Lecture

on

Relativistic Mechanics

By

Dr. R. K. Jain
Professor
Shobhit Institue of Engineering & Technology
(Deemed to be University)
Meerut
Frame of Reference: A system of coordinate axes which defines the position of a particle
or specifies the location of an event is called a frame of reference.

Inertial Frames of Reference: Two frames are said to be inertial with respect to each
other if there is no acceleration between them i.e. un-accelerated. In such frames all the laws of
Newtonian Mechanics hold good. For example – The person and vehicle are inertial frames as
shown below.

Non-inertial Frames of Reference: Two frames are said to non-inertial with respect
to each other if there is an acceleration between them i.e. accelerated. In such frames, the laws
of Newtonian Mechanics do not hold good. For example - car2 is accelerated along the
direction of motion as shown below.

Galilean Transformation Equations: The equations which provide the relationship

between the coordinates of two reference systems are called transformation equations.
Galilean transformations are used to transform the coordinates of position and time from one
inertial frame to another.

In order to obtain the Galilean transformation equations, consider two frames of reference
S and S’ with axes (x,y,z) and (x’,y’,z’) respectively. The frame S’ is moving with a uniform
velocity v along the x-axis. At t=0, the two frames coincided which means that the axis of S and
S’ overlapped. At any time t, the x-coordinate of event in S exceeds that in S’ by vt, the distance
covered by S’ in time t in the positive x direction as shown in figure below. Therefore, the
observed coordinates in the two frames are given by the following transformation equations
X’ = x – vt, y’ = y, z’ = z, t’ = t ------------- (1)

The set of equations (1) are known as Galilean transformations. We can consider that frame S is
moving with velocity –v along the negative x-axis with respect to frame S’. Then the
transformation equations from S’ to S are as follows

X = x’ + vt’, y =y’, z = z’, t =t’ ------------- (2)

The set of equations (2) are known as inverse Galilean transformation equations. Differentiating
the transformation eq. (1), we get velocity transformation equations from s to S’. These
equations are

Ux’ = ux – v, uy’ = uy , uz’ = uz and dt’ = dt ----------- (3) because dx/dt = ux & dx’/dt’ = ux’

Thus, velocity is not invariant under Galilean transformations.

The acceleration transformation equations are obtained by differentiating equation 3, we have

ax’ = ax , ay’ = ay, az’ = az ---------- (4)

Thus, the acceleration is invariant under Galilean transformations.

Michelson – Morley Experiment: In 1887, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley

carried out an experiment to detect the motion of the earth relative to ether medium at rest
using Michelson interferometer. In 19th century, scientists had assumed that a hypothetical
medium called luminiferrous ether is required for the propagation of the light. It was
considered that the ether exists uniformly in the space and it is at rest relative to the earth and
other planets. Ether which is transparent, invisible, massless, perfectly non-resistive, high
elastic and negligible density. Thus, ether provides a fixed frame of reference which was called
ether frame or rest frame of reference.

The arrangement for Michelson-Morley experiment is shown in Figure A above. A beam of light
from the source is incident upon a 45⁰ inclined glass plate M. It splits into two components one
is reflected and other is refracted. These beams travel at right angles to each other and are
normally incident on mirror M1 and M2 placed at equal distances MM1 = MM2 = l = L from the
glass plate M. After reflections from the mirrors, the two beams interfere at point M. The
interference fringes are observed in the telescope as observer. If the apparatus were at rest,
the two beams would take the same time to return to M.

Let us consider that earth along with the apparatus moves with a velocity v in ether. Suppose c
is the velocity of light through the ether. Here we consider β = v. When light goes from M to
M1, the relative velocity of light is c – v. From M1 to M the relative velocity is c + v. Finally, from
either M to M2 or M2 to M, the relative velocity of light is (c 2 –v2)1/2. Thus the time required by
light to go along the parallel path from M to M1 and back to M, as measured by the observer is

t1 = L/(c – v) + L/(c + v) = 2Lc/(c2 – v2) = (2L/c)/(1 – v2/c2)

However, the time required to go along the perpendicular path from M to M2 and back to M, as
measured by observer is

t2 = 2L/(c2 – v2)1/2 = (2L/c)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2

Hence, the time difference between the times of the travel of the two beams is

∆t = t1 – t2 = (2L/c)/(1 – v2/c2) – (2L/c)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2

 = (2L/c)[{1 – v2/c2}-1 – {1 – v2/c2}-1/2]

Using binomial theorem and neglecting higher terms, we get

∆t = (2L/c)[(1 + v2/c2 + ………) – (1 + v2/2c2 + ……..)]

