INDEGENOUS CHICKEN

PRODUCTION Compiled by
Mudzingwa S K 2018

There is a growing attention and interest in using poultry as a tool in poverty

alleviation in villages throughout the world. However, the existing literature
either gives advice on industrial or semi-industrial production systems using
exotic (imported) breeds under highly controlled conditions, or very simple
field guides giving little useful advice on how to rear poultry at village level.
The present manual tries to gather existing knowledge on how to improve
village poultry production systems with relatively few inputs.
INTRODUCTION
1. Background
Nearly all rural and peri-urban families in Zimbabwe keep a small flock of poultry. These are mostly owned
by women and managed by women and children. Profits are usually low and products are used for home
consumption, as gifts and for religious purposes. Indigenous chickens in the rural and peri-urban
communities of Zimbabwe have a variety of morphological appearances. They vary in colour, comb type,
body conformation and weight, and may or may not possess shank feather. There is generally no
cognizance of special breeds but the chickens have evolved over a long chain of continuous cross breeding
hence in most cases no specialised breeds are found. Eggs have thick shells and deep yellow coloured yolk.
Indigenous chickens, however, have low productivity - average annual egg production is estimated at 60
eggs; while the carcass at 6 months of age is about 0.6 kg from a live bird of about 1.5kg. Low productivity
is also due to low hatchability at about 70% and high mortality. Estimated 40-60% of chicks die during
their first eight weeks mainly due to poor care and management, disease and predators. The low
productivity of indigenous chicken can also be part attributed to the fact that traditionally chickens
generally receive little care due to the most prevalent free-range management approach. This system has
gone to the extent of having a name after the chickens, that is, Free-Range Chickens.

1.1. Characteristics of Indigenous chicken

• Comprise local genetic stock but rarely, interbred with improved stock
• Are raised extensively in relatively small numbers (between 1–50)
• Are not usually confined and obtain most of their diet from scavenging for food and water around
the home (including household wastes) and village
• Require minimal investment in inputs, with most if not all of the inputs generated around the home
• Engage labour inputs that are not salaried but are drawn from the family, with women and children
commonly most responsible for their care
• Production is geared essentially toward home consumption and savings (a living bank) for small
expenses such as school fees and medicines

1.2. Importance of chicken Rearing

Chicken rearing has various nutritional, health, economic and social benefits.

1.2. 1. Chicken egg and meat has nutrition and health benefit
• Animal protein consumed in rural areas frequently comes from village chicken meat and eggs
 • Chicken meat and eggs provide a readily available, high-quality source of proteins, vitamins and
micronutrients
• Eggs are an excellent source of iron, zinc and vitamin A, all of which are essential to health, growth
and wellbeing
• Chickens and eggs contribute to a nutritious, balanced diet, which is especially important for
children, nursing mothers and people who are ill
• Chickens however are an important source of food for women post-birth; chickens are payment to
villagers for local health services

1.2.2. Economic and Social benefit

• Chickens can be sold or bartered to meet family needs such as medicines, clothes and school fees
• Chickens act as a ready source of cash for emergencies and small purchases
• Chickens provide manure and play a role in pest control
• They are also valued for special festivals or to meet social events
• They are generally owned and managed by women and children ( they are somehow assisting in
empowering women and children since on these women and children have influence on the decision
making of the proceeds from sales)
• Simple changes in management of village chickens can significantly improve production and the
living conditions of many rural families in terms of enhanced nutrition and income generation
through the sale of surplus chickens or eggs
• Improved village chicken production can therefore be a low-cost and important aspect of rural
development
• Chickens are used as gifts in many more instances; and this way they help to strengthen social
networks
• In addition to these, the spiritual benefit of sacrifice of indigenous chicken types has also an
important place in the cultural, social and religious functions of the Zimbabwean rural and peri-
urban society

1.3.0 Indigenous Chicken Production systems

Rural communities -based poultry production systems
Rural communities -based poultry production systems may be divided into at least three different categories
i.e., A: Traditional free-range,
B: Semi Intensive or Improved free-range
C: Small-scale intesive rearing systems.
The aim of this manual is to suggest different interventions which may help the farmer to move from A to
B, that is, to improve the traditional free-range system into what is often called a “semi-scavenging
system”. The small-scale intensive systems, also called small scale industrial poultry production, is a more
advance stage which in most cases does not match with the target group, the small-scale farmers henceforth
this manual will not cover that system. Significant returns can be achieved from village chickens without
the need for expensive housing, complex technology and funding for the purchase of inputs not available
locally.

