balance the original
vectors acting together. It is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant.

Example 2
Two forces act simultaneously on a body - one force of 5 N on a bearing of 45º and the other
force of 10 N on a bearing of 135º.

Determine:
2.1 the resultant force
2.2 the equilibrant force
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Questions

1. Two forces of magnitude 10 N and 15 N act on an object.

1.1 What will be the magnitude of the maximum possible resultant?
1.2 What will be the magnitude of the minimum possible resultant?
1.3 Illustrate your answers using a diagram.

2. Two forces of 20 N West and 15 N North act on a block. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.

3. Forces of 16 N and 12 N act on directions of 60º and 150º respectively.

3.1 What is the resultant force?
3.2 Determine the magnitude and direction of the single force that will balance the
other two forces.

4.1 The diagrams show two forces of 5N and 12N which act at the same point. Find the
resultant in each case.

a) b) c)

4.2 When will two forces acting together have

4.2.1 a maximum resultant?
4.2.2 a minimum resultant?

4.3 For each of the diagrams shown above, give the magnitude of the force needed to
balance the resultant.

5.1 Two forces X and Y can be replaced by a single force of 10 N. If X is a force of

magnitude 4 N say whether each of the following could be possible values of Y.
5.1.1 24 N
5.1.2 6 N
5.1.3 14 N
5.1.4 5 N

5.2 Draw a rough vector diagram to explain each answer.

6. What happens to this resultant force if the tugs move closer to each other?

Answers:
1.1 25 N 1.2 5 N 2. 25 N on a bearing of 306,87° 3.1 20 N on a bearing of 96,87°
3.2 20 N on a bearing of 276,87° 4.1a) 17 N right
b) 7 N left c) 13 N on a bearing of 22,62°
4.3a) 17 N left b) 7 N right c) 13 N on a bearing of 202,62°
 Page 5 of 40

Finding the components of forces (i.e. resolving a force into its components)

The opposite of adding two forces together is finding the effect of a force in a certain
direction. We call this resolving force into its components. We normally resolve into
components that are at 90 degrees to each other. If we know the value of force R and the
angle it makes with the horizontal (ϴ) we can find its vertical component Rsinϴ and its
horizontal component Rcosϴ.

Now practise
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Exercise on components of forces (Ex. 7) 30 N

45o
1 Two children pull ropes attached to a go-kart as shown in the
diagram. 55o 24 N
1.1 Calculate the component of the 30 N force which is acting
forwards.
1.2 Calculate the component of the 24 N force which is acting forwards.
1.3 Calculate the resultant forward component of the two forces.

15 N
2 Consider the system of forces shown in the adjacent diagram and calculate
2.1 the resultant horizontal force 40o 20 N
2.2 the resultant vertical force 28 N
2.3 the overall resultant force

3 A flower pot of mass 8 kg is attached by cables to a wall as shown.

3.1 Draw a free-body diagram to show the forces acting on the pot.
3.2 Calculate the weight of the pot.
3.3 What is the vertical component of the tension in cable X? X
Y
(Hint: Pot is stationary net vertical force = 0) 60 N
3.4 What is the horizontal component of the tension in cable X?
(Hint: Pot is stationary net horizontal force = 0)
3.5 Calculate the magnitude of the tension in cable X and the angle at which it is
suspended from the ceiling.

Resultant of multiple forces using components

B
A

Resolve all of the forces into vertical and horizontal components.

Calculate the resultant (net) force of all the forces in the x-direction as the vector sum of
all the components in the x-direction.
Calculate the resultant (net) force of all the forces in the y-direction as the vector sum of
all the components in the y-direction.
Calculate the total net force by finding the vector sum of the resultant (net) x-component
and the resultant (net) y-component.
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Example 1 6N
8N
Refer to the free body diagram opposite and calculate
1. The resultant horizontal force 25o 40o
2. The resultant vertical force
3. The overall resultant force
Solution 5N
1. Let forces to the right be positive.
Fx = (6cos40˚ – 8cos25˚) = 4,60 – 7,25 = -2,65 N
6sin40
Fx = 2,65 N to the left 8sin25
2. Let forces up be positive. 8cos25 6cos40
Fy = (8sin25˚ + 6sin40˚ - 5) = 3,38 + 3,86 - 5 = 2,24 N
Fy = 2,24 N up
5N
3. FR2 = 2,242 + 2,652
FR = 3,47 N
tanθ = 2,24
FR
2,65 2,24 N
θ = 40,2o θ
The resultant force is 3,47 N at 40,2o to horizontal 2,65 N

If an object remains stationary (in equilibrium) then the resultant force acting on it
must be zero.
Resultant horizontal force = 0
Resultant vertical force = 0

TYPES OF FORCES

1 Weight (Fg) is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its
surface.
Weight can be calculated using the formula, Fg = m.g, where g is the acceleration due
to gravity which has a value of 9,8 m.s-2 near the Earth’s surface.
2 The normal force (FN) is the perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in
contact with it.
3 The frictional force (Ff) due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an
object and acts parallel to the surface with which the object is in contact.
4 Tension – a pulling force, e.g. the force in a rope when it is pulled.
5 Compression – a pushing force, e.g. the force in a solid strut when pushed from both
ends.

Ff
Force of table on box FN
friction
(normal) FN normal

weight = mass x g Fg
Force of gravity on box Fg = mg weight
Fg
(weight)
 Page 8 of 40

NOTE:
For a body on a flat horizontal surface the normal force is equal in magnitude to the
weight, therefore the resultant force in the first example is zero.
If the resultant of the 3 forces in the second example is zero then the block remains
stationary.