= (2L/c)[v2/2c2] = Lv2/c3

Now the corresponding path difference is

∆ = c∆t = c(Lv2/c3) = Lv2/c2

Finally, the whole apparatus is turned through 90⁰ so that the path MM1 becomes longer than
the path MM2 by an amount Lv2/c2. As a result, a path difference of same amount in opposite
direction is introduced so that the total path difference between the two rays becomes 2Lv 2/c2.
Thus, the fringe shift is

∆n = Path diff./λ = 2Lv2/c2λ

If L =11 m, λ = 6000Å and v = 3 x 104 m/s then ∆n = 0.4

No shift in the fringe was observed even when the interferometer was rotated through 90⁰.
This indicates that the relative velocity between the earth and the ether is zero.

Negative Results of Michelson-Morley Experiment

1. Ether-Drag Hypothesis: Michelson & Morley assumed that the earth drags the
“ether”, with the same velocity as that of its. This implies that there is no relative
motion between earth and ether.
2. Fitzgerald-Lorentz Contraction Hypothesis: According to length
contraction theory, the length of an object appears to be contracted by a relative
observer along the direction of motion as L = L O(1 – v2/c2)1/2
Where LO is the length of an object in stationary condition & L is the observed or
relative length when object moves with velocity v with respect to observer. If L is
replaced by LO(1 – v2/c2)1/2, then t1 = t2 i.e. ∆t = 0 i.e. ∆n = 0
3. Constancy of the speed of light: The idea was formulated by Einstein.
According to constancy of speed of light is an absolute physical quantity i.e. it does not
depend upon the relative motion between light source and observer.

Einstein’s postulates: Einstein proposed a new theory of relativity known as

Einstein’s special theory of relativity. This theory is based on the following postulates.
 1. Principle of equivalence: All the fundamental laws of physics are the same for all the
systems that move uniformly (inertial frames) relative to one another.
2. Principle of Constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in free space (vacuum) is
constant in all inertial frames and is independent of the relative motion of source,
observer and inertial frame.

Lorentz Transformation equations: A transformation that changes space-time

coordinates (x,y,z,t) into (x’,y’,z’,t) in such a way that the speed of light is constant in all
inertial frames was first obtained by Lorentz and is hence called Lorentz transformation.

Consider two inertial frames S and S’, S’ is moving with a velocity v relative to S. Both frames
coincide at time t = t’. Now consider an event that occurs at the point P (x,y,z,t) as
measured in S. The same event occurs at (x’,y’,z’,t’) in S’ as shown in Fig. below.

In new transformation, the measurement in the x-direction made in frame S must be linearly
proportional to that made in S’. That is

x’ = K(x – vt) ……(1), Where K is the proportionality constant, which does not depend upon
either x or t but may be a function of v. As the laws of physics are same in both frames S and S’
(first postulate); therefore the corresponding equation of x in terms of x’ and t’ will have similar
nature except that –v replaces v, so that

x = K(x’ + vt’) ………. (2), where t ≠ t’. Now substituting the value of x’ from equation 1 into 2,
we have

x = K[K(x-vt) + vt’]
x = K2(x – vt) + Kvt’ or (1 – K2)x + K2vt = Kvt’

t’ = Kt + x(1 – K2)/Kv = Kt – Kx(1 – 1/K2)/v ---------- (3)

The value of K can be evaluated with the help of second postulate. Let a light signal be given at
the origin O at time t = 0, t’ = 0; this means O and O’ coincide. The signal travels with a speed c
which is same in both the frames

x = ct and x’ = ct’ (position in S and S’ frame, respectively). Substituting these values of x and
x’ in equations 1 and 2, we get

ct’ = Kt(c – v) and ct = Kt’(c+v)

