sustainability

Article
Influence of Heat–Cool Cyclic Exposure on the Performance of
Fiber-Reinforced High-Strength Concrete
Ibrahim Hakeem 1, *, Md. Akter Hosen 2 , Mana Alyami 1 , Shaker Qaidi 3,4, * and Yasin Özkılıc 5

1 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran 55461, Saudi Arabia
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Dhofar University,
Salalah 211, Oman
3 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, Duhok 42001, Iraq
4 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Nawroz University, Duhok 42001, Iraq
5 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya 42000, Turkey
* Correspondence: [email protected] (I.H.); [email protected] (S.Q.)

Abstract: Sometimes civil engineering infrastructures have been constructed in hot and cold weath-
ering regions such as desert areas. In such situations, the concrete is not only smashed by hot and
cold processes but also spoiled by shrinkage cracking. Therefore, this study intends to examine the
influence of heat–cool cycles on high-strength concrete comprising various fibers, such as natural
date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers, and their different volume percentages. The most popular
technique for improving the structural behavior of concrete is fiber insertion. Fibers decrease cracking
occurrences, enhance early strength under impact loads, and increase a structure’s ability to absorb
additional energy. The main goal is to examine the effects of three different types of fibers on regular
concrete exposed to heat–cool cycles. For each type of fiber, three dosages of 0.2%, 0.6%, and 1%
were used to create high-strength concrete. After 28 days of regular water curing and six months of
exposure to heat-and-cold cycles, all specimens were tested. The heat–cool cycles entailed heating for
two days at 60 ◦ C in the oven and cooling for another two days at room temperature. The results of
the experiment showed that fiber reinforcement in concrete improves its strength and durability. The
flexural strength was substantially improved by increasing the date palm, polypropylene, and steel
fibers into the high-strength concrete with and without heat–cool cycles. Adding increments of date
palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers into high-strength concrete revealed a significant improvement
Citation: Hakeem, I.; Hosen, M.A.;
in energy absorption capacity in both cases, i.e., with or without the implementation of heat–cool
Alyami, M.; Qaidi, S.; Özkılıc, Y.
Influence of Heat–Cool Cyclic cycles. Therefore, the natural date palm fibers might be utilized to produce sustainable fibrous
Exposure on the Performance of high-strength concrete and be applicable in severe weathering conditions.
Fiber-Reinforced High-Strength
Concrete. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433. Keywords: fibrous concrete; date palm fiber; engineering characteristics; durability; thermal cycles;
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021433 energy absorption capacity

Academic Editor: Enzo Martinelli

Received: 8 December 2022

Revised: 27 December 2022 1. Introduction
Accepted: 5 January 2023
Concrete structures are typically exposed to a variety of diverse environmental condi-
Published: 12 January 2023
tions throughout their lifespan [1–3]. Hence, a concrete structure’s resilience is measured by
how well it can resist certain exposure conditions without needing extensive maintenance
or rehabilitation [4,5]. Concrete is said to be a composite material that can sustain itself for
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
many years, or even centuries, with little to no maintenance [6]. Without reinforcing, plain
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. cement concrete is made up of cement, fine, and coarse aggregate. To produce different
This article is an open access article types of concrete that are appropriate for diverse structural loading and environmental
distributed under the terms and conditions, changes can be made to the ingredients used to generate plain cement concrete
conditions of the Creative Commons (PCC) and its mix design. Several performance-related difficulties are presented in order to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// emphasize the typical concrete’s poor performance even further [7,8].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ “The advent of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) in the 1990s was a technolog-
4.0/). ical improvement in the creation of concrete [9,10]. High compressive strength, high tensile

Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021433 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 2 of 24

strength, and a good degree of fracture toughness and ductility were the distinguishing
characteristics of this innovative concrete [11–13]. Additionally, fibers are being employed
as a discrete three-dimensional reinforcement to overcome PCC’s shortcomings and as a
substitute for UHPC [14–16]. In order to increase its resistance to loads, fiber-reinforced
concrete (FRC) inserts fiber into its composition. Different kinds of FRC have been devel-
oped, each with unique and significant benefits. FRCs have a wide range of applications
because of their many benefits—good tensile strength, ductility, and fatigue resistance—
which include building pavements, industrial floors, tunnel linings, slope stabilization, and
impact-resistant constructions, among others” [17,18].
The initiation and spread of cracks in concrete under tensile and compressive loads
can be prevented or delayed by using the right fiber type. Commercially accessible rein-
forcements come in a variety of categories and have features that make them suitable for
particular applications. Examples include “carbon fiber [19,20], steel fiber (SF) [21,22], glass
fiber [23], polypropylene fiber [24,25], organic fibers [26,27], carbon nanotubes [28], basalt
fiber [29] and more. In comparison to other industrial fibers, SF is by far the better fiber
when it comes to the mechanical performance of concrete. SF has a high elastic modulus of
roughly 200 GPa, and a high tensile strength of over 1200 MPa. The literature has estab-
lished a paradigm that supports the viability of SF as an excellent reinforcement material
that ensures satisfactory tensile, compressive, flexural, and shear strength qualities [30,31].
Azad, A. K. et al. [32] expressed the experimental outcomes of the flexural test, the speci-
mens can support more loads once they reach the cracking load; however, once they reach
the peak load, a softening mode of collapse is seen, exhibiting great ductility. Additionally,
it has been demonstrated that the use of steel fibers increases the reinforced concrete beams’
resistance to shear failure, negating the need for stirrups” [33–35].
Mishra, S. et al. [36] have utilized numerous chemically altered sisal fibers as reinforce-
ment, in addition to glass fibers, in the polyester matrix to improve the mechanical proper-
ties of the hybrid composites. According to the experimental findings, hybrid composites
absorb less water than unhybridized composites. Mohanty, A. K et al. [37] demonstrated
that these concrete specimens’ water absorption rates were low when compared to un-
palmed and categorized composites. When compared to well-known composites, such as
glass and palm, bamboo and palm, and glass manufactured using the same techniques, an
analysis of the tensile, flexural, and dielectric properties of composites revealed comparable
results for characteristics, such as tensile strength. Priya, S. P. et al. [38] examined the
tensile strength of these palm and glass composites and determined that adding more
fabric to these composites improved their mechanical qualities. It was discovered that
the matrix and the reinforcement had strong interfacial bonding and chemical resistance.
Althoey, F. et al. [39] investigated the engineering characteristics of date palm fiber-infused
high-strength concrete as well as the performance of conventional steel and polypropylene
fibers. The concrete samples were fabricated using 0.0%, 0.20%, 0.60%, and 1.0% volumes
of date palm, steel, and polypropylene fibers. The results revealed that 1% of date palm,
steel, and polypropylene fibers boosted the splitting tensile strength by 17%, 43%, and
16%, respectively. For date palm, steel, and polypropylene fibers, the flexural strength was
enhanced from 60% to 85%, 67% to 165%, and 61% to 79% respectively, by adding 1% fiber
in comparison to the reference sample.
The main aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of three different types of
fibers (date palm, polypropylene, and steel) in creating high-strength concrete under the
heat–cool exposure cycles.