Rules for drawing free-body diagrams

A free-body diagram is used to represent the forces acting on a body.
The body is usually drawn as a point mass (large solid dot)
The forces are drawn as arrows in the direction of the force.
The forces all act away from the object.
The arrows must touch the circle representing the object.
The relative lengths of the arrows should be accurate Body accelerating right
o If a body is accelerating then the length of the arrow in the direction of motion must be
greater than the sum of the lengths of the arrows in the opposite direction.
o If a body is moving at constant velocity then the length of the arrow in the direction of
motion should be shown to be equal to the sum of the lengths of the arrows in the opposite
direction to motion (see Newton’s 1st Law of Motion).
All bodies experience the force of gravity (weight) (Fg) down (except in space).
All bodies on a surface experience a normal force (FN) perpendicular to the surface.
All free-body diagrams must have a KEY, indicating the names of the forces labelled on the
diagram.

LIFTING AND PUSHING BODIES AT AN ANGLE

Note: The normal is the upward reaction force to the TOTAL downward force.

Pushing:

F
Fy

Total downward force = Fg + VC(Fy), ∴ FN > Fg

Pulling:

Fy F
Total downward force = Fg - VC(Fy), ∴ FN < Fg

Draw a free body diagram showing the vertical forces only:

Pushing: Pulling
 Page 9 of 40

The weight of objects on a slope

When an object is on a horizontal surface its weight acts at

right angles to the surface. The surface exerts an equal
and opposite force on the object, this is called the reaction
force or the normal.

When an object is against a vertical surface, the weight of the

object acts parallel to the surface. The object will slide along the
surface as its weight is not supported.

Weight = mg

When an object is on a slope, part of the weight is supported by the slope but part of the
weight acts parallel to the slope and makes the object slide. The slope has the effect of
resolving the weight into two components. One component is perpendicular to the slope (let
us call it W 1) This is equal and opposite to the normal or reaction force. The other component
is parallel to the slope (let us call it W 2). This has to be balanced by a force such as friction.
 Page 10 of 40

Body on an inclined plane (refer to adjacent diagram)

For a body on an inclined plane of slope Θ the weight
(Fg) can be resolved into two components;
The component of the weight which acts parallel to FN Ff
the slope is FgsinΘ (mgsinΘ)
The component of the weight which acts
perpendicular to the slope is FgcosΘ (mgcosΘ) FgsinΘ Θ FgcosΘ
Weight (Fg), Fg = m.g Fg

If the body is at rest on a rough slope then the resultant

(net) force is zero and we can conclude; Θ
Friction (Ff) up slope = FgsinΘ = mgsinΘ down
slope
Normal (FN) = FgcosΘ = mgcosΘ at 90o to slope

Example
The stationary crate in the adjacent diagram has a mass of
100 kg. The angle of the slope is 30o.
Calculate
1 the frictional force between the slope and crate
2 the normal force
Solution
1 Friction (Ff) = mgsinθ = (100 x 9,8)sin30˚ = 49 N up slope
2 FN = mgcosθ = (100 x 9,8)cos30˚ = 84,87 N perpendicular to slope

1
2 Now
FN =practise
mgcosΘ = (100 x 9,8)cos30 = 84,87 N perpendicular to slope
 Page 11 of 40

THE TRIANGLE RULE FOR FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

This is used when three forces act on the same object and keep it in equilibrium so that the
object does not move, or continues moving with a constant velocity.

When three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in both
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.

The three vectors drawn head to tail start and end at the same point i.e. they have a zero
resultant. You are simply moving each vector so the three together make a closed triangle.
The direction of each vector remains the same.

F1 F2

F2
F3

F1
F3

PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES

1. Identify the point on which the forces are acting and the direction in which they are
acting.
When determining direction, remember the following:
If the system is in equilibrium the resultant force must be zero and the three
vectors should from a close figure when joined head to tail in a vector diagram.
Ask the question, “What would happen if that force were removed?”
Example:

If strut A were removed block B would move towards

Wall B the wall. Therefore force in A must be pushing out
from wall.

2. Using the forces you have identified, draw a separate vector diagram, ensuring that
you maintain the correct angles between the vectors. In the case of 3 forces, one of
the angles is usually a right angle.
3. Where strings or cables are involved and both act from the same height, then the
longest string must represent the smallest force. Tension in strings and cables always
acts away from the point of application.
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WORKED EXAMPLE:

If the OPEN sign below has a weight of 100 N determine:

a. The tension in A
b. The compressional force in B

Wall A
60˚

B OPEN
N
SOLUTION:
1. Identify the forces acting and fill them in on the original diagram.

Wall A=T
60˚

B=F W

2. Draw a suitable triangle of forces, joining the vectors head to tail.

60˚ T
W

F
3. Use the triangle rule of forces and trig to determine the unknown forces OR a scale
diagram if it is not a right angled triangle.
a.

F = 100 tan 60
= 173,2 N
Compressional force in B = 173,2 N

b. Use Pythag to solve for tension:

T2 = 1002 + 173,22
Therefore T = 200 N
Therefore tension in A = 200 N
 Page 13 of 40

Examples using triangle of forces

1. T Determine W and T

50°
F=70N

2. Determine T and
T
W
F=6N

W=9N

3. 60° 30° Determine T1 and T2

T1 T2

W=120N

T T
4. 45° 45° Determine the tension in the string
given that the weight of the picture is
18N.