After multiplying both these equations with each other, we get

c2 = K2(c2 – v2) or K2 = c2/(c2 – v2) or K = 1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 ………………(4)

Now, substituting the value of K from equation (4) in equation (1), we get

x’ = (x –vt)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 …………… (5)

From equation (3) t’ = Kt – Kx(1 – 1/K2)/v From equation (4)

1/K2 = 1 – v2/c2 …………… (6), Putting equation (6) in equation (3)

t’ = Kt – Kx(1-1 + v2/c2)/v or t’ = Kt – Kxv2/vc2 = Kt – Kxv/c2

t’ = K(t – xv/c2) or t’ = (t –xv/c2)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 …………. (7)

Due to the relative motion of the two reference frames, is in the x-direction. Therefore

y’ = y and z’ = z …………. (8)

Hence the Lorentz transformation equation for space and time are

x’ = (x –vt)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2, y’ = y, z’ = z and t’ = (t – vx/c2)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2

Inverse Lorentz Transformation Equation:

From Lorentz transformation equations, the following equations may be derived

x = (x’ + vt’)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2, y = y’ and z = z’, t = (t’ + x’v/c2)/(1 – v2/c2)1/2

Above equations are known as inverse Lorentz transformation equations. If v << c, then these
equations will be x = x’ + vt’, y = y’, z = z’ and t = t’ because 1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 = 1 and t + x’v/c2 = t
Length Contraction: Lorentz-Fitzgerald, for the first time, proposed that the length of
moving body (comparable with the velocity of light) measured by a stationary observer appears
to be contracted in the direction of motion. The appeared decrease in the length of the body in
the direction of motion is called length contraction.

Derivation of length contraction: Consider two frames S and S’, S’ is moving with
uniform velocity v relative to frame S in the direction of x-axis. Let a rod be placed in S’ along

x-axis as shown in Fig. above. If x1’ and x2’ be the coordinates of the ends of the rod, then its
length lO in frame S’ is given by lO = LO = x2’ – x1’ ------------- (1)

Now let an observer O in S frame measures the length of the same rod at the same time t, then
the length l of the rod is given by

l = L = x 2 – x1 -------------- (2)

According to Lorentz transformation equation, we have

x2’ = (x2 –vt)/√(1 – v2/c2) and x1’ = (x1 – vt)/√(1 – v2/c2)

Substituting these values in equation(1), we have

LO = (x2 –vt)/√(1 – v2/c2) - (x1 –vt)/√(1 – v2/c2)

LO = (x2 – x1)/√(1 – v2/c2) or LO = L/√(1 – v2/c2) as L = x2 – x1

L = LO√(1 – v2/c2) ------------- (3)

Thus the rod is contracted by a factor √(1 – v2/c2) in the direction of motion.

Important points: If v << c then v2/c2 is negligible so L = LO

If v = c, then L =0, This is impossible. Nobody can attain the velocity of light.

Time Dilation: The time interval between two events that occurs at the same place in an
observer’s frame of references, is called the proper time of the interval between the events.

A clock moving with a uniform velocity v relative to an observer at rest appears to him to go
slow by a factor √(1 – v2/c2) than when at rest. This effect is called time dilation.

Derivation of Time Dilation: Let a clock be placed at a point in the frame S (fixed
frame) and another at a point in the frame S’ moving with velocity v with respect to frame S
along the positive x –axis as shown in Fig. below.

According to inverse Lorentz transformation for time

t = (t’ + vx’/c2)/ √(1 – v2/c2) --------- (1)

Again consider a light signal is emitted at point x’ at time t1’ and another at the same location
at time t2’ in the frame S’ as measured by an observer in frame S’. Therefore time measured in
frame S by observer O for the same will be

t1 = (t1’ + vx’/c2)/ √(1 – v2/c2) and t2 = (t2’ + vx’/c2)/ √(1 – v2/c2) ----------- (2)

Therefore ∆t = t2 – t1

= (t2’ + vx’/c2)/ √(1 – v2/c2) - (t1’ + vx’/c2)/ √(1 – v2/c2)