2. Research Significance
One of the most promising and cost-effective solutions is to replace traditional steel-
reinforced concrete with fiber-reinforced concrete for structural applications. This study
focuses on high-strength concrete comprising date palm fibers, which are agro-waste in
the Arabian gulf region, and its properties compared to conventional polypropylene and
steel fibers. Durability is the key concern for new date palm fiber-reinforced high-strength
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 3 of 24

concrete. Concrete’s resilience and service life are largely influenced by environmental
variables including heating–cooling and freezing–thawing cycles. One of the most prevalent
and harmful variables for concrete in service is the heat–cool cycle, which is found in many
parts of the world, including the Arabian Gulf, Northwest China, and southern California
in the United States. Therefore, this study focuses on the influence of heat–cool cyclic
exposure on the performance of high-strength concrete comprising date palm fibers and
conventional polypropylene and steel fibers.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Cement
In this investigation, the high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber
concrete specimens were made using regular Portland cement Type-I. The cement had a
fineness of 4100 cm2 /g and a specific gravity of 3.15. According to the manufacturer [40]
and verified by ASTM C 150 [41], the cement included 59% C3S, 12.10% C2S, 10.60% C3A,
and 10.4% C4AF. Table 1 includes information about the cement’s chemical arrangement.

Table 1. Chemical arrangement of cement.

Chemical
Cao Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MgO SiO2 SO3 LOI K2 O Insoluble
Composite
Mass (%) 63.83 6.25 3.45 0.97 19.70 2.25 1.52 1.08 0.95

3.1.2. Aggregates
Natural dune sand was utilized as a fine aggregate, with the majority of its particles
passing through a 4.75 mm sieve [42]. The high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and
steel fibrous concrete was made utilizing crushed stone with a maximum size of 20 mm
as the coarse aggregate. Table 2 demonstrates the physical characteristics of the fine and
coarse aggregates.

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the aggregates.

Type of Aggregate
Characteristics
Fine Coarse
Bulk Density (kg/m3 ) 1535.74 1630.00
Specific Gravity 2.67 2.77
Fineness Modulus 2.23 7.34
Water Absorption (%) 1.31 0.69

3.1.3. Superplasticizer and Water

For the production of high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibrous
concrete, super plasticizers (SP) are renowned as excellent water reducers. In this study,
Glenium® 110M, which is based on polycarboxylate ether, was applied as an SP when
fabricating the fibrous concrete.
In both cases, filtered tap water was a key component in the production and curing
of high-strength fibrous concrete. The requirements for producing high-strength fibrous
concrete with ASTM C1602/C1602M [43] have been related to the qualities of water.

3.1.4. Date Palm Fibers

The date palm fibers were sourced from date palm trees in and around Najran, Saudi
Arabia, that were 15 to 25 years old. These trees represent one of the best accessible
diversities and are responsible for a sizable amount of agricultural waste products. Using
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

3.1.4. Date Palm Fibers

Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 4 of 24
The date palm fibers were sourced from date palm trees in and around Najran, Saudi
Arabia, that were 15 to 25 years old. These trees represent one of the best accessible diver-
sities and are responsible for a sizable amount of agricultural waste products. Using a
amanual
manual process,
process, thethe date
date palm
palm fibers
fibers werewere manually
manually removed
removed and collected
and collected from from the
the palm
palm trees. The bidirectional date palm fibers are positioned around the trunk
trees. The bidirectional date palm fibers are positioned around the trunk of the tree and of the tree
and consist
consist of two
of two or three
or three layers
layers thatthat
are are packed
packed andand overlaid.
overlaid. TheThe different
different lengths
lengths andand
di-
diameters of the raw date palm fibers were collected from the agro-farm, as
ameters of the raw date palm fibers were collected from the agro-farm, as shown in Figure shown in
Figure
1. 1.