T T
5. Determine the weight of the picture,
35° 35° given that the tension in the string is
20N.

1. W=58, 7N, T=91, 4N 2. T=10, 8N, =33,7O 3. T1=104N, T2=60N

4. T=12,7N 5. W=22,9N
 Page 14 of 40

FRICTION

Friction is a force that acts to oppose motion. It is caused by one surface dragging over
another surface. The coefficient of friction symbolized by the Greek letter μ, is a
dimensionless, scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between a
body and the surface and the force pressing them together (the normal - reaction force
to the weight of the body on the surface)

The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low
coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients
of friction range from near zero to greater than one – under good conditions, a tyre on
concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1,7

The diagram below shows a wooden block which is pulled by a spring balance.

Initially the block does not move but when the applied force is large enough the block starts
to move. Let us call this force Ff . The reading on the spring balance gives a value which is
known as STATIC FRICTION (also known as limiting friction). The static friction force must
be overcome by an applied force before an object can move, because it is the force that
keeps an object at rest. Static friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving
relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a
sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction is typically denoted as μs.

When the block is moving, the reading on the spring balance decreases slightly, showing that
the force needed to keep the block moving is slightly less than the force of static friction. This
force needed to sustain movement is known as KINETIC FRICTION (also known as sliding
or dynamic friction). Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other
and rub together. The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually
less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.

If a small amount of force is applied to an object, the static friction has an equal magnitude in
the opposite direction. As the force is increased, the static friction increases, until the force is
great enough to JUST start the object moving. This value is known as maximum static
friction.

force of static friction ≤ (coefficient of static friction)(normal force)

maximum force of static friction = (coefficient of static friction)(normal force)

Fs ≤ μs η , and Fsmax = μs η
Fs = force of static friction
μs = coefficient of static friction
η = normal force
Fsmax = maximum force of static friction
 Page 15 of 40

Worked examples

1) A 5500 N force is applied to a sled full of firewood in a snow-covered forest. The skis of
the sled have a coefficient of static friction μs = 0.75 with the snow. If the fully-loaded sled has
a mass of 700 kg, what is the maximum force of static friction, and is the force applied
enough to overcome it?

Answer: On a flat surface, the normal force on an object is equal to its weight, ie η = mg.
Using this, the maximum force of static friction can be found:
Fsmax = μs η
Fsmax = μs mg
Fsmax = (0.75)(700 kg)(9,8)
Fsmax = 5145 kg∙m/s2
Fsmax = 5145 N

The maximum force of static friction is 5145 N, and therefore the applied force of 5500 N is
enough to overcome it, and start moving the sled.

2) A person building a brick-making machine wants to measure the coefficient of static friction
between brick and wood. To do this, she places a 2.00 kg brick on a flat piece of wood, and
gradually applies more and more force until the brick moves. She finds that the brick moves
when exactly 11.8 N of force is applied. What is the coefficient of static friction?

Answer: The force that was applied was exactly the right amount to overcome static friction,
so it is equal to Fsmax. On a flat surface, the normal force on an object is η = mg. The
coefficient of static friction can be found by rearranging the formula for the maximum force of
static friction:

μs = 0,602

A little later on we will do Newton’s Second Law in conjunction with weight on a slope, and
use the static and kinetic friction formula in examples which are a little more complex.
 Page 16 of 40

NEWTON’S LAWS

A force is a push or pull which changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of the
body on which it acts.

A force does not always cause motion – the force may be in equilibrium with an opposing
force (e.g. friction)

Galileo’s experiment:

As the ball rolls down the slope the force of gravity accelerates it.
On the flat there are no forces (friction having been reduced to a negligible force).
On the upward slope the force of gravity slows it down (negative acceleration).
The smaller the slope the less the decelerating force (i.e. gravity) so the further it rolls.
The ball will tend to roll up to the height from which it began, thus if the slope is reduced to
zero there will be no decelerating forces so the ball should roll on in a straight line forever.
(Watch the video “Newton’s Laws of Motion and Forces)

A stationary body will not begin to move unless acted on by a force.

Once moving, it will not stop unless acted upon by an opposing force.

Newton’s First Law: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with constant)
velocity unless it is acted upon by a net or resultant force.

This is sometimes called “The law of Inertia”.

If a force is required to change the state of motion of a body, then it follows that the body has
some property which resists change. This property is called inertia, and it depends on the
mass of the object.
Inertia is the property of an object that causes it to resist a change in its state of rest or
uniform motion.
 Page 17 of 40

Demonstrations of Newton’s First Law:

1. Place a coin on a piece of card which is on top of a glass. Flick the piece of card
away. The coin falls into the glass.

Explanation: The horizontal force acts only on the card. There is no horizontal force
on the coin so it remains at rest due to its inertia. When the card is removed the
force of gravity causes the coin to fall into the glass.

2. Stand a glass of water on a piece of paper. Quickly remove the piece of paper. The
glass does not move.

Explanation: The horizontal force acts only on the piece of paper so the glass does not
move, due to its inertia. If the paper is pulled slowly then the force is transmitted to the
glass and both the glass and the piece of paper move.

3. When a car stops suddenly a parcel resting on the seat slides forwards.

Explanation: The braking force when a car suddenly stops, acts only on the car. The
parcel continues to move at the velocity the car was initially travelling at, due to its
inertia, so it appears it is sliding forwards.

4. Drop a matchbox (end first) with the tray open. When the box hits the table, the tray
slides into the box.

Explanation: The cover of the matchbox hits the table first so a force acts to stop the
movement of the cover. No force acts on the tray, so it continues to move, due to its
inertia, until it also hits the table.