1.3.1. Traditional free-range poultry production

The present situation in many communities is that poultry is left with little or no care. The birds find their
feed by scavenging among the houses in the village, and in addition they might get leftovers from the
harvest and from the kitchen. As a result, feed is rarely adjusted to the needs of the birds. Young chicks are
left scavenging together with adult birds, having to compete for feeds and becoming easy prey for predators
and spread of diseases. Very often birds do not get enough water, or they get dirty water, which may
transfer diseases. Birds are seldom put in an enclosure or a shelter to protect them from wind and rain, or to
keep them safe from predators and thieves. In some times the birds are left to be sheltered in trees
overnight, exposing them to nocturnal predators and harsh weather conditions of the night. Nests for hens
are rarely provided, causing the birds to lay their eggs on places with conditions not conducive for survival
and development of the eggs for hatching, hence reducing productivity. Furthermore, the system is usually
based on hens with an ability to go broody and rear their own chicks. This has many advantages, but the
long broody periods reduce egg production of the hens and therefore reducing productivity. Birds are
seldom vaccinated or given medicine against diseases or parasites, as this is not seen as being profitable.
Different poultry species (chickens, turkeys, ducks and guinea fowls) are kept together and sometimes with
other animals such as goats and sheep are mixed with the flocks.
Consequently many birds die very young, due to predators, diseases, starvation, adverse weather conditions,
and accidents. Often eight out of ten chicks die within the first few months. high mortality rate which could
reach as high as 80–90% within the first few weeks after hatching, due to diseases and predation. Feed
inadequacy in terms of both quantity and quality also contribute significantly towards the mortality rate.

1.3.1. Semi Intensive/Improved free-range poultry production

The production system simply takes into consideration of the requirements of the chicken and improve on
their management for instance that poultry need a good supply of varied feed and of clean water. Depending
on the time of the year they will be able to find part of their feed by scavenging in the surroundings of the
household. But often they will need an extra supply of nutrients in order to gain weight and for hens to lay a
good quantity of eggs. Especially the small chicks need good protein rich feeds such as balanced feeds or
from simple supplementary sources such as maggots, snails, termites etc to enable their good development.
This manual will focus on these system in all the following section.

Table 1 A summary comparison of the two systems

A: Traditional free-range B: Semi Intensive/ Improved free-range

(1-10 birds) (5 – 50 birds)
Low input/low output Low input/low output
Majority of rural families Moderate number of rural families
Owned mostly by women Owned by women & family
Home consumption Home consumption and sale on local markets
Small cash income Family income
Social & cultural importance (gifts, religious) Social importance
Micro-credit
Indigenous breeds Indigenous/ improved breeds
High mortality Moderate mortality
No feeding (scavenging) Local feeds (semiscavenging)
No vaccination Diseases vaccination done
No medication Little medication/local remedies
No housing Simple housing
Egg production: 30-50 eggs/y/hen Egg production: 50-150 eggs/y/hen
Long broody periods Short broody periods

1.3.2. Semi Intensive/Improved free-range poultry production

The production system simply takes into consideration of the requirements of the chicken and improve on
their management for instance that poultry need a good supply of varied feed and of clean water. Depending
on the time of the year in this system chickens will be left to roam around and able to find part of their feed
by scavenging in the surroundings of the household. But often they will need an extra supply of nutrients in
order to gain weight and for hens to lay a good quantity of eggs. Especially the small chicks need good
protein rich feeds such as balanced feeds or from simple supplementary sources such as maggots, snails,
termites etc to enhance their growth and development at infancy.
2 Flock Management

In general, it only takes a little continuous attention every day to improve your free-range poultry
production and graduate towards semi-intensive/ improved free-range production system.

A simple night-basket or chicken house or will diminish the risk of loss because of bad weather, predators
and thieves. Inside the house the birds need perches to sit on when they sleep. If you put the nests inside the
house as well, it is easy to find the eggs, and the hens will not be disturbed.

2.1. Keeping the flock healthy and productive

• Avoid buying chickens from untrustworthy especially during periods when outbreaks of diseases
are common. These newly introduced chickens may introduce contagious diseases into your flock
• Vaccinate all birds against Newcastle Disease and other prevailing diseases such as Fowl Pox on a
regular basis to prevent high mortality
• Small chicks should be vaccinated against the common contagious diseases during the first week
• It is very important to spend some time each day observing every bird carefully. In this way early
signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered, and the necessary precautions
taken. Knowing each hen will also help you choose eggs from the best hen for hatching, so that the
chicks may inherit her qualities

2.2 General hygiene

• In case of serious diseases, you should separate the sick chickens from healthy ones and monitor it
separately.
• Correct diagnosis of the disease is very important before trying to administer any medication.
• If you have many sick animals, do not introduce new birds,
• Before introducing new birds to your flock, you should keep them isolated for one to two weeks
• In order to prevent internal as well as external parasites a good hygiene is a must
o Every day the feeders and drinkers should be washed, and the house and the nests must be
cleaned for droppings and insects
o Put fresh straw or hay in the nests weekly.
o Adding a little ash on top of the bedding may help prevent parasites
• At least once a year, and always after serious outbreaks of diseases, the house, perches, and nests
should be disinfected by thorough cleaning and lime-washing
o Alternative ways of disinfection, e.g. smoking, may be used but are less effective
• The birds should always have access to a dry place for dust bathing.
o If they prefer a certain place, you may add a little ash against the parasites
 • You may encounter problems with hens pecking each other, but mostly in flocks with high density,
or if you keep local birds inside during the day
o Wounds from pecking should be treated immediately to avoid cannibalism in the flock
• The drinker and feeder should be carefully cleaned early morning and late evening to avoid
spreading of diseases
• It is very important to spend some time each day observing every chicken carefully
o In this way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered, and
the necessary precautions taken
o Knowing each hen will also help you choose eggs from the best hen for hatching, so that the
chicks may inherit her qualities