Figure 1. Collecting procedure of date palm fibers as a waste material.

Figure 1. Collecting procedure of date palm fibers as a waste material.

Chemical Treatment
Chemical Treatment of of Date
Date Palm
PalmFibers
Fibers
“To remove
“To remove anyany potential
potential contaminants
contaminants fromfrom the
the surface
surface of
of the
the fibers
fibers and
and to
to improve
improve
the compatibility of the fibers with other concrete ingredients, the date
the compatibility of the fibers with other concrete ingredients, the date palm fibers were palm fibers were
chemically cured using varying concentrations of Sodium Hydroxide
chemically cured using varying concentrations of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). The major (NaOH). The major
modification caused
modification caused by by this
this treatment
treatment is is the
the disruption
disruption ofof hydrogen
hydrogen bonding
bonding within
within thethe
network structure,
network structure,hereherewith
withincreasing
increasingsurface
surfaceroughness.
roughness. Here,
Here, aqueous
aqueous NaOH
NaOH is used
is used to
to remove
remove thethe lignin,
lignin, wax, wax,
andandoilsoils from
from the the
cellcell walls.
walls. Thus,
Thus, alkaline
alkaline treatment
treatment oftenoften af-
affects
fectscellulosic
the the cellulosic
fibril,fibril, the degree
the degree of polymerization,
of polymerization, andand therefore
therefore the the extraction
extraction of lig-
of lignin
nin and other non-cellulosic compounds. The treatment of date
and other non-cellulosic compounds. The treatment of date palm fibers was performed palm fibers was per-
formed by NaOH solution immersion. The fibers were treated
by NaOH solution immersion. The fibers were treated by immersing them individuallyby immersing them indi-
vidually
in in 1.5%,
1.5%, 3.0%, and3.0%,
6.0%and 6.0% of
of NaOH NaOH solution.
solution. The fibersThe fibers
were were immersed
immersed in the for
in the solution so-
lution
24 h atfor 24 htemperature.
room at room temperature.
Based onBased on the
the effect oneffect on thea fibers,
the fibers, a treatment
treatment with 3%withNaOH 3%
NaOH
was was due
chosen chosen duehighest
to the to the tensile
higheststrength
tensile strength of the Table
of the fibers”. fibers”. Table 3 the
3 catalogs catalogs the
physical
physical characteristics
characteristics of date palmof date palm fibers.
fibers.

Table 3.
Table 3. Date
Date palm
palm fiber’s
fiber’s physical
physical characteristics.
characteristics.

Type of Date Palm Fi- Diameter, Length Elongation Tensile Strength

Tensile Strength
Type of Date Palm Fibers Diameter, (mm) Length (mm) Elongation (%) (%) Strain
Strain
bers (mm) (mm) (MPa)
(MPa)
Raw Fibers Raw Fibers
0.90 92 0.90 92 4 4 0.044
0.044 100
100
1.5% NaOH Treated 1.5%
0.65NaOH Treated 79 0.65 79 6 6 0.058
0.058 174
174
3.0% NaOH Treated 0.61NaOH Treated 79 0.61
3.0% 79 6 6 0.062
0.062 234
234
6.0% NaOH Treated 0.69NaOH Treated 80 0.69
6.0% 80 5 5 0.055
0.055 181
181
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 5 of 24
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3.1.5. Polypropylene Fibers

3.1.5. Polypropylene Fibers
Polypropylene fiber was applied to manufacture the high-strength fibrous concrete
Polypropylene
compared with datefiber
palmwasandapplied to manufacture
steel fibrous concrete. the
Thehigh-strength
manufacturer fibrous concrete
provided the
compared with date palm and steel fibrous concrete. The manufacturer provided
polypropylene fiber’s physical characteristics, which are presented in Table 4. Figure the pol-
2
ypropylene
shows fiber’s physical
the polypropylene characteristics,
fibers which are
that were utilized presented
in this in Table 4. Figure 2 shows
investigation.
the polypropylene fibers that were utilized in this investigation.
Table 4. Polypropylene fiber’s physical characteristics.
Table 4. Polypropylene fiber’s physical characteristics.
Young Modulus Elongation at Breaking Tensile Strength
Length (cm) Diameter (cm)
Length Density (g/cm3 ) Density Young Modulus Elongation at
Diameter Tensile Strength
(GPa) (%) (MPa)
(cm) (cm) (g/cm3) (GPa) Breaking (%) (MPa)
1.20 0.0025 0.91 5.4 30 550
1.20 0.0025 0.91 5.4 30 550

Figure2.2.Polypropylene
Figure Polypropylenefibers.
fibers.

3.1.6.Steel
3.1.6. SteelFibers
Fibers
Thesteel
The steelfibers
fiberswere
werebundled
bundledwith
withadhesive
adhesiveandandhooked
hooked at atboth
bothends,
ends,asasshown
shownin in
Figure3.3.The
Figure Thehigh-strength
high-strengthfibrous
fibrous concrete
concrete waswas produced
produced using
using these
these bundled
bundled steelsteel fi-
fibers.
bers. 5Table
Table 5 lists
lists the the physical
physical characteristics
characteristics of the
of the steel steelTable
fibers. fibers. Table 6the
6 reveals reveals
rangethe range
of fibers
of fibers
used used to manufacture
to manufacture the fibrousthe fibrouswhich
concrete, concrete, which
ranges fromranges
0% tofrom
1.0%0% to 1.0%
of the volume of the
of
the concrete.
volume of the concrete.