5. When a car goes around a corner, the parcels slide across the seat in the opposite
direction.

Explanation: When the driver turns the steering wheel to go around the corner, only
the car experiences the change in direction. No forces act on the parcels, so the
parcels continue moving in a straight line (i.e. the original direction of the car) due to
their inertia, and so appear to slide across the seat.

6. When a car accelerates forwards, the passengers are “jerked” backwards.

Explanation: The force acts to increase the velocity of the car. The passengers
continue at constant velocity due to their inertia and appear to move backwards
relative to the car.

7. Space rockets can continue to move at constant velocity in space even though their
engines are switched off.

Explanation: In space, there are no friction forces to slow down the rocket, therefore,
the rocket will continue to move with constant velocity, due to its inertia.
 Page 18 of 40

Mass is the amount of matter a body is made up of.

Acceleration is the change in state of motion of a body. Acceleration is brought about by the
application of a force. (Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity)

Newton’s Second Law is concerned with the motion of the body once a resultant non-zero
force has been applied.

The trolley experiment

The trolley experiment shows how acceleration depends on two variables:

- the force applied to the object
- the mass of the object

Test one variable at a time.

Try to minimise friction

Set up the apparatus as in the diagram

Part 1
Create ticker tapes with the application of a force of 1 Newton, then 2 N, then 3 N, then 4
N.
Mass of system must remain constant. (i.e. if one mass piece is over the edge, 3 mass
pieces on trolley, if two mass pieces over the edge, two mass pieces on trolley)
Cut each tape into 4 space lengths
Each length represents the displacement covered in an equal time period i.e. velocity
Stick tapes in order onto paper, thus producing a v vs. t bar graph
Draw a line through the top of each tape, producing a line graph
Find the gradient of this line (using cm, don’t worry about correct units) which is the
acceleration
Plot this calculated acceleration against force (F = 1, 2, 3 & 4), and write a conclusion.

Part 2
Now keep force constant and vary mass by using one trolley and then two trolleys.
Many errors occur with this experiment, so just observe the difference in acceleration
1
Sketch a graph of a vs. m, then sketch a graph of a vs.
m
Write a conclusion to your experiment.
 Page 19 of 40

Newton’s Second Law: When a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object of mass, m, it
accelerates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration, a, is directly proportional to the
net force and inversely proportional to the mass.

Fnet = ma

Prove that N = kg·m·s-2

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

The weight Fg, is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface.
At a particular place, all objects fall with the same acceleration (± 9,8 m·s-2). So Fnet = ma
can be rewritten as
Fg = mg or Fg = m.9,8
The earth exerts a greater force on an object with bigger mass, but that object has greater
inertia, and thus resists the force more, which results in the same acceleration for all objects.

If the force applied to an object causes the object to move in a direction different to the
direction of the force, the component of the original force which acts in the direction of
movement, must be calculated before Fnet = ma may be used.

Problems using Newton II

1 Calculate the acceleration of the frictionless block

12 N
5 kg

2 Prove that m·s-2 = N·kg-1

3 A force of 12 N is applied to a 5 kg block. When the block moves a frictional force of 4 N

is exerted. Calculate the acceleration of the block.

4N 12 N
5 kg

4 A toy rocket has a mass of 30 kg. Its engine exerts a thrust of 480 N. Calculate the
acceleration of the rocket. (Remember g = 9,8 m.s-2)

Hint:
30 kg Fdown =
Fup =
Fnet=
 Page 20 of 40

5. A block of mass 8 kg is dragged across a rough horizontal surface, at a constant

velocity of 2 m·s-1 by a horizontal force of 12 N.

5.1 What is the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the block?
5.2 If the same force of 12 N continued to drag the block across a smooth surface, where
there was no friction, what would be the acceleration of the block?
5.3 At what velocity would the block be moving after it had travelled a distance of 7 m on
the smooth surface?

6. A 60 kg block is pulled across a rough floor with a force of 62 N which acts at 60o to
the horizontal. A frictional force of 17 N acts on the block. Calculate the resultant
force acting on the block.

7. For each of the following diagrams decide, by calculation, if an unbalanced

(resultant) force acts. Calculate and describe the motion of the object using the
phrases: at rest; moving with constant velocity; moving with constant positive or
with constant negative acceleration.

7.1. Initial velocity = 0 m·s-1 7.2. Initial velocity = 0 m·s-1

6N 6N
2 kg 2 kg

Frictionless surface 3 N friction

7.3. Vi = 0 m·s-1 7.4. Vi = 5 m·s-1 to the right

12 N
8N

60° 60°
2 kg 4N 2 kg
friction
Frictionless surface

7.5. Vi = 5 m·s-1 to the right 7.6. Vi = 5 m·s-1 to the right

8N 8N

60° 60°

2N 2 kg 5N 2 kg
friction friction
 Page 21 of 40

7.7. Vi = 5 m·s-1 upwards 7.8. Vi = 5 m·s-1 upwards

F = 19,6 N F = 39,6 N

2 kg 2 kg

7.9. Vi = 0 m·s-1 7.10. Vi = 5 m·s-1 upwards

F = 9,6 N F = 9,6 N

2 kg 2 kg

8. A man of mass 75 kg is a passenger in a car moving at 18 m·s-1, and he is wearing a

seatbelt. In a collision the car is brought to rest in 0,5 s. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the force which the seatbelt exerts on the passenger.

