Dielectric

materials
What are dielectric materials ?
� Dielectrics, in general, can be described as materials that are very poor
conductors of electric current. They are basically insulators and contain no
free electron. Dielectrics can be easily polarized when an electric field is
applied to it. Thus, their behavior in an electric field is entirely different
from that of conductors
Dielectric Constant
� The dielectric constant is a measure of the amount of electric potential
energy, in the form of induced polarization that is stored in a given volume
of material under the action of an electric field. It is expressed as the ratio
of the dielectric permittivity of the material to that of a vacuum or dry air.
� It is mathematically expressed as:
𝜅 = 𝜀/𝜀0
Where,
κ is the dielectric constant
𝜺 is the permittivity of the substance
𝜺0 is the permittivity of the free space

� In the parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by:

Dipole moment
� A dipole moment arises in any system in which there is a separation of
charge. They can, therefore, arise in ionic bonds as well as in covalent
bonds. Dipole moments occur due to the difference in electronegativity
between two chemically bonded atoms.

� A dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the
distance between the centers of the positive and negative charges. It is
denoted by the Greek letter ‘µ’.Mathematically,
𝑫𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (µ) = 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸) ∗ 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒓)
� It is measured in Debye units denoted by ‘D’. 1 D = 3.33564 × 10-30 C.m,
where C is Coulomb and m denotes a meter.
Polarization
� The total effect of an external electric field on any dielectric material is
called polarization of the dielectric substance
� The electric dipole moment per unit volume is called polarization or
polarization density (𝑝).It
Ԧ is always directed from negative charge to
positive charge.
� If there are N atoms per unit volume than
Electrical susceptibility
� Electric susceptibility is the quantitative measure of the extent to which an
electric field applied to a dielectric material causes polarization.
Electrical susceptibility
Polarizability
� Polarizability usually refers to the tendency of matter, when subjected to
an electric field, to acquire an electric dipole moment in proportion to that
applied field.
� 𝑃 = 𝛼𝐸
� 𝛼 is Polarizability
� Polarization Np = 𝜀𝑋𝑒 E
𝑃 𝜀𝑋𝑒 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1
𝛼= = =
𝐸 𝑁 𝑁
Electronic Polarization
� The polarization occurred due to displacement of positive charge and
negative charge in dielectric material is called electronic polarization.

� The induce dipole moment Pe is proportional to the external field.

Pe=N¥E where ¥is proportionality constant.
Ionic Polarization
� Ionic polarization occurred only in those dielectric material in which
atoms contain ionic bonds. When such a material is placed in an external
electric field the separation between positive charge and negative charge
is separated through larger distance compare to original length.
Oriental Polarization
� Polar dielectric exhibit orientational polarization even in the absence
of electric field, the polar dielectric exhibit dipole moment the orientation
of the molecule are random and hence the net dipole moment is zero
when external force is applied the pill tried to algin these dipoles along the
direction of the applied field. This type of polarization is known as
orientational polarization
Total Polarization
∝T =∝i +∝e +∝o
P2p
=∝e +∝i +
3KT
P = Pe + Pi + Po
= N ∝T E
P2p
P = N ∝e +∝i + E =∈0 ∈r −1 E
3KT
=∈o X e E
NP2p
∈o X e = N ∝e +∝i +
3KT
Interfacial Polarization
� Due to applied electric field charges in dielectric may
redistribute
� Lattice defects such as lattice vacancy, impurity centers,
dislocations etc. can cause this polarization
Internal fields in Solids and Liquids
Eint = Eo + Ep + Es + Ed
� Eo = Field produced by charged external to dielectric specimen.
D
Eo =
εo
� Ep = Depolarization field (if any) from surface cha density on outer surface of
specimen.
−P
Ep =
εo
� Es = field produced at centre of imaginary cavity by polarization induced surface
charge over the surface which bounds the cavity.
P
Es = Y
εo
� Y is proportionality constant known as molecular field constant or internal field
constant.
� For cubic structure, y = 1Τ3
Internal fields in Solids and Liquids
Ed = field at centre of cavity due to dipoles distributed inside the cavity at all
sites except control one.
Ed = 0 (net charge on dipole = 0)
D P P
₤int = − + +0
εo εo 3εo
D−P P
= +
εo 3εo
P
₤int = E+y
εo
E = external field
yP y
₤int = E + =E+ εo εr − 1 E
εo εo
Types of Dielectric Materials
Classification of Dielectrics
� Solids exhibiting only electronics polarizability
� Elemental Solid devices
� Solids which have electrical and ionic polarizability
� Ionic – polar Solid dielectrics
� Solids which have orientational as well as electronic and
ionic polarizabilities
� Polar Solids
Classius Misoti equation
P = N ∝e Ei
y
Ei = E + P
εo