2.3 Beed Selection and Care

• It is important to look for different features in chicks, growers, hens and cocks. Select or buy your
new chickens early in the day, as stress from lack of water, feed and rest, will make most animals
look rather sick and drowsy and misled in judgement.
• A healthy, newly hatched chick should have the following
features
o Well-developed body length and depth
o Shiny, dry, thick and coloured down feathers
o Soft belly
o Clean, dry navel hollow
o Thick shanks with spaced and straight toes
o Big clear eyes
o Lively behaviour

Figure X- A soft belly and a clean, dry navel are

important features of a healthy, newly hatched chick

• A healthy and good grower should have the following features:

o Should appear healthy and lively
o Feathering shiny and normal (may depend on the breed)
o Large size for the age
o Eyes clear and shiny
o Clean and dry beak and nostrils
o Clean feathers around the vent
o Straight legs and toes
 • A healthy and good egg-layer should have the following features
o Should appear healthy and lively
o Feathering normal for the breed
o A red comb (more coloured when in lay)
o Eyes clear and shiny
o Clean and dry beak and nostrils
o Clean feathers around the vent
o Straight legs and toes, with no signs of scaly legs
o Legs less coloured in lay
o The breast bone should not be too sharp
o A big broad bottom (laying status can be checked as shown in the figure below)

Fig. X (a) Hen in lay (b) Hen Outside lay

• In small flocks, it is relatively easy to check whether the hens are laying or not using an adult
person’s hand. The distance between the pubic bones (top) will be equivalent to two fingers, when
the hen is in lay. Only one finger may pass between the pubic bones, when the hen is outside lay, as
illustrated above.
• A healthy and good cock should have the following features
o Alert and protective nature
o Shiny and normal feathering for the breed
o Clear and shiny eyes
o Clean and dry beak and nostrils
o Clean feathers around the vent
o Straight legs and toes with no signs of scaly legs
o Large size relative to the hens
 • Choice of hens for breeding should be based on the intended use of such hens but based on knowing
the characteristics that goes along with each purpose.
o Laying hens are “boat-shaped” with a long straight back and a big bottom.
o Meat producers are long-legged, in a more upright position and wings in high position on
the body.
o Dual-purpose breeds is capable of doing both functions and Local breeds often have the
form of a dual-purpose breeding hens, although much less heavy in body form and size.

Egg production Hen Meat production hen Both Meat and Egg Production Hen

2.4Flock size
• Always take into consideration that the size of the flock should match the size of the house, the
amount of feed you can afford and the feed resources in the environment (scavenging feed resource
base)
• When surplus cocks reach a marketable size, they should be sold, slaughtered, or given away as
presents, to prevent the cocks from eating the scarce feed resources, as well as fighting and stressing
the hens
• You may easily recognize young cocks by their tail feathers, their comb, and their general
(aggressive) behaviour and appearance in comparison to the hens
• To produce fertile, hatch able eggs, you will need one cock for approximately 10 hens
• For table egg production, you only need hens, However, some farmers keep one cock with the hens
to watch for predators and to facilitate the pecking order, thus minimizing conflicts within the flock

2.4 Laying, brooding and hatching

• Often a free-range hen will lay the first eggs at the age of 22-28 weeks and lay 3-4 clutches of 10-15
eggs a year, depending on season, and in particular availability of feeds
 • Hens start laying eggs at the age of 22-32 weeks, depending on the breed, their health, and
development. Often indigenous hens will start much later than imported (exotic) breeds.
o Hens around 40-50 weeks of age lay the most eggs, and then gradually their egg production
decreases slowly.
o If a mature hen lays very few eggs, you should sell or eat it.
• A hen will often find a dark, quiet place for laying eggs and for brooding
o She does not want to be disturbed by the others, and she wants to feel safe from predators
and passers-by
• Many eggs go bad before they are hatched, because of disturbance, lack of nests, and annoying
ecto-parasites making the hen leave the nest frequently, with resulting low hatchability
• Most free-range poultry keepers will let young chicks follow the mother hen immediately after
hatching
o The result is very high chick mortality during the first weeks of age, mainly due to predation
by eagles and snakes, drowning, from road accidents and general chick exhaustion