Figure 3. Bundled steel fibers.

Figure 3. Bundled steel fibers.
Table 5. Steel fiber’s physical characteristics.
Table 5. Steel fiber’s physical characteristics.
Density
Length Tensile Strength
Length(cm)
(cm) Diameter (cm)
Diameter (cm) Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio Density
(g/cm 3)
Tensile
(g/cm3) Strength (MPa)
(MPa)
6.0
6.0
0.075
0.075
80 80 7.85 7.85 625 625
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 6 of 24

Table 6. Fibrous concrete mix proportion.

Fibers Aggregates
Cement Water SP
Mix ID Date Palm PP Steel Fine Coarse
(%)
Kilogram per Cubic Metre
REF 0 - - -
DF0.2 0.2 8 - -
DF0.6 0.6 24 - -
DF1.0 1.0 40 - -
PF0.2 0.2 - 8 -
736.93 1105.40 400.00 176.40 2.0
PF0.6 0.6 - 24 -
PF1.0 1.0 - 40 -
SF0.2 0.2 - - 8
SF0.6 0.6 - - 24
SF1.0 1.0 - - 40

3.2. Methodology
3.2.1. Mix Design and Specimens Preparation
Various tests that focus on specific aspects of the date palm, polypropylene, and
steel fibrous high-strength concrete were used to evaluate the performance of the fibers.
Different fibers (date palm, polypropylene, and steel) are blended with concrete in varying
amounts. In this study, 0.2%, 0.6%, and 1.0% of fibers by volume of concrete have been
applied for manufacturing the high-strength fibrous concrete. A total of ten mixtures were
developed using date palm fiber (DF), polypropylene fiber (PF), and steel fiber (SF) as
shown in Table 6.
The experimental program was conducted to calculate the various hardened features
of the high-strength fibrous concrete using 100 mm cubes, 150 mm diameter × 300 mm
height cylinders, and 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm prisms. Each mixture of high-strength
fibrous concrete contained three specimens, and average values are presented in this study.

3.2.2. Thermal Cycles Procedure

The specimens were exposed to heat–cool cycles after 28 days of water curing by
placing them into an oven. A single heating and cooling process cycle consisted of two days
of heating at 60 ◦ C and then two days of cooling specimens at room temperature 25 ± 5 ◦ C,
repeated for 180 days. This heat–cool cycle was chosen to simulate several areas of the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s daily variation of ambient temperature, which is prevalent
in the summer. Sufficient space between specimens was maintained to allow a uniform
flow of hot air during heating and easy dissipation of heat during cooling. The specimens
were placed at an adequate distance from the source of hot air so that the heat would not
concentrate only on the surface of the specimens, as shown in Figure 4. After 180 days of
exposure, the hardened density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse
velocity (UPV), and water absorption of the specimens were determined.
bility 2023,Sustainability
15, x FOR PEER2023, 15, 1433
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Figure 4. Fiber reinforced concrete specimens under heat–cool cycles.

Figure 4. Fiber reinforced concrete specimens under heat–cool cycles.

3.2.3. Investigation
3.2.3.ofInvestigation
Structural Properties
of Structural Properties
Compressive Strength Test Strength Test
Compressive
The capacity ofThe
concrete to carry
capacity compressive
of concrete to carry loads till failure
compressive is known
loads as is
till failure compres-
known as compressive
sive strength. Based on ASTM
strength. Based onC109 [44],C109
ASTM the compressive strength test
[44], the compressive for high-strength
strength test for high-strength date
date palm, polypropylene, and steel and
palm, polypropylene, fibersteel
reinforced concreteconcrete
fiber reinforced was carried
was out. Theout.
carried 100The
× 100 × 100 ×
100 × 100 mm cube specimens were evaluated after being hydrated for 28 days with
100 mm cube specimens were evaluated after being hydrated for 28 days with ordinary ordi-
nary drinkabledrinkable
water. The following
water. formulaformula
The following was usedwas to
useddetermine the compressive
to determine the compressive strength of
strength of the the
high-strength fibrous
high-strength concrete
fibrous specimens:
concrete specimens:
𝐹 F
𝑓 = f c0 = (1) (1)
𝐴 Ac
where 𝑓 is compressive
where f c0 is strength in MPa;
compressive F is the
strength maximum
in MPa; compressive
F is the load at failure
maximum compressive load at failure in
in N; Ac is the cross-sectional area of the specimens
N; Ac is the cross-sectional area of theinspecimens
mm .2 2
in mm .