Or ∆t = (t2’ – t1’)/ √(1 – v2/c2) ----------- (3)

Or ∆t = ∆t’/ √(1 – v2/c2) ------------ (4)

Equation (4) shows that to the stationary observer O in S, the time interval ∆t appears to be
lengthened by a factor 1/√(1 – v2/c2). Thus a moving clock appears to be slowed down to a
stationary observer. This effect is known as time dilation (to dilate is to become larger)

If v = c, then v2/c2 = 1 this means ∆t = infinity i.e. the clock moving with the speed of light will
appear to be completely stopped to a stationary observer. If v << c, then 1/√(1 – v2/c2)

= (1 –v2/c2)-1/2 = 1 + v2/2c2. In this v2/c2 is very small and can be neglected. So ∆t = ∆t’ i.e. if the
clock is moving with the speed very-very smaller than speed of light, then time interval will
remain same for moving observer (∆t = ∆t’).

Time dilation is real effect: Take an example of cosmic ray particles called mesons, μ-
mesons are created at high altitudes in the earth atmosphere (= 10 Km) by the fast cosmic ray
photons and are projected towards the earth surface with a very high speed of about 2.994 x
108 m/s which is 0.998c. μ – mesons are unstable and decay into electrons or positrons with an
average life time of about 2.0 x 10-6 sec. Hence, in its life time a μ – meson can travel a distance
d = vt = 2.994 x 108 m/s x 2.0 x 10-6 s = 600 m. But the question is that how μ- mesons have an
average life time i.e. ∆t’ = t’ = 2.0 x 10-6 s.

In observer’s frame of reference

∆t = ∆t’/ √(1 – v2/c2) or t = t’/√(1 – v2/c2) = 2.0 x 10-6/√{1 – (0.998c/c)2}

= 2.0 x 10-6/√{1 – (0.998)2} = 3.17 x 10-5 sec.

In this dilated life time the presence of μ – mesons on the earth surface i.e. d = 2.994 x 108 x
3.17 x 10-5 = 9500 m = 9.5 km. Hence time dilation is real effect.

Relativistic addition of velocities: The Lorentz transformation equations enable us

to transform velocity from one frame of reference to another, in relative motion with respect to
it. This leads to a relativistic formula for the addition of velocities. This formula is known as
Einstein’s velocity addition theorem.

Let S and S’ be the two inertial frames in relative motion, so that S’ moves with a uniform
velocity v to the right, along the x-axis, relative to S.

Let u and u’ be the velocities of a particle measured in the inertial frame S and S’ respectively.
The components of these velocities are (ux, uy, uz) and (ux’, uy’, uz’)
ux = dx/dt, uy = dy/dt, uz = dz/dt ------------ (1)

ux’ = dx’/dt’, uy’ = dy’/dt’, uz’ = dz’/dt’ --------- (2)

We know Lorentz transformation equations

x’ = (x –vt)/√(1 – v2/c2), y’ = y, z’ = z and t’ = (t - vx/c2)/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (3)

Taking the differentials of the equation (3), we get

dx’ = (dx – vdt)/√(1 – v2/c2), dy’ = dy, dz’ = dz and dt’ = (dt - vdx/c2)/√(1 – v2/c2) ------(4)

Now we can write by using equation (4)

dx’/dt’ = (dx - vdt)/(dt – vdx/c2) = (dx/dt – v)/(dt/dt – vdx/c2dt)

or dx’/dt’ = (dx/dt – v)/(1 – vdx/c2dt)

or ux’ = (ux – v)/(1 – vux/c2) ----------- (5)

Similarly

dy’/dt’ = dy√(1 – v2/c2)/(dt – vdx/c2)

dy’/dt’ = (dy/dt) √(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vdx/c2dt)

or uy’ = uy√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vux/c2) ------------- (6)

Similarly

uz’ = uz√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vux/c2) ------------ (7)

Similarly by using inverse Lorentz transformation equations, we get

ux = (ux’ + v)/(1 + vux’/c2), uy = uy’√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 + vux’/c2) and uz = uz’ √(1 – v2/c2)/ (1 + vux’/c2)