2.5 Natural incubation and hatching

• Incubation days differ for different species
o Chickens 21 days
o Ducks 28 Days
o Guinea fowl 28 Days
o Turkey 28 Days
• For chickens it takes 21 days for eggs to hatch
• Eggs should be fresh before incubation
o The age of eggs should be no more than 10 days, when stored at temperatures below 20º C.
If the temperature is higher, the eggs should be no more than 5 days old.
• To obtain the best incubation result, the eggs selected for incubation should be of average size and
normal shape for the breed
o Further, the eggs should have a smooth un-cracked shell. If there are cracks in the shell, the
loss of moisture from the egg can be too high and the embryo may die
o There is also a risk of bacteria entering the egg, which may lead to unhealthy or dead
embryos
• Store the eggs in a cool and humid place until incubation, for example in a crate meant for eggs or
in a box hole in the floor of the coolest part of the house or in basket inside a cool place in the
house.
 o Eggs should not be kept with their oval shaped side facing down but rather the pointed side
facing downwards
o Its even batter to have your eggs stored while seated by the longitudinal side (two points
lying horizontal to the surface)
o For eggs meant for incubation, strictly avoid wiping the eggs by hand or a cloth during
collection to remove dirty marks on the eggs. This might close the opening on the egg that is
meant for air circulation and hence result in failures in development of the embryo inside
the egg.
o Avoid shaking the eggs as way of checking if they have been incubated before or testing for
viability.
• During incubation you should always check, which eggs are fertile and which are non-fertile using
the candling method.
• The candling method is done by taking the eggs after 7 days of incubation and holding them against
a torch or light source as demonstrated in figures below.
o This can be done in several ways with some even developing homemade candling devices.

Home-made candlers using either your hand or a wooden box, and a torch

o Fertile eggs very quickly develop blood vessels, which may be seen against a sharp light
from a torch see figures below
o When candling, a fertile egg has visible blood vessels and a dark spot that is the embryo.
The blood vessels can be more or less developed depending on how strong the embryo is.
o If the embryo is dead, it is seen as a ring of blood around the embryo. An infertile egg has
anenlarged air cell and the yolk causes and obvious dark area in the egg. See figure below
 (a) Infertile Egg (b) Fertile Egg (c) Dead Embryo
o It is important that infertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos are removed from the nest as
they will influence decomposition of the other well developing eggs.
• A broody hen should be separated from the flock to prevent other hens from disturbing her
• Keep the hen in a separate nest with free access to fresh water and feed within a short distance
• The hen will do the work of hatching perfectly if she has the right conditions, for example clean and
suitable nest and quiet surroundings
o Provide the hen with a brooding nest or basket big enough to contain all her eggs
o Put fresh hay or straw in the nest and add some ash to prevent parasites
o In the dry and hot season, you may spray the breast of the hen with water to increase the
humidity around the eggs
o If only small quantities of chicks are to be hatched, a free-range hen is a better brooder than
an artificial incubator, as she will normally have a higher rate of hatching (80-100%) than
an incubator (60-80%)
• After hatching and until the chicks are old enough to be on their own, usually around 1 and at most
2 weeks of age, the hen will directly protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions and
predators by covering them with her wings
o Indirectly, the hen will protect the newly hatched chicks against diseases for the first two
weeks; and slowly transfer her natural behaviour to the chicks. Natural behaviour involves
knowing how to search for food and water; which feed to take and which to avoid, how to
avoid predators by hiding or seeking shelter in bushes and trees, how to keep healthy by
dust bathing,
o After 1 or 2 weeks wean the chicks from the hen and keep them in a separate warm and
secure place, separated from the hen
o Allow the hen to away from chicks and feed her separately to allow quick recovery from the
incubation process for 1 week
 o Reintroduce the hen to the cocks and should start laying again after two weeks

2.6 The Ten Simple Rules for Better Management

 Provide simple houses or shelters and perches inside houses
 Provide shelter that is good enough for each time of the day (e.g. access to light at daytime and
warmth at night)
 Give unlimited access to clean water;
 Separate young chicks from adults, when they are fed;
 Control the birds’ health daily from daily monitoring of chicken behavior
 Apply vaccines regularly according to the advice of local vaccinators or veterinarians;
 Isolate a bird when it becomes ill, -correct diagnosis forma the basis of treatment, if not sure consult
from the extension agents
 Kill or sell non-productive birds, i.e. cockerels and old hens that have stopped laying;
 Provide nests, and control nests for eggs two times a day (egg collection)
 Check the reproduction status of each hen once a month, and give extra care to hens that are
brooding

Scientific studies indicated that a simple management improvement on indigenous poultry can maximize
production and productivity. Table below shows how poultry egg production and number of live bird
increased along with management betterment.
Table X: The effect of rural poultry improvement on production, reproduction and off-take per hen/year

Production system N° of N° of year-old N° of eggs for

eggs/hen/year chickens consumption
Traditional 20-30 2-3 0
Step 0: Scavenging: no regular water or
feed, poor night shelter

Improved Indigenous Chicken 40-60 4-8 10-20

Step 1: offered water and supplementary
feed, improved shelter, care in first
weeks, ND vaccination
Step 2: as in step 1 plus further feeding, 100 10-12 30-50
watering, housing; treatment for
parasites, additional vaccinations
Step 3: (semi-intensive) as in step 2 160 - 180 25 - 30 50-60
with improved breeds and complete
diets

Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5169e/y5169e0b.htm
3 Housing
Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, rough weather (rain, sun, very cold winds,
dropping night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg laying and broody hens. A suitable or
comfortable poultry house is also important for efficient production and convenience of the poultry farmer.