Flexural
Flexural Strength Test Strength Test
According to ASTM According
C293 to ASTM
[45], C293 [45], loading
a center-point a center-point loadingwas
arrangement arrangement
employed wasto employed to
test the flexuraltest the flexural
strength strength of high-strength
of high-strength date palm, polypropylene,
date palm, polypropylene, andcon-
and steel fiber steel fiber concrete
prism specimens.
crete prism specimens. This performed
This test was test was performed using a Universal
using a Universal Instron machine
Instron machine with a with a 400 kN
400 kN loadingloading
capacity capacity and a constant
and a constant loadingloading
rate of rate of 0.0167
0.0167 mm/s.mm/s. This experiment
This experiment eval- evaluated the
high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibrous
uated the high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibrous concrete’s modulus concrete’s modulus of rupture
(MOR). This method is frequently used to succeed in high-strength
of rupture (MOR). This method is frequently used to succeed in high-strength fibrous con- fibrous concrete’s
flexural strength. A linear variable displacement transducer
crete’s flexural strength. A linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) installed at the (LVDT) installed at the center
center of 100 mmof 100
× 100mm mm× ×100500mmmm×high-strength
500 mm high-strength fiber reinforced
fiber reinforced concrete
concrete prism prism specimens
spec-
imens were used were toused
assessto the
assess the displacement.
displacement. While conducting
While conducting the experiment
the experiment on the on the prism
prism specimens,specimens,
the appliedthe load
applied
andload and displacement
displacement were automatically
were automatically recorded recorded
in the in the data
logger. To study the load-displacement curves, the data
data logger. To study the load-displacement curves, the data logger’s recorded results logger’s recorded results were
transferred
were transferred to a computer. to a computer.

Density Test
Density Test
After a 28-day curing period, the density of the high-strength date palm, polypropy-
After a 28-day curing period, the density of the high-strength date palm, polypropyl-
lene, and steel fiber concrete specimens was measured with reference to ASTM C138 [46].
ene, and steel fiber concrete specimens was measured with reference to ASTM C138 [46].
Before performing the mechanical compression test, this experiment was performed on
Before performing the mechanical compression test, this experiment was performed on
the specimens. The weight and volume of the fiber concrete specimens were assessed
the specimens. The weight and volume of the fiber concrete specimens were assessed
throughout these studies.
throughout these studies.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 8 of 24

Water Absorption Capacity Test

The presence of enclosing little holes that are changed by excessive water is a sign
of concrete’s greater quality. As a result, “concrete quality measurements like density,
stiffness, and durability are typically computed using the experiment to determine water
absorption capacity. After meeting the requirement of the curing period of 28 days, the
water absorption test for high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber reinforced
concrete was carried out in accordance with BS 2011 Part 122 [47] using cylindrical spec-
imens with sizes of 75 mm in diameter and 150 mm in height. The high-strength fiber
reinforced concrete specimens were initially dried for the first 72 h in an electric power
oven at a constant temperature of 105 ◦ C. The specimens were then removed from the oven,
allowed to cool for 24 h in a dry environment, and weighed. The specimens were placed
right away in a water tank at a temperature of 20 ◦ C. The specimens were submerged in
water for 30 min with the specimen’s longitudinal axis kept horizontal. Following the
collection of the specimens from the water, the clothing was dried to obtain a saturated
surface state before being reweighed”. The increase in weight caused by immersion in
water, which was shown as a percentage of the dry weight of the specimen, was used to
determine the water absorption capacity of fiber reinforced concrete specimens.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test

The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was used to validate the integrity and homo-
geneity of the high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber reinforced concrete
specimens [48]. The test was performed using the high-strength fiber reinforced concrete
specimens in accordance with ASTM C597 [49].

Energy Absorption Capacity

The energy retained by the unit cross-sectional area at any displacement terminal point
is used to represent the high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced
concrete specimens’ ability to absorb energy [50]. By using the area under the load vs.
deflection graphs up to the specimens’ rupture, the energy absorption capacity of the
specimens was calculated.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Compressive Strength
The experimental outcomes of the compressive strength for date palm, polypropylene,
and steel fiber-reinforced concrete specimens with and without implementing heat–cool
cycles are shown in Figure 5. The compressive strength gradually enhanced with increasing
the fiber content for date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete specimens
without applying the heat–cool cycles compared with the reference specimen, as shown in
Figure 5a. At the same time, the compressive strength for specimens that underwent the
heat–cool cycles was slightly reduced as the volume of fibers increased for date palm and
polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete specimens, but not steel fiber specimens, compared
with reference specimens. Therefore, the compressive strength might predominantly rely on
the strength of the aggregates [51], whereas the impact of heat–cool cycles on the strength
may be trivial.
Figure 5b–d show “the correlation between the compressive strength and date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fibers contents, respectively for the application of heat-cool cycles
and without heat-cool cycles. This correlation demonstrated strong R2 values for date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete specimens”. The predicted
equations for high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete
specimens for the implementation of heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles are
specified by:
0
f cDF = 0.72v f + 69.84 f or date palm f ibers with heat − cool cycles (2)
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24

Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 9 of 24

𝑓 = 5.99𝑣 + 63.01 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (3)
𝑓 = 5.13𝑣
0
f cDF + 67.13
= 5.99v 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒
f + 63.01 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
f or date palm f ibers 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎheat
without ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡−− 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙
cool 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
cycles (3) (4)
0
𝑓 = 3.32𝑣
f cPF =+5.13v
65.54
f +𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒
67.13 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
f or polypropylene 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡
f ibers ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
with heat − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙
− cool 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (4)
cycles (5)
0
f𝑓cPF = 3.32v
= 0.44𝑣f ++65.54
73.69f or𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
polypropylene 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎwithout
f ibers ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 −heat
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙− 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
cool cycles (5) (6)
0
𝑓 f cSF = +
= 7.57𝑣 0.44v f + 𝑓𝑜𝑟
62.51 f or steel
73.69𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 f ibers
𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 with heat
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡− cool cycles
− 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (6) (7)
0
+ 62.51 f or steel f ibers without heat − cool cycles
f cSF = 7.57v (7)
where 𝑓 , 𝑓 are the compressive , and 𝑓 f
strength (MPa) of date palm, polypropyl-
ene,where 0
and steel 0 0
f cDF , ffiber-reinforced concrete
cPF , and f cSF are the specimens,
compressive strengthrespectively
(MPa) of dateandpalm,𝑣 polypropylene,
is the fibers con-
and steel fiber-reinforced
tent (%) in the concrete specimens.concrete specimens, respectively and v f is the fibers content (%)
in the concrete specimens.