If the velocity of the particle is along the x-axis, then ux’ = u’, uy’ = 0, uz’ = 0

And ux = u, uy = 0, uz = 0

Then equations (5), (6) & (7) may be written as

u’ = (u – v)/(1 – vu/c2) and u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2)

Consistency with Einstein’s second postulate:

We know that u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2)

1. When u’ and v are smaller as compared to c, u’v/c 2 can be neglected. Therefore u = u’ +

v which is classical formula.
2. When v = c, then
u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2) = c(u’ + c)/(u’ + c) = c
i.e. if one object moves with velocity c with respect to other then their relative velocity
is always c, whatever may be the velocity of the other.

3. when u’ = c = v then

u = (c + c)/(1 + c2/c2) = 2c/2 = c

3. If u’ = c then
u = (v + c)/(1 + vc/c2) = c

Therefore, the relativistic addition of velocities, is consistent with Einstein’s second postulate of
special theory of relativity. This also shows that Lorentz transformation equations are in
accordance with the constancy of velocity of light.

Variation of mass with velocity: According to Newtonian mechanics – “The mass of

a body does not change with velocity”, but according to Einstein’s theory “The mass of a body
in motion is different from the mass of the body at rest”.

Let the two identical bodies be moving with velocities u’ and –u’ parallel to x-axis in a frame S’,
which moving with a uniform velocity v relative to a frame S in the direction of +ve x-axis. The
velocities of these two masses in frame S are

u1 = (u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2) ----------- (1)

u2 = (-u’ + v)/(1 – u’v/c2) ---------- (2)

 In frame S let the masses of two bodies be m1 & m2 and since after collision the velocity of
these bodies is zero (as shown in Fig. above) relative to S’, it will be v relative to S.

Now applying the law of conservation of momentum in frame S, we obtain

m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v ----------- (3)

Putting the value of u1 & u2 from equation (1) & (2) in equation (3), we get

m1[(u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2)] + m2[(-u’ + v)/(1- u’v/c2)] = (m1 + m2)v

m1/m2 = (1 + u’v/c2)/(1 – u’v/c2) ----------- (4)

Now with the help of equation (1), we have

1 – (u12/c2) = 1 – 1/c2[(u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2)]2

= [(1 + u’v/c2)2 – (u’ + v)/c2]/(1 + u’v/c2)2]

= [(1 – v2/c2) – u’2(1 – v2/c2)/c2]/(1 + u’v/c2)2

Or 1 – (u12/c2) = (1 – v2/c2)(1 – u’2/c2)/(1 + u’v/c2)2

Or (1 + u’v/c2) = [(1 –v2/c2)(1 – u’2/c2)/(1 – u12/c2)]1/2 ------------ (5)

Similarly

(1 – u’v/c2) = [(1 – v2/c2)(1 – u’2/c2)/(1 – u22/c2)]1/2 ------------ (6)

With the help of eqs. (5) & (6), eqn. (4) changes to
m1/m2 = √(1 – u22)/√(1 – u12/c2) ----------- (7)

If the mass m2 is considered to be initially at rest in frame S then m2 can be taken as the rest
mass mO of the body i.e. m2 = mO and u2 = 0, eqn. (7) becomes

Therefore m1 = mO/√(1 – u12/c2) --------(8)

Since the two bodies are considered to be identical the rest mass of m1 will also be m O.
Therefore, eqn.(8) is applicable for a single body of rest mass m O, relativistic mass m1 moving
with u1 velocity. If we replace m1 by m and u 1 by v, the eqn. (8) modifies as

m = mO/√(1 - v2/c2) --------------- (9)

From this eqn. (9), it is clear that

1. As v of the moving particle increases, its mass also increases.

2. As v = c, then m = infinity, i.e. the mass of the particle becomes infinite.
3. When v << c then v2/c2 = negligible and hence m = mO.