9. A 3 kg block moves across a frictionless surface at a constant velocity. A force of 18

N is applied to the block in the opposite direction to its motion, and it slows the block
down to half of its original speed while it covers a further 9 m. Calculate the time it
takes for this to occur.

Answers:
1. 2,4 m·s-2 right 3. 1,6 m·s-2 right 4. 6,2 m·s-2 up
5.1 12 N in opp dir to Fapp 5.2 1,5 m·s-2 in dir of Fapp
5.3 5 m·s-1 in dir of Fapp 6. 14 N in dir of motion
7.1 3 m·s-2 right 7.2 1,5 m·s-2 right 7.3 3 m·s-2 right
7.4 a = 0, v = 5 m·s-1 right 7.5 1 m·s-2 right 7.6 0,5 m·s-2 left
7.7 a = 0, v = 5 m·s-1 up 7.8 10 m·s-2 up 7.9 5 m·s-2 down
7.10 5 m·s-2 down 8. 2700 N backwards 9. 1s
 Page 22 of 40

EXAMPLES WITH FRICTION

1. A force of 20 N is needed to start moving an object of mass 4 kg but it needs only 16

N to keep it moving at constant velocity.

1.1 What is the magnitude of the force of:

a) kinetic friction
b) static friction
1.2 What is the magnitude of the normal (reaction force) for this object.
1.3 Calculate μs and μK for the object.

2. A block of wood of 5 kg rests on a flat horizontal table. A horizontally applied force of

30 N is just sufficient to make it slide.

2.1 Calculate μs between the block and the table.

2.2 The force of 30 N is maintained after it starts sliding, and the block now
accelerates at 2,5 m.s-2. Calculate the μK between the block and the
table.

3. A crate of mass 62 kg is being dragged across a level floor at constant velocity by a

horizontal rope exerting a force of 240 N. Calculate the μK between the two surfaces.

4. A box of mass 20 kg rests on a flat rough surface. The slope of this surface is
increased until the box just starts to move. The angle between the surface and the
horizontal is 20˚. Calculate the coefficient of static friction.

5. The following block rests on a frictionless surface. Calculate the acceleration of the
block.
7200 N

1350 kg

25˚

6. The 3 kg block in the diagram rests on a rough inclined plane. If the block experiences
a frictional force of 15 N, calculate the acceleration of the block.

Ff = 15 N
3 kg

50˚
Page 23 of 40
Page 24 of 40
 Page 25 of 40

Exercise
 Page 26 of 40

Newton’s Third Law

When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an oppositely
directed force of equal magnitude on object A.

This law involves pairs of forces (sometimes called an action/reaction pair) which always act
on different objects and therefore they do NOT balance each other.

Example 1 Walking

When a person walks his foot exerts a force backwards on the floor
(action force). The floor (earth) exerts an opposing reaction force
against the foot, causing the body to move forwards.
Action = foot on floor ; Reaction = floor on foot
The reason the person moves forwards and the earth does not
move backwards is that the force is big enough to overcome the inertia of the person, but not
big enough to overcome the inertia of the earth.

Example 2 Pressing against a wall

If a boy, wearing roller skates, pushes forwards against a wall (action force) the wall will
exert an opposing reaction force against the boy, who will move
backwards, away from the wall.
Action = boy on wall ; reaction = wall on boy.
The wall does not move because the force is not big enough to
overcome its inertia.

Example 3 Space rockets

The rapidly expanding gases which escape from the

combustion chamber, experience a downward force, while
the rocket experiences an upward force.
Action = gases on chamber ; reaction = chamber on
gases.
The expanding gases exert forces on the sides of the
combustion chamber, NOT on the surrounding air, therefore rockets can be propelled in a
vacuum. An astronaut can propel himself in a certain direction by firing a small rocket in the
opposite direction.

Example 4 Rifles and recoil

Since the bullet and rifle are different objects, action and
reaction forces drive them in opposite directions during the
explosion. The bullet has less inertia than the rifle and
therefore moves with a greater speed.

Example 5 Motion of a car

The wheels of the car exert a force backward on the road

and due to friction the road exerts a force forward on the
car. Therefore, friction is the external force
responsible for the motion of the car.
Action = wheels on road ; reaction = road on wheels
 Page 27 of 40

(Watch Colin Fairman’s video and section on Challenge of Reason disc)

Note:
lf one of the forces involved is the WEIGHT then this represents the force of the earth on
an object and therefore, the reaction force is the force of the object on the earth. This
concept is often tested in multiple choice questions.
Example
A book rests on a table. What force is the Newton reaction force to the weight of the book?
A the force exerted by the book on the table
B the force exerted by the table on the book
C the force exerted by the book on the earth
D the force exerted by the earth on the book
Correct answer is “C”, since weight is “earth on book” so reaction is “book on earth”
Force Diagrams

When we show all the forces acting on an object in a sketch, we call this a force diagram or
a free body diagram.

Problem 1

A child sits on a stationary swing seat. The child’s mother pulls the seat of the swing
horizontally to the right as shown in the picture. She exerts a force of 300 N and the child
has a mass of 40 kg.

Draw a labelled diagram showing all the forces acting on the child and on the swing. (Treat
the child and the seat as one object.)
 Page 28 of 40

Problem 2

In the picture, a woman and her daughter are sitting side by side in a taxi. It accelerates to
the right. The mother has twice the mass of her daughter.

a) Give separate labelled diagrams showing the forces acting

on the daughter and the mother. There is no need to be
“exact”, but show the relative size of the forces acting on the
mother and daughter.

b) Explain, with diagrams, how the back rest of the seat is able
to exert a force on the mother that has a different magnitude
from the force it exerts on the daughter.