80
Without Heat-cool cycles With Heat-cool cycles
Compressive Strength (MPa)

75

70

65

60

55

50

Specimens

(a)

71

70
Compressive Strength (MPa)

y = 0.72x + 69.84
69 R² = 0.95

68

67
y = 5.99x + 63.01
66 R² = 0.98

65

64 Without Heat-cool Cycles

With Heat-cool Cycles
63
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Volume Fractions of Fibers (%)

(b)
Figure 5. Cont.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 10 of 24

73
Without Heat-cool Cycles y = 5.13x + 67.13
72 R² = 0.98
With Heat-cool Cycles

Compressive Strength (MPa)

71

70
y = 3.32x + 65.54
69
R² = 1.00
68

67

66

65
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)

(c)
76
y = 0.44x + 73.69
R² = 0.94
74
Compressive Strength (MPa)

72

y = 7.57x + 62.51
70 R² = 1.00

68

66

64 Without Heat-cool Cycles

With Heat-cool Cycles
62
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)

(d)
Figure 5. Influence
Figure of of
5. Influence heat–cooling
heat–cooling cycles onthe
cycles on thecompressive
compressive strength
strength of fibrous
of fibrous concrete.
concrete. (a) As-
(a) Assess-
sessment of compressive strength for heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the compressive
ment of compressive strength for heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the compressive strength
strength and amount
and amount of dateof date
palm palm(c)fibers;
fibers; (c) Correlation
Correlation between thebetween the strength
compressive compressive strength
and amount of and
amount of polypropylene
polypropylene fibers; (d)fibers; (d) Correlation
Correlation between thebetween the strength
compressive compressive strength
and amount and fibers.
of steel amount of
steel fibers.
4.2. Flexural Strength
The Strength
4.2. Flexural flexural performance of fiber-reinforced concrete is crucial for safeguarding in-
frastructures against severe weathering actions, such as freeze–thaws and extreme tem-
The flexural performance of fiber-reinforced concrete is crucial for safeguarding in-
perature [52–54]. The flexural strength of high-strength concrete comprising date palm,
frastructures against severe weathering actions, such as freeze–thaws and extreme tem-
polypropylene, and steel fibers and its improvement are presented in Figure 6a. The ad-
perature [52–54]. The flexural
dition of date palm, strength
polypropylene, andofsteel
high-strength
fibers from 0%concrete comprising
to 1% into date palm,
the high-strength
polypropylene, and steelenhanced
concrete significantly fibers and
theits improvement
flexural strength uparetopresented
85%, 79%,inandFigure
165%,6a. The ad-
respec-
dition of date
tively, palm, with
compared polypropylene,
the referenceand steel fibers
specimen, from
without the0% to 1% into theofhigh-strength
implementation heat–cool
concrete significantly enhanced the flexural strength up to 85%, 79%, and 165%, respec-
tively, compared with the reference specimen, without the implementation of heat–cool
cycles. This was increased to 4%, 2%, and 34% for date palm, polypropylene, and steel
fibers containing specimens, respectively, compared with the reference specimen when
heat–cool cycles were applied on the specimens. In both cases, the steel fibers significantly
 “The relationship between the flexural strength and volume fraction of date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fibers with applying the heat-cool cycles and without heat-cool
cycles are displayed in Figure 6b–d, respectively. This correlation demonstrated linearly
enhancing flexural strength for date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced high-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 strength concrete specimens without applying heat-cool cycles. By contrast, only steel fi-
11 of 24
bers comprising specimens exhibited predominantly improving flexural strength under
the heat-cool cycles”. The flexural strength predicted equations for high-strength date
palm, polypropylene,
cycles. and steel-fiber-reinforced
This was increased to 4%, 2%, and 34%concrete
for date specimens for the implementa-
palm, polypropylene, and steel
tionfibers
of heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles are specified by:
containing specimens, respectively, compared with the reference specimen when
𝑓heat–cool cycles +
= −0.32𝑣 were applied
1.97𝑣 on 𝑓𝑜𝑟
+ 8.36 the specimens.
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 In both 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 cases,ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
the steel fibers
− 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 significantly
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (8)
enhanced the flexural strength compared with the date palm and polypropylene. The
steel
𝑓 fibers might +
= 1.63𝑣 withstand
8.06 𝑓𝑜𝑟 or postpone
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 the arising
𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 initial
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 cracks
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 in the
− 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 (9)
cross-section of
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
the specimens because of their higher flexural rigidity and higher capability to resist the
𝑓severe
= 1.69𝑣 + 2.8𝑣action.
weathering + 9.37 On𝑓𝑜𝑟
the𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒
other hand, date𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
palm𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
fibers − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
exhibited (10)
better flexural
performance over polypropylene fibers because of the larger length of fibers. (11)
𝑓 = 1.19𝑣 + 8.23 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
Whereas, Kriker, A. et al. [55] investigated the mechanical and physical characteristics
𝑓 = 2.44𝑣
of four different + 9.11
varieties 𝑓𝑜𝑟palm
of date 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙fibers.
𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠The𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙
attributes 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
of date (12)
palm fiber-reinforced
concrete are also provided as a function of curing in water and in a hot, dry climate,
𝑓 strength,
= 6.40𝑣 continuity
+ 7.28 𝑓𝑜𝑟index,
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (13)
including toughness, and microstructure. When hot, in both
where 𝑓 , curing,
dry𝑓and, water and 𝑓 it wasare discovered
the flexural that increasing
strength the of
(MPa) length
dateand percentage
palm, of fiber
polypropylene,
andreinforcement improved
steel fiber-reinforced the post-crack
concrete flexural
specimens, strength and toughness coefficients but
respectively.
decreased the first crack and compressive strengths.