• Depending on availability of materials, weather, and tradition you will find different types of
poultry houses and shelters in different regions
• Choice of chicken house should be built upon a rationale involving an estimate of the costs, the
durability, and immediate gain of using a house for the poultry
• When choosing the right site for chicken house construction, you should consider:
o A shady and dry place on flat ground to keep the floor dry during the rainy season
o It may be necessary to dig a drain around the house, or to raise the ground first,
Alternatively the house can be elevated from the ground. A sloping hillside provides good
drainage and affords some protection also.
o A fertile well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get flooded during heavy rains
Furthermore it is very detrimental to have wet floors in a chicken house, it leads to many
diseases
o Trees and bushes close to the houses provide shade and are therefore beneficial, trees also
serve as a windbreak in the winter and for shade in the summer and protect from flying
predators
o It is also for security reasons important to have the chicken house near the house, You must
be able to hear if chickens get disturbed at night by predators, or a thief who wants to steal
the birds.
o The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the movement of the sun
and the dominating winds, making the house naturally shaded and ventilated at certain times
of the day. Select a site on which the poultry house should face South or East in moist
localities. Windows placed on the south side of the house will be a good source of light and
warmth in winter and a good source of ventilation in summer. In a rectangular house the end
walls must face East and West. This will ensure that only the end walls face the hot morning
sun or the even hotter sun during the afternoon.
3.1. Building the chicken house
• Always use cheap local materials like bamboo, wood, reeds, thatch grass, or clay bricks.
o Avoid rough wall surfaces as these may be a hub for external parasites.
o Remove the bark from the wood you use, as parasites often hide behind the bark
 o In clay houses, use wired windows to avoid predators.
o Some houses are built on poles, well above the ground to protect the chickens from
predators like dogs, rats and snakes, as well as humans.
o Build your poultry house to prevent possible injury to your birds. Remove any sharp-edged
objects from the house.
• Chicken houses should have windows.
o A hole in the top of the house may ensure good ventilation.
o These measures will also give light, making it easier to work in the house.
o However, make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold
o Heat, humidity, and harmful gasses may be considerably reduced through good ventilation
of the house or shelter.
o High temperatures may cause deaths or drop in egg production, low shell quality, and
reduced weight gain.
o A combination of high temperatures and high humidity may kill young chicks.
• Placing perches and nests inside the house will safeguard against most predators
o It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs clean
o Make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning
• Houses or shelters may be sprayed or lime washed after cleaning to disinfect and kill parasite eggs
from the walls and cracks
o You may put some ashes on the floor and in the nests to discourage parasites
• Clear the grass and bushes for about 3 meters on all sides of the house to keep snakes and rats away
from your chickens
• The house has to be so large that there is sufficient room for the birds, and so that the air inside does
not become too heavy with humidity and gasses
o It should be tall enough for a grown-up person to work in there.

• The house has to be so large that there is sufficient room for the birds, and so that the air inside does
not become too heavy with humidity and gasses. A round or square house of 1.5-2.0 m² will hold
10-12 adult birds.

3.2. Perches
• Perches are important for chickens to rest during night
• Diseases and parasites may attack poultry resting on the floor,
o perches often reduce the risk of external parasites entering the feathers at night
• Each one-meter perch may roost five adult birds.
 o Perches are best made of bamboo or round sticks to accommodate for the size and structure
of the birds’ feet as shown in the illustration on the right.
o If the sticks are too big or too small, the birds may fall
• To prevent attack of external parasites, the perches may be treated with oil or kerosene, where the
perch meets the wall.