Problem 3

The diagram shows the directions of three forces on a

moving lorry. The lorry is travelling at a constant
velocity. Which one of the following in the table is
correct?

Forward thrust Friction Air resistance

A 3 500 kN 1 500 kN 2 500 kN
B 3 500 kN 2 500 kN 2 500 kN
C 3 500 kN 3 500 kN 3 500 kN
D 3 500 kN 2 250 kN 1 250 kN

Problem 4

A girl pulling a rope drags a box across a rough horizontal surface at a constant speed as
shown. Which one of the following diagrams best represents all the forces acting on the
box?
 Page 29 of 40

Solution to Problem 1

Tension of the swing rope

Force of mother pulling to the right

•

Weight of child

Solution to Problem 2

a) See figure below.

b) The more we compress a spring, the greater the force it exerts. The springs in the
seat are compressed more behind the mother than the child. See figure below.

Solution to Problem 3

Option D. Constant velocity → no resultant force

sum of forces to the left = magnitude of force to the right
 Page 30 of 40

Solution to Problem 4

Option C. Constant velocity → no resultant force. The forces must be balanced. This is
not possible for options A and D where there must be a resultant. For B to be correct the
magnitude of the vertical component of the force with which the girl pulls must equal the
magnitude of the weight. C is much more likely.

Conceptual questions involving Newton’s Laws

To guide you in answering conceptual questions, always follow these steps:

Step 1: Draw a sketch of the situation

Step 2: Identify and label the forces acting on each object in the sketch
Step 3: Identify the law that causes each object to react in the way that they do.
Step 4: Using full sentences and referring to the name of the relevant law,
explain how these laws link to the situation.

Note: Newton’s First and Second Laws are linked – they concern one object and the forces
that act on it. Newton’s Third Law is different because it defines the forces between two
different objects.

Example: Applying Newton’s Laws

Ann is sitting in a seat in an aircraft. She has a safety belt on. When the aircraft accelerates
on the runway for take-off, she feels as if something is pushing her backwards in the seat.

a) Draw a labelled force diagram to show all the forces acting on Ann as the aircraft
accelerates on the runway.
b) Using principles of physics, explain why Ann feels as if she is being pushed back in
the seat.

When the aircraft lands on the runway, it undergoes deceleration. The seat belt protects the
passengers from moving forward.

c) Draw a labelled force diagram to show all the forces acting on Ann during the aircraft’s
deceleration.
d) Using principles of physics, explain why Ann has to wear a seat belt.
 Page 31 of 40

Solution:

a) The force diagram:

b) There are no forces acting on Ann in a backwards direction. According to Newton’s

Second Law (a F), Ann experiences a net force forwards as a result of the
acceleration of the aircraft. Her reaction force is an equal force backwards on the
seat, as explained by Newton’s Third Law ( F1 F2 ). Her inertia causes her to
maintain her rest position (Newton’s First Law), and this makes her feel as if she is
being pushed back.

c) The force diagram:

d) Ann is moving at the same velocity as the aircraft. When the aircraft decelerates, she
continues to move forward at her original velocity due to her inertia (Newton’s First
Law). To prevent her from injuries, she has to wear a seat belt. The seat belt exerts a
force on her, which causes her to decelerate (Newton’s Second Law). She exerts a
reaction force on the seat belt. Seat belts are manufactured from strong fabric to
withstand reaction forces.
 Page 32 of 40

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Question: Why did the apple fall?

Answer: Due to the earth’s gravitational force of attraction on the
apple…BUT…does the apple attract the earth?...OR…is there an attraction
between two apples?

Newton realised that the mass of the two objects influenced gravitational force
(Fg = m.g)
Therefore: F m1 .m2 (Earth on apple → much greater than apple on earth?)

He also realised the distance, r, between objects influenced the force

1
Therefore: F (Distance between centres of objects)
r2

m1m2
Combining and , F
r2

A proportionality constant was added (same value anywhere in the universe.)

11
G 6,7 10 N . m 2 . kg 2

G. m1m2
F
r2

“Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centres.”

Acceleration due to gravity (g)

The force between an object (mass m) and the earth (mass M) is given by:

G. mM
F
r2

But F = weight of the body = mg

Therefore F mg
GMm
Therefore mg
r2
GM
Therefore g
r2

I.e. g is independent of the mass of the object; therefore, in a vacuum (i.e. no friction) all
objects fall with the same acceleration irrespective of their mass.
 Page 33 of 40

Solving problems with Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

When you solve problems using Newton’s Law of Gravitation, it is important that you
understand the different types of questions so that you know which paths to follow to work
out your answers.

Calculations using ratios

When we compare two objects, we can work out how many times the variables increase or
decrease. The force F between two objects changes as follows:

F m1m2
m1 or m2 is doubled F is double
m1 and m2 are doubled F is four times greater
m1 or m2 is halved F is halved
m1 and m2 are halved F is four times smaller
1
F
r2
r is doubled F is four times smaller
r is tripled F is nine times smaller
r is halved F is four times greater
r is three times smaller F is nine times greater

Note:
The force between two objects is always an attractive force, and both objects
experience the same force irrespective of the masses of the individual
objects.

Example 1

Two metal spheres A and B are X m apart. A has

double the mass of B. A exerts a force with
magnitude F on B.
a) What is the magnitude of the force that B exerts
on A?
b) How does F change when:
i) the mass of A is doubled
ii) the distance between A and B is halved?
 Page 34 of 40

Example 2

The planet Saturn’s mass is 90 times greater than Earth’s. Saturn has a radius 10 times that
of Earth. What will the acceleration due to gravity on Saturn be? Use the RATIO method.