P = εo εr − 1 E = εo X e E
y
P = N ∝e E + P
εo
y
εo X e E = N ∝e E + εo X e E
εo
y
εo X e 1 − N ∝e = N ∝e
εo
N∝e Τεo
Xe = yN∝
1− ε e
o
N∝e Τεo
εr = 1 + X e = 1 + yN∝e
1−
Classius Misoti equation
N∝
1+ 1−y
εo
εr = N∝
1−y ε e
o
� If Ei is Lorentz field, then y = 1Τ3
2 N∝
1+3 ε 𝑒
o
εr = 1 N∝𝑒
1−
3 εo
N∝e
� If =m
εo
1 + 2ൗ3 m
εr =
1 − 1ൗ3 m
3 𝜖𝑟 − 1 N ∝e 𝜖𝑟 − 1
𝑚= = =
𝜖𝑟 + 2 3𝜀𝑜 𝜖𝑟 + 2
Assumtions
� Polarizability of molecules and arrangement of molecules is
isotropic
� Polarization of molecule is by elastic displacement only
� Absence of absence of short-range dipolar interactions
� All conditions are satisfied by Gas
Lorentz – Lorentz Equation
� For gas at low pressure
𝜀𝑟 ≈ 1, 𝜀𝑟 + 2 ≈ 3
N ∝ εr − 1 N ∝
= = = Xe
3ε0 3 εo
M
� Volume V = m3
P
� Number of molecules per unit volume
NA NA P
N= =
MΤP M
Lorentz – Lorentz Equation
� Polarizability per kg of molecules is
NA ∝ εr − 1 M
π= =
3εo εr + 2 P
� This is Debye Generalization of Clausius – Misoffi equation in which ∝ includes effect
of oriental polarization.
� The polarizability (π) is called as Molar polarizability.
1 μ = μo μr
c = speed of light = ൜
με ε = εo εr
� Refractive Index, n = μr εr (for dielectric μ𝑟 = 1)
𝑛 = εr = 𝑛2 = εr (maxwell’s relation for optical frequency)
NA ∝ n2 −1 M
π= =
3εo n2 +2 P
� This is called as Lorentz – Lorentz equation.
Ionic non polar solid dielectric
� In ionic crystals such as alkyl halides total polarization is
electronic and ionic in nature
� In the solids due to non polar nature the permanent dipole
moment is zero
� The static relative dielectric constant is related to 𝑝Ԧ by
expression
� 𝑃 =𝑃𝑒+𝑃𝑖 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟𝑠 − 1 𝐸
Polar solid dielectrics
� Examples CH4 H2S HCL CH3CHO C6H5NO2 etc.
� Polarization in such case is function of temperature
� In electrical frequency range all the polarizability exists
� In optical frequency range up to infrared 𝛼𝑒 & 𝛼𝑖 exist.
� In visible range only 𝛼𝑒 exists
Impulse effect
� In an impulse E – field is applied then
𝑡
−
� 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚 1 − 𝑒 𝑡𝑟
Dielectric losses
� The absorption of electric energy by a dielectric subjected to
an alternating electric field is known as dielectric loss.
� The dielectric loss causes by an alternating electric field also
results in dissertation of the dielectric energy as heat in
dielectric
Dielectric losses
� Dielectric constant
ε∗𝑟 = ε′r − jεr “
� Imaginary part is incorporated to put absorption of energy in the
equation.
D t = εE t = εEo cos ωt
= R e εo ε∗r Eo ejωt
d
J t = D(t)
dt
= 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜 𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ε′r − jεr “ ejωt
J t = ωεo εo "Eo cos ωt + jωεo ε′r Eo cos ωt
JL = charging current density
JL = ωεo εo "Eo cos ωt
Jc = Lossy current density
Jc = ωεo εo ′Eo cos ωt
Dielectric losses
JL εr " ε"
tan δ = = =
Jc εr ′ ε′
tan δ = loss tangent or dissipation factor
If δ is small, tan δ = δ
ε"
δ= (δ is in radian)
ε′
1 2π
Energy absorbed, ω t = ‫ ׬‬J t E t d(ωt)
2π o
1 2π 2 ε " + cos 2 ωt − ε ′ sin ωt cos ωt
= ‫׬‬ ωε o E o r r d(ωt)
2π o
ω
ω t = εo ′εr "Eo2 wattΤm3
2
ω
ω t = εo εr ′ tan 𝛿 Eo2 wattΤm3
2
Piezoelectric materials