3.3. Nests
In many villages, nests are not provided for the hens and eventually the hens will lay their eggs on the
ground, inside houses, in high grass or in natural shelters, where they may be difficult to find. While in
some instances some poultry farmers build nests on the ground outside the chicken house. Nest building on
the ground should be avoided, as eggs outside houses are more exposed to predators and thieves.
 There must be at least 1(one) nest for every 5 hens.
o The nests for brooding on the other hand must be individual, placed in a quiet and dark
place,
o It is also advantageous if you can have nests that are easily removable. This will enable that
once the hen is broody it can be moved to a different place, e.g. the farmer’s house, to avoid
other hens disturbing her, or even going broody as well.
 Nests should be of the right size for the hen to feel comfortable.
o A nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 30 cm
o A calabash or nest basket may measure 40 x 20 x 25 cm (upper diameter x height x lower
diameter). A clay pot, more or less the same.
o Don’t make them too big, as the hen will not feel comfortable
 A healthy and attractive nest for the broody hen may be prepared by following three steps
o 1. Make sure that the pot or basket is clean and dry;
o 2. Fill sand mixed with ashes up to 1/3 of the depth;
 Mixing ashes, tobacco leaves or other natural anti-parasitic material with the nesting
material will keep out most external parasites. External parasites in nests may
reduce the hatchability of eggs, as the hen will use too much time and energy
leaving the nest, cleaning and scratching her body, leaving the eggs cold.
o 3. Put clean, soft nesting material (hay or straw) on top up to 2/3 of the depth
3.4. Ten simple rules for good housing
 Use baskets for night shelter and day shelter for small chicks to reduce costs and labour involved;
 Always use local materials to reduce costs;
 In wooden houses, use raised floors to remove droppings and avoid predators;
 In clay houses, use wire netting for the windows to keep out predators;
 Place the perches and nests inside the house, and make them removable to facilitate cleaning;
  Make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold;
 Consider heavy rains and hot sun when placing the house or shelter.
 Provide nests with clean straw, which are easy to access, clean and move.
 Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults during the first week after
hatching.
 Make sure that houses are easy to access and clean

4. Feed and Feeding

Feeding is essential if you want to increase the production of meat and eggs from poultry. Even small flocks
will eventually starve during certain periods of the year, if they are fed only leftovers and feed, they find by
scavenging. Lack of feed or water will reduce the birds’ resistance to diseases and parasites, and
subsequently increase flock mortality.
What to feed?
The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, site location and farming
systems. In general, poultry, as other animals, need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins
and minerals. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status (chicken, grower, egg layer,
broody hen) of the bird. The cheapest – and also often the best – way to supplement the diet of your poultry,
is to use local resources. However, many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if stored too long or under
sub-optimal conditions, e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of the quality and source of different
feedstuffs is thus
important, to reduce the risk of bad feeding.

4.1. Scavenging
• In an improved free-range poultry rearing system, adult hens and cocks should always be given
enough time and space for finding feed in the surroundings (scavenging)
• The best time for scavenging is early morning and late afternoon, as there are most insects and less
heat
• The best time for giving supplementary feed will be in the morning and in the evening, when the
birds come back to the house
• Small chicks should be kept in confinement for the first 4-6 weeks
• Drinker should always be filled with water so that chicken can consume as to their choice (ad-
libitum) during the day to avoid heat stress

4.2. Supplementary feeding

• In general, poultry, like other animals, need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins
and minerals
• The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status of the bird (chicks, growers, egg
layers, brooding hens) and of the purpose of the production (meat or eggs)
• The feed will, depending on type, contain more or less energy and protein, as well as vitamins and
minerals
4.2.1. Energy rich-feed
• Normally, at least ¾ of a poultry diet consists of energy giving feeds
• Energy feeds are the most important nutrient to maintain body temperature and exercise levels of
the birds
• Cereals, grain, roots, and tubers are the most important energy feeds
o Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize (corn) and its by-products (bran),
sorghum, wheat and its by-products (bran, shorts, screenings), rice and its by-products (bran,
polishing), cassava root meal, yam meal, sweet potato meal, plantain and banana meal
• Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes and or cooked before drying to remove
some potentially harmful substances, and the proportion in the diet in general must be kept below
1/10 (Example 1 kg out of 10kg feed)

4.2.2. Protein-rich feeds

• Protein is needed for growth, egg production, and for keeping up a good health status
• Normally no more than 1/5th of a diet is protein-rich feeds
• Protein may come from either animal sources or plants
o Examples of protein-rich local feeds are: maggots, termites, termite eggs, insects, worms,
meat scraps, fish scraps, fish meal, meat meal, bone meal, blood meal, leucaena, moringa
leaf and bark powder, cassava leaves, feather meal, peas, beans, and oil cakes from e.g.
ground nuts, cotton seed cake and sunflower cakes
• Harmful substances are present in some protein-rich plants, e.g. beans and cotton seed cakes (if not
heat processed), hence have to be preheated before making feed and the proportion in the diet
should thus be kept low
o The level depends on the type of plant, and whether the feed is being treated before feeding
o Oil cakes may contain much fibre and oil and should therefore be given in limited amounts
to young chickens (less than 1/10 of the diet)

4.2.2.1. Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites

 Maggots and termites are excellent and cheap sources of protein in the improved free-range systems
However, they will only be a supplement to other feeds Give the maggots or termites to the small
chicks, as they have the biggest need for a good protein source. Maggots may be grown by a simple
technique as outlined below and used to supplement the diet of the young chicks.
o Blood, offal, and cow manure are mixed in a large open pot.
o The pot is filled with 1/3 water
o Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture, and the maggots will feed on it
o Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the night
o After 5-10 days (depending on temperature), when the maggots are ready to pupae, you
collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot
o The maggots will float and you can then wash them, and feed them directly to the birds
o Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be offensive
o