CALCULATIONS USING NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

1. Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between a mass of 8 kg and a mass of 24

kg, placed 2 m apart.

2. Use the following data to calculate the mass of the earth:

g = 9,8 m·s-2; radius of earth = 6,4 x 106 m; G = 6,7 x 10-11 N.m2kg-2.

3. An astronaut weights 800 N on the surface of the earth. What will be his weight at an
altitude equal to the radius of the earth? (Use the RATIO method)

4. An astronaut of mass 80 kg lands on a “planet”, the radius of which is half that of earth
and the mass of which is three times that of earth. What will be the force of attraction
which this “planet” has on him? (Use the RATIO method)

5. Calculate the value of g at a point a distance of 8,0 x 106 m from the centre of the
earth. (Use 6 x 1024 kg as the mass of the earth.)

6. a) Two bodies 500 mm apart have masses of 10 kg and 25 kg respectively.

Calculate the force of gravitation between them.

b) If the masses were then moved so that they were 1 m apart, what would the
force become?

c) If the magnitude of the masses and distance apart in a) were all doubled, how
would the force alter?

7. If the radius of the earth is 6 x 106 m, the mass of the earth 5 x 1024 kg and on its
surface the value of g = 10 m·s-2, find the height above the surface of the earth where
the value of g = 5 m·s-2.

8. Two space capsules, of equal mass, are put into orbit 30 m apart. The gravitational
force between them is 2,0 x 10-1 N.

a) Calculate the mass of each capsule.

b) Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration given to each capsule by this
force.

9. When on earth a space explorer’s weight is 900 N. What will his weight be on the
following planets?

a) Planet P, which is the same size as earth but has twice the mass.
b) Planet Q, which has the same mass as earth but its radius is half as large.
 Page 35 of 40

Answers:
1. 3,22 X 10-9 N 2. 5,99 x 1024 kg 3. 200 N
4. 9408 N 5. 6,28 m·s-2
6. a) 6,7 x 10-8 N 7. 2,185 x 106 m
b) 1,675 x 10-8 N
c) 6,7 x 10-8 N
8. a) 1,6 x 106 kg 9.a) 1800 N
b) 1,25 x 10-7 m·s-2 b) 3600 N

Momentum

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of the object.
(VECTOR).

p = momentum (kg·m·s-1)
p = mv m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m·s-1)

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM states that the total linear momentum of an

isolated system remains constant.

ELASTIC VS. INELASTIC COLLISIONS

ELASTIC COLLISION INELASTIC COLLISION

Momentum and kinetic energy is Momentum is conserved but kinetic
conserved energy is NOT conserved. Ek is lost
usually in the form of heat (internal
energy)
Objects do NOT stick together Objects may stick together
Objects do NOT change shape / are not Objects may change shape / become
deformed deformed

Note: Momentum is conserved in ALL collisions, elastic or inelastic.

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision.

Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Inelastic collision is a collision in which only momentum is conserved.

Exercise:

1. Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 800 kg which is moving at

20 m·s-1 east.

2. Calculate the velocity of a truck of mass 3000 kg, if it has a momentum of

45 000 kg·m·s-1 north.
 Page 36 of 40

3. A man is running at 8 m·s-1 west and his momentum is 560 kg·m·s-1 west. What is his
mass?

4. A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 20 m·s-1 east collides with a truck of mass
2000 kg, moving in the same direction at 10 m·s-1. They stick together after the
collision.
4.1 State the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
4.2 Calculate the velocity of the entangled wreck after the collision.
4.3 Energy is not conserved in this collision. Classify the collision as elastic or inelastic.
What has happened to the “lost” energy?

5. A truck of mass 2500 kg moving at 12m·s-1 to the right collides with (and sticks to) an
identical stationary truck. Calculate the velocity of the entangled wreck after the
collision.

6. A rugby player of mass 60 kg running at 9 m·s-1 east has a head-on-collision with

another player of mass 100 kg running at 5 m·s-1 west. If they stick together after
colliding then calculate the magnitude and direction of their velocity after the collision.

7. A bullet of mass 100 g moving at 300 m·s-1 hits and passes through a wooden block of
mass 2 kg. The block starts to move at 8 m·s-1. Calculate the velocity of the bullet as
it emerges from the block.

8. A boy of mass 48 kg running at 5 m·s-1 jumps onto his stationary skateboard of mass 2
kg.
8.1 What is the velocity of the boy after he jumps on the board?
8.2 If the boy and board travel for 6 s before coming to rest, calculate the
acceleration of the board.
8.3 Calculate the distance travelled by the board before coming to rest.
8.4 Calculate the magnitude of the retarding force acting on the boy and board as it comes
to rest.

9. A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 30 m·s-1 east collides with (and sticks to) a truck of
mass 4000 kg moving at 15 m·s-1 in the opposite direction.
9.1 Calculate the velocity of the combined wreck after the collision.
9.2 If the wreck moves 9 m before coming to rest then calculate the acceleration of the
wreck.
9.3 Calculate the time taken for the wreck to come to rest.
9.4 Calculate the magnitude of the retarding force which brings the wreck to rest.

10. A ball of mass 50 g moving at 8 m·s-1 to the right hits the wall and rebounds again at 6
m·s-1.
10.1 Calculate the momentum of the ball before it hits the wall.
10.2 Calculate the momentum of the ball after it hit the wall.
10.3 Calculate the change in momentum of the ball when it collides with the wall.