Mass Energy Equivalence: In Newtonian Mechanics, the force is defined as the time
rate of change of linear momentum. This definition of force is valid in relativistic mechanics as
well. Thus, the force applied on a particle moving with relativistic velocity v (nealy equal to c) is
given by

F = dp/dt = d(mv)/dt ----------(1)

where m is the relativistic mass of the particle and is variable quantity, eqn. (1) may be written
as

F = mdv/dt + vdm/dt -----------(2)

The increase in kinetic energy of this particle, when it displaces through a distance ds in time dt
under the influence of the force F, will be equal to the work done by the force on it i.e.

dEk = F.ds = [mdv/dt + vdm/dt]ds using eqn(2)

dEk = mdv.ds/dt + vdm.ds/dt = mvdv + v2dm ---------- (3) because ds/dt = v

If mO is the rest mass of the particle, then

m = mO/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (4)

Differentiate eqn. (4)

dm = mO(-1/2)(1 – v2/c2)-3/2(-2v/c2)dv

or dm = mOvdv/c2(1 – v2/c2)3/2 = mOvdv/(1 – v2/c2)1/2c2(1 – v2/c2)

or dm = mvdv/c2(1 – v2/c2) = mvdv/(c2 – v2)

or dm(c2 – v2) = mvdv

or c2dm – v2dm = mvdv

or c2dm = mvdv + v2dm ---------- (5)

correlate the eqns. (3) & (5), we get

dEk = c2dm -------------- (6)

c c2 
m 2 m
Ek = ∫dEk = dm = mo dm = c2(m – mO) = mc2 – mOc2
mo

Ek + mOc2 = mc2 ------------ (7)

Eqn.(7) obtained by integrating eqn (6) between the limits (m, mO) the total increase in kinetic
energy is given by eqn.(7). Eqn.(7) may be written as

E = mc2 ---------- (8)

Where E = Ek + mOc2, Ek = kinetic energy, mOc2 = rest mass energy, mc2 = total energy. Eqn. (8)
represents the mass-energy relation.

Examples of mass-energy equivalence:

1. Pair production phenomenon: When a gamma ray photon of suitable energy

is absorbed by a nucleus, the photon disappears giving rise to the production of electron
–positron pair
γ (hν) → -1e0 + +1e0
1.02 0.51 MeV + 0.51 MeV
2. Annihilation phenomenon: When an electron and a positron combine together
they annihilate and produce two γ-ray photons.
0 0
-1e + +1e → hν + hν → 2γ

0.51 MeV + 0.51 MeV → 1.02 MeV

3. Nuclear fission: The formation of two lighter nuclei due to disintegration of a

 heavy nucleus is known as nuclear fission. For example, U235 nucleus disintegrate into
barium and krypton nuclei
235 + n1 → 141 + 92 + 3 n1 + Energy
92U 0 56Ba 36Kr 0

4. Nuclear fusion: The formation of heavy nucleus due to combination of two lighter
nuclei is known as nuclear fusion. For example, formation of helium nucleus due to
combination of two hydrogen nuclei
2 2 4
1H + 1H → 2He + Energy

Relation between relativistic momentum and relativistic energy: We

know that the relation between the rest mass mO and the relativistic mass m of a particle is
given by

m = mO/√(1 – v2/c2) → mc2 = mOc2/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (1)

or (mc2)2 = mO2c4/(1 – v2/c2) or E2 = mO2c4/ (1 – m2v2/m2c2) because mc2 = E

or E2 = mO2c4/(1 – p2/m2c2) = mO2c4/(1 – p2c2/m2c4) = mO2c4/(1 – p2c2/E2)

E2(1 – p2c2/E2) = mO2c4 or E2 – p2c2 = mO2c4 or E2 = mO2c4 + p2c2 -------(2)

Equation (2) is the required relation between the relativistic momentum and the relativistic
energy.

Concept of rest mass of photon: A particle which has zero rest mass (mO) is called a
massless particle. In classical physics the existence of massless particle is impossible. However,
in relativistic mechanics, a particle with zero rest mass can exist. According to the relativistic
relation between energy and momentum

E2 – p2c2 = mO2c4

For massless particle, mO = 0. Therefore

E = pc or p = E/c

Thus, we can say that massless particle has energy pc and momentum E/c and moves with the
velocity of light

E = pc or mc2 = pc or mc = mv

Or c = v in case of photon

Photon is a massless particle.