16

14 Without Heat-cool Cycles With Heat-cool Cycles

Flexural Strength (MPa)

12

10

0
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24
REF DF0.2 DF0.6 DF1.0 PF0.2 PF0.6 PF1.0 SF0.2 SF0.6 SF1.0
Specimens

(a)
10.00
Without Heat-cool Cycles
y = 1.63x + 8.06
With Heat-cool Cycles
R² = 0.95
Flexural Strength (MPa)

9.50

9.00

y = -1.38x2 + 1.97x + 8.36

R² = 1.00
8.50

8.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(b)
Figure 6. Cont.
10.00
Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles
9.50 y = 1.19x + 8.23
MPa)

R² = 0.84
 8.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 Volume Fraction of Fibers (%) 12 of 24

(b)

10.00
Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles
9.50 y = 1.19x + 8.23

Flexural Strength (MPa)

R² = 0.84

9.00

8.50

y = 1.69x2 - 2.80x + 9.37

8.00 R² = 1.00

7.50
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(c)

14.50
Without Heat-cool Cycles
13.50 With Heat-cool Cycles y = 6.40x + 7.28
R² = 0.99
Flexural Strength (MPa)

12.50

11.50
y = 2.44x + 9.11
10.50 R² = 0.96

9.50

8.50

7.50
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(d)
Figure 6. Impact of heat–cool cycles on the flexural strength of fibrous concrete. (a) Flexural per-
formance of fibrous concrete changed due to heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the flexural
strength and amount of date palm fibers; (c) Correlation between the flexural strength and amount of
polypropylene fibers; (d) Correlation between the flexural strength and amount of steel fibers.

“The relationship between the flexural strength and volume fraction of date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fibers with applying the heat-cool cycles and without heat-cool
cycles are displayed in Figure 6b–d, respectively. This correlation demonstrated linearly
enhancing flexural strength for date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced high-
strength concrete specimens without applying heat-cool cycles. By contrast, only steel
fibers comprising specimens exhibited predominantly improving flexural strength under
the heat-cool cycles”. The flexural strength predicted equations for high-strength date palm,
polypropylene, and steel-fiber-reinforced concrete specimens for the implementation of
heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles are specified by:
 mance of fibrous concrete changed due to heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the flexural
strength and amount of date palm fibers; (c) Correlation between the flexural strength and amount
of polypropylene fibers; (d) Correlation between the flexural strength and amount of steel fibers.

4.3. Density
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 Density is an essential characteristic for high-strength fiber-reinforced concrete. “The 13 of 24
density of fiber-reinforced concrete relying on the ingredients used to manufacture it [56].
The density of high-strength concrete containing of date palm, polypropylene, and steel
fibers under application of the heat-cool cycles (with and without) as presented in Figure
7a. The density of fibrous high-strength concrete progressively reduces with the increas-
ing the date = −0.32v
f rDF palm and2f polypropylene
+ 1.97v f + 8.36 fibers
f or date palm f ibers
without the −
with heat
applying cool cycles
heat-cool cycles,(8)
whereas the density predominantly improves for steel fibers due to the heavier unit of
steel fibers over f rDF
the= date f + 8.06
1.63vpalm andf or date palm f ibers
polypropylene without
fibers. heat − cool
In contrast, cycles
the densities were(9)
gradually reduced by adding different amounts of fiber for date palm, polypropylene,
f rPF = 1.69v2f + 2.8v f + 9.37 f or polypropylene f ibers with heat − cool cycles (10)
and steel fibers except for the SF1.0 specimen in the application of the heat-cool cycles on
the specimens”. = 1.19v
f rPF The f + 8.23
density f or polypropylene
increased up to 3% andf ibers
4% bywithout steel−fibers
addingheat cool cycles
in the high-(11)
strength concrete fincorporating heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles, respec-
rSF = 2.44v f + 9.11 f or steel f ibers with heat − cool cycles (12)
tively.
f rSF = 6.40v
A linear correlation f + 7.28
emerged f or steelthe
between f ibers without
density and heat − cool
amount of cycles
date palm, poly- (13)
propylene, and
where f rDF steel
, f rPF fiber
, and content
f rSF are thefor the employed
flexural strengthof heat–cool
(MPa) cycles
of date palm,and without heat–
polypropylene, and
cool cycles
steel with strong concrete
fiber-reinforced R values,specimens,
2 as shown respectively.
in Figure 7b–d. The density of high-strength
concrete comprising date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers with and without heat–
cool cycles
4.3. might be predicted by the following equations.
Density
𝛾Density is an essential
= −25.54𝑣 characteristic
+ 2476.07 for high-strength
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 fiber-reinforced
𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 concrete.(14)
“The
density of fiber-reinforced concrete relying on the ingredients used to manufacture it [56].
The𝛾 density
= −22.71𝑣 + 2520.41 𝑓𝑜𝑟
of high-strength 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚
concrete 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠of
containing 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡polypropylene,
date palm, − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and(15) steel
fibers under application of the heat-cool cycles (with and without) as
𝛾 = −30.17𝑣 + 2444.38 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 presented in Figure 7a.
(16)
The density of fibrous high-strength concrete progressively reduces with the increasing the
𝛾date=palm
−52.25𝑣 + 2514.18 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒
and polypropylene fibers without 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
applying𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙
the heat-cool 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
cycles, whereas(17)the
density predominantly improves for steel fibers due to the heavier unit of steel fibers over
𝛾 = 132.58𝑣 + 2382.53 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (18)
the date palm and polypropylene fibers. In contrast, the densities were gradually reduced
𝛾 =different
by adding 57.75𝑣 + 2528.52of𝑓𝑜𝑟
amounts 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
fiber for 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡
date palm, ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙and
polypropylene, 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
steel fibers except
(19)
for the SF1.0 specimen in the application of the heat-cool cycles on the specimens”. The
where 𝛾 , 𝛾 , and 𝛾 are the density (kg/m3) of date palm, polypropylene, and steel
density increased up to 3% and 4% by adding steel fibers in the high-strength concrete
fiber-reinforced concrete specimens, respectively.
incorporating heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles, respectively.