� Piezoelectric materials become

electrically polarized in response
to an applied mechanical stress.
This is known piezoelectricity.
� When an electric stress is
applied, material becomes
strained
� "Piezoelectric effect" is Change in length = ∆l
∆l
production of electricity by this Strain =
l
pressure. Strain ∝ electric field (E)
� This property is used in
transducers.
Application of Piezoelectric Materials
� Gramophone pick ups
� Air transducers (earphone, mic)
� Accelerometer
� Ultrasonic flow detector
� Underwater SONAR Transducers.
� High voltage generators
� Resonators (for frequency Control)
� High pass fillers.
Electrostriction
� When electric field is applied ionic cores and e- are distorted.
This distortion appears as strain & is proportional to square
of electric field. This effect is small & called as
electrostriction but there is no inverse.
Sensitivity
F
Applied stress = P =
A
εA εo εr A
Capacitance of crystal = C = =
t t
Since q ∝ F
q = dF
q
d = = charge sensitivity
F
q dFt
Induced voltage V = =
c εo εr A
d F
V= × ×t
εo εr A
= gtP
g = Voltage sensitivity
d
g= (unit→ Vm ΤN)
εo εr
V
= gP E=gP
t
Pyroelectric Materials
� These materials exhibit spontaneous polarization in
absence of electric field & changes its polarization on
heating.
� Δ𝑃 = 𝜆Δ𝑇
Ferromagnetic Materials
� A ferroelectric material is one which exhibits a spontaneous
polarization even in the absence of an electric field which
may be switched in direction by application of a field.

o
Spontaneous Polarization
� As temperature is increased, the randomness in the
orientation of dipoles increases & hence polarization
decreases and size of “hystersis loop" reduces.

� Spontaneous Polarization vanishes above a Certain

temperature called ferro-electric Cure Temperature and loop
merges into a straight line.

� Differential relative dielectric Constant on OA

o
𝑑𝑝
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 =
𝑑𝐸
Spontaneous Polarization
P
For solid dielectric, Eint = E + y ε
o
E is applied field
P is polarization
Y is internal field constant
P = N ∝ Eint
P
= N ∝ E + yG
o
N∝y
P 1− =N∝E
εo
N∝E
𝑃= N∝y
1− ε
o
Condition for spontaneous polarization
N∝y
=1
ε o
Assuming permanent dipoles are responsible for spontaneous polarization, we can write
P = Po = N ∝ Eint
 Spontaneous Polarization
Po = oriental polarization
NP2p NP2p P
P = Po = Eint = E+y
3KT 3KT εo
yNP2p NP2p
P 1− = E
εo 3KT 3KT
NP2
pൗ
3KT E
P= 2
𝑌 NPp
1−
εo (3KT)

NP2
p൘
3KT𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 E oCε
P= yNP2
= T−θ E
p
T−
3Kεo
P Cεo
E
= T−θ
yNP2p
θ= = Curie’s temperature
3Kεo Above Curie Temp, Curie Wiess Law is followed.
𝑃 Cεo
= εo εr − 1 =
𝐸 T−θ
C
X e = εr − 1 = T−θ
= Curie Wiess Law
if T > θ = paraelectric materials
T < θ = Ferroelectric materials
Applications
Antiferroelectric materials
� These materials do not possess permanent dipole moment
because neighboring dipoles are arranged anti-parallel to
each other
� Above Curie Temperature, Anti- ferro electric materials loose
their property.
� Example
� Lead Zirconate PbZrO3 Tc = 233C
� Sodium Niobate NaNbo3 Tc = 638C
Dielectric Strength
� The maximum electric field that a di electric can sustain
without breakdown is called its " Dielectric Strength“

Materials Di electric Strength

Air 3
Impregnated paper 15
Polystyrene 20
Rubber 21
Bakelite 25
Glass 30
Mica 200
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