4.2.3 Mineral-rich feeds

• Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation, and for a good health status
• To produce strong shells for their eggs, laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or
crushed shells)
• Adult birds are usually able to balance their intake according to needs
• Examples of sources for minerals are: bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, and burned
eggshells
• Using bone meal or eggshells is a good way to supply calcium and phosphorus
• Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to remove any disease germs

4.2.4. Vitamin-rich feeds

• Scavenging birds get vitamins by eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung, and through
sunlight
• Confined birds always need additional vitamins mixed into their feeds or as a minimum given some
green grass, vegetables and some fresh cow dung

4.3 Simple feed mixing

It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age. Locally available
ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important vitamins) and grounded in a mortar
before mixing. Locally available containers such as tomato tins or matchboxes may be used for easy
quantification of the different ingredients. Grams or percentages should be transferred into local quantities
for field practice. Large ready-mixed quantities should only be stored, if adequate storage capacities are
assured. Above 6 weeks of age, poultry may be fed in a cafeteria system saving time and energy on mixing
feeds.

( In the cafeteria system, there should be at least one feeding compartment for
A. Energy rich feeds, e.g. maize, millet, sorghum.
B. Protein rich feeds, e.g. beans, peas, oil cakes, fish, meat, bone meal, maggots, termites.
C. Mineral rich feeds, e.g. bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, burned eggshells)
It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age

• In general you should not store mixed feed not more than 3 months to avoid contamination from
mould, bacteria or rodents
• You will need a well ventilated, cool, dry shed or similar to store mixed feed.
• To prevent the feed from absorbing moisture, it should not be stored on a cold concrete floor, even
if it is a dry floor because it will absorb moisture from condensation
• Using a wooden pallet is the preferred method of storing bags of feed but you can improvise using
some pieces of wood if you can't get hold of one. This allows air to circulate underneath them and
prevents the condensation problem
• Rats and mice will soon eat their way through your precious supplies so if you can, ensure rats
cannot get into the storage area and if mice can get in, leave traps set nearby and check them
regularly

4.3.1 Simple ration for supplementing local chicken age 0-6 weeks (total 930 g)

Ingredient Quantity

Crushed sorghum/millet grain or maize 1 tin can (1 kg tomato tin)

Wheat bran, sorghum bran or millet bran 1 tin can

Groundnut or sesame oil cake 2 match boxes

Sea shell or bone meal/salt mix 1 match box (1 salt with 13 bone meal)

Fish or blood meal 2 match boxes

Sesbania leaves (Greens) 2 match boxes

A list of plants that can bee used as feed for poultry
Good green feeds to poultry Poisonous/unpalatable green feeds

a) Macdonald a) Datura stramonium

b) Black jack b) Ferns

c) Asystasia schimperi c) Fresh cassava leaves

d) Vermonia amygydalina d) Fresh sweet potato leaves

e) Kisanda e) Tobacco leaves

f) Amaranthus (mowa) f) Nicotina rustica (Ssetaaba)

g) Pawpaw leaves g) Castor oil leaves (Ricinus communis)

h) Ascalepias simulunata h) Siyesbeckaia orientalis (

i) Marmodica fortida i) Sunflower leaves

j) Irish potato leaves

k) Tomato leaves

l) Dichrocephata latifolia

m) Tagetes minuta

Table X: Supplement requirement and total feed requirement at different ages

Approximate amount Approximate amount of
required per day per supplementary feed given
confined bird (g. dry to a scavenging bird per
Age, weeks weight) day (g. dry weight)
Week 1 12-15 10-15
Week 2 15-21 15-20
Week 3 21-35 21-30
Week 4-7 35-50 30-40
Week 8 55-60 30-40
Week 9 -27 65-80 30-50
> 28 week (adults) 100-150 30-50

Ten simple rules for feed management

Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some underlying principles of good
feed management
It is crucial to:
 1. Use local feed ingredients for local birds;
 2. Know the quality or feed value, and changing prices of each feed ingredient;
 3. Change the feeding regimes depending on availability, quality or feed value, and changing prices
 4. If you change feed and feeding level, always do it slow and gradual
 5. Reduce the flock size in free-range systems during lean seasons and if the feed becomes too
costly;
 6. Mix feed ingredients uniformly in relatively small quantities to avoid too long storage time;
 7. Use locally available materials such as tomato tins or matchboxes for quantifying the different
ingredients to be mixed. Grams or percentages do not work in practice;
 8. Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately upon a platform approx. 30 cm above the floor;
 9. Stop the entry of rats, pigeons, or other type of birds into the feed store room;
 10. Make sufficient ventilation of air so that the feed ingredients are not wet due to humidity;
5. DISEASES AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Diseases are everywhere and will attack birds at all ages, but careful management will prevent many
diseases. One sick hen is isolated in a small shelter away from the others. Birds are well fed and
characteristically healthy.