11. A cannon of mass 2500 kg is found to have a recoil velocity of 8 m·s-1. It fires a shell
with a velocity of 100 m·s-1. Calculate the mass of the shell.
 Page 37 of 40

12. Two trolleys, A & B, of mass 4 kg and 6 kg respectively, joined by a compressed

spring move across a bench at 2 m·s-1 to the right, as indicated in the diagram. When
the spring is released trolley B continues to move right with a velocity of
3 m·s-1. Calculate the velocity of trolley A.

A B

4 kg 6 kg
2 m·s-1

Answers:

1. 16 000 kg·m·s-1E 2. 15 m·s-1 N 3. 70 kg 4. 2 13,3 m·s-1 E

5. 6 m·s-1 right 6. 0,25 m·s-1E 7. 140 m·s-1 8.1 4,8 m·s-1 fwds 8.2
0,8 m·s-2 backwards 8.3 14,4 m 8.4 40 N 9.1 6 m·s-1 W
9.2 2 m·s-2 E 9.3 3 s 9.4 10 000 N
10.1 0,4 kg·m·s-1 right -1
10.2 0,3 kg·m·s left 10.3 0,7 kg·m·s-1 left
11. 200 kg -1
12. 0,5 m·s right.

Impulse

Impulse can be defined as the product of the net force and the contact time.

Impulse = F.t = J

The impulse formula can be derived from Newton’s Second Law (LEARN THIS
DERIVATION)

i.e. F m.a
vf vi m(v f vi )
but a therefore, F
t t
F.t mv f - mv i
but F.t = impulse, therefore, F.t Δp

Impulse can be defined as the change in momentum of a Impulse = ∆p = J

body or the product of the net force acting on the body
and the time for which it acts.

This leads to an alternative definition of Newton’s Second Law:

The net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
 Page 38 of 40

Application

From the formula, F.t mv f - mv i , it can be seen that the greater the time for which a force
acts the greater will be its impulse or change in momentum. This has important applications
in most sports, e.g. By following through in a golf shot a golfer imparts a bigger impulse to his
ball, ensuring that it undergoes a greater change in momentum, which means it will have a
greater final velocity and will travel further.

From the formula, F.t = ∆p, the following expression for resultant force can be obtained:

Δp
F
t
The resultant force acting on a body can be defined as the rate of change of
momentum.
Application

From the above formula it can be seen that the longer the time taken for a body to change its
momentum, the smaller the resultant force acting on the body. This is taken into account
when designing cars with “collapsible” bumpers and front sections, i.e. by “crumpling” on
impact the car takes a longer period of time to come to rest, thus experiencing a smaller
resultant force, therefore, causing less stress to the occupants of the car!

Graphs
F vs. t p vs. t

Area under graph represents Gradient of graph represents

Δp
F.t = impulse or change in momentum. = resultant force, F.
Δt

Example

A ball of mass 500 g moving at 8 m·s-1 strikes a bat and rebounds at 6 m·s-1. The bat is in
contact with the ball for 0,02 s.

1. Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.

2. Calculate the resultant force acting on the ball.
3. Why should the batsman follow through when playing his stroke rather than just
letting the ball rebound off the bat?
 Page 39 of 40

Exercise

1. A ball of mass 1 kg is travelling along the ground at 10 m·s-1. A

player kicks it back to where it came from, so that its speed
remains 10 m·s-1. The player’s foot is in contact with the ball for
0,2 s.
1.1 Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.
1.2 Calculate the force exerted by the player’s foot on the ball.

2. A tennis ball of mass 0,1 kg is moving with a velocity of

40 m·s-1 towards a player who returns it in the opposite direction with
a velocity of 20 m·s-1. Her racquet is in contact with the ball for 0,1 s.
2.1 Calculate the impulse exerted by the racquet on the ball.
2.2 Calculate the force exerted by the racquet on the ball.

3. A snooker ball of mass 170 g hits the cushion of a snooker table perpendicularly at 0,5
m·s-1 and rebounds. The cushion exerts a force of 0,5 N on the ball for 0,32 s.
3.1 Calculate the impulse exerted by the cushion on the ball.
3.2 Calculate the rebound velocity of the ball.

4. A hockey player hits a hockey ball of mass 150 g moving

directly towards her at 10 m·s-1, straight back. The force
which the hockey stick exerts on the ball is represented in
the graph.
4.1 What is represented by the area under the graph?
4.2 Determine the impulse exerted by the stick on the ball.
4.3 What is the velocity of the ball after the stick strikes it?

Answers:

1.1 20 kg·m·s-1 away from foot. 1.2 100 N away from foot
2.1 6 kg.m.s-1 away from racquet 2.2 60 N away from racquet
3.1 0,16 N·s away from cushion 3.2 0,44 m·s-1 away from cushion
4.2 7,5 N·s away from stick 4.3 40 m·s-1 away from stick
 Page 40 of 40

EXAMPLE FROM A PAST PAPER

Two identical objects P and Q with a mass of 10 kg each, are moving side by side with an
initial velocity of 5,5 m·s-1 east on a horizontal surface. The following graphs show the net
force experienced by each object respectively during the same time interval.

1. Calculate the total impulse experienced by object Q in 10 s. (5)

2. Compare, without using any calculations, the total impulse for object P with that of
object Q. Write down only GREATER THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO. Explain
your answer to Q5.5.2 using a suitable formula. (3)

3. Calculate the final velocity of object Q. (4)