2650
Without Heat-cool Cycles
2600 With Heat-cool Cycles

2550
Density (kg/m3)

2500

2450

2400

2350

2300

Specimens
(a)

Figure 7. Cont.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 14 of 24

2520
Without Heat-cool Cycles
2520
2510 With Heat-cool
Without Cycles
Heat-cool Cycles
2510 With Heat-cool Cycles
2500
y = -22.71x + 2,520.41
2500

3) 3)
R² = 0.94
y = -22.71x + 2,520.41

(kg/m
2490
R² = 0.94
(kg/m
2490
2480
Density
2480
Density
2470
2470
2460
2460
2450 y = -25.54x + 2,476.07
2450 R² = 0.95
y = -25.54x + 2,476.07
2440 R² = 0.95
2440 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0 0.2 Volume Fraction of Fibers0.8
0.4 0.6 (%) 1 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(b)
(b)
2520
Without Heat-cool Cycles
2520
With Heat-cool
Without Cycles
Heat-cool Cycles
2500 With Heat-cool Cycles
2500
y = -52.25x + 2,514.18
3) 3)

2480
(kg/m

2480 R² = 0.99
y = -52.25x + 2,514.18
(kg/m

R² = 0.99
2460
Density

2460
Density

2440
2440
2420 y = -30.17x + 2,444.38
2420 R² = 0.8-
y = -30.17x + 2,444.38
R² = 0.8-
2400
2400 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0 0.2 Volume Fraction of Fibers0.8
0.4 0.6 (%) 1 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(c)
(c)
2600
2600
2580
2580 y = 57.75x + 2,528.52
2560
R² = +
y = 57.75x 0.95
2,528.52
2560
2540 R² = 0.95
3) 3)

2540
(kg/m

2520
(kg/m

2520
2500
Density

2500
2480
Density

y = 132.58x + 2,382.53
2480 R² = 0.78
2460 y = 132.58x + 2,382.53
2460 R² = 0.78
2440
2440 Without Heat-cool Cycles
2420 Without
With Heat-cool
Heat-cool Cycles
Cycles
2420 With Heat-cool Cycles
2400
2400 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%) 1 1.2
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(d)
(d)
Figure 7. Effect of heat–cooling cycles on the density of high-strength fiber-reinforced concrete.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 15 of 24

(a) Density of fiber reinforced concrete reflecting due to heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between
the density and amount of date palm fibers; (c) Correlation between the density and amount of
polypropylene fibers; (d) Correlation between the density and amount of steel fibers.

A linear correlation emerged between the density and amount of date palm, polypropy-
lene, and steel fiber content for the employed of heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool
cycles with strong R2 values, as shown in Figure 7b–d. The density of high-strength con-
crete comprising date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers with and without heat–cool
cycles might be predicted by the following equations.

γDF = −25.54v f + 2476.07 f or date palm f ibers with heat − cool cycles (14)

γDF = −22.71v f + 2520.41 f or date palm f ibers without heat − cool cycles (15)
γPF = −30.17v f + 2444.38 f or polypropylene f ibers with heat − cool cycles (16)
γPF = −52.25v f + 2514.18 f or polypropylene f ibers without heat − cool cycles (17)
γSF = 132.58v f + 2382.53 f or steel f ibers with heat − cool cycles (18)
γSF = 57.75v f + 2528.52 f or steel f ibers without heat − cool cycles (19)

where γDF , γPF , and γSF are the density (kg/m3 ) of date palm, polypropylene, and steel
fiber-reinforced concrete specimens, respectively.

4.4. Water Absorption Capacity

The concrete pore structure is known to play a significant role in the material’s durabil-
ity. The amount of water absorbed by immersion provides an estimate of the concrete’s total
pore volume [57]. The water absorption capacity of the high-strength date palm, polypropy-
lene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete was higher than the reference concrete specimens
in applied heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles. The water absorption capacity
was intensified with the increasing amount of fiber in the concrete in both cases, other
than the SF0.2 specimen, as shown in Figure 8a. Since the fibers flow around the mortar
and the fibers created a connection with them, thus, those