5.1 DAILY ROUTINES IN POULTRY PRODUCTION

A good farmer goes to his/her poultry house in the morning and look at the condition of the birds.
• Identify any sick or dead bird and immediately remove it from the house.
• Bury the dead at a distance of at least 25m from the poultry house or throw in a latrine pit
• Treat the sick while in isolation
• Check the droppings of the birds. They should be firm with a white cap
o watery droppings are a sign of diarrhoea.
o Blood stained droppings are a sign of coccidiosis or a sign of internal parasite infection.
• Sniff the air around and if there is any sign of stuffiness or any burning, it is a sign of poor
ventilation
• Listen for coughing, sneezing and gurgling
• Watch the general behaviour of birds, if they keep on pecking themselves, it is a sign of ecto
parasites.
o Pick one and check for the type and look for a solution

5.2. Healthy and unhealthy birds

• It is very important for the farmer to learn how to detect an unhealthy or sick bird, so he can initiate
the right action
• Healthy birds may be able to fight against the diseases themselves whereas unhealthy birds will
have difficulties in fighting diseases

Table X Characteristics of Healthy and Unhealthy Chicken

Healthy Unhealthy
Alert and on guard Tired and lifeless
Bright eyes and comb Dull eyes and comb
Walk, run, stand, and scratch continuously Sit or lie down
Eat and drink normally Eat and drink less
Lay eggs normally Lay less or stop laying eggs
smooth and neat feathers Ruffled and loose feathers
Soft compact droppings Wet droppings with blood or worms,
 diarrhoea
Breathe quietly Cough, sneeze and breathe noisily

5.3. Ten simple rules for disease prevention:

 1. Give access to the right feed and clean water, in particular for small chicks;
 2. Build shelters against wind and rain and other effects of weather
 3. Clean houses regularly and apply lime wash on the floor and the walls;
 4. If necessary, provide dry litter regularly;
 5. Avoid overcrowding of the birds.
 6. Different species of poultry, for example hens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks and
guinea fowls should be kept separate;
 7. Separate chicks from adult birds except from the mother hen;
 8. Constantly vaccinate chicks against the most important diseases
 9. Isolate and treat sick birds – if medication is not available then eliminate the sick birds.
 10. Avoid any possible contact of the healthy birds with the remains and corpse of the dead bird,
carefully dispose the dead birds.
Disease
Signs and Symptoms
 Newcastle disease causes high mortality with depression and
death in 3 to 5 days as major signs
 Affected chickens do not always exhibit respiratory or nervous
signs but might show signs of heavy breathing, greenish
droppings, and sometimes bloody diarrhoea
 Laboured breathing with wheezing and gurgling, accompanied
by nervous signs, such as paralysis or twisted necks
(torticollis) are the main signs
 Egg production will decrease 30 to 50% or more, returning to
normal levels in about 2 weeks
 Eggs may have thin shells and eggs without shells may also
be found
 In well-vaccinated chicken flocks clinical signs may be difficult
to find
 Inflamed tracheas, pneumonia, and/or froth in the air sacs are
the main lesions

Transmission Treatment and Control

 There is no treatment for Newcastle disease
 Newcastle disease virus is highly contagious through infected droppings and
 Vaccination against ND is the only reliable control method
respiratory discharge between birds  Constant use of the following and other known indigenous
remedies would be encouraging
 Spread between farms is by infected equipment, trucks, personnel, wild birds
 Peanut Cassia
or air  Aloe species
 Murunjurunju
 The incubation period is variable but usually about 3 to 6 days
 Capscum species

Fowl Pox Clinical Sign
• The lesions of fowl pox can be external (mainly on the head) or
internal (“wet pox”) in the mouth, oesophagus and/or trachea, they
can also be found on other parts of the body (skin of legs, cloaca
etc.)
• The lesions on the head, combs, and wattles are usually wart-like in
appearance, yellow to dark brown in color
• The internal lesions in the mouth, oesophagus and/or trachea are
yellow-white and cheesy in appearance
• Affected birds will be depressed, lack appetite and when “wet pox”
is present they breath laboriously

Transmission Treatment and Control

• Introduction of infected or “carrier” birds in a susceptible flock will • It is difficult to treat affected birds
cause an outbreak by direct contact and water or feed transmission • Treatment of local lesions with disinfectant
• Mosquitoes and other flying insects can also transmit the virus from • Preventive vaccination using a live vaccine is by far the most
bird to bird and also transmit the disease to nearby flocks successful control method
• The incubation period varies from 4 to 20 days • Even when an outbreak of fowl pox has been diagnosed, it is
advisable to vaccinate the flock immediately to stop further spread
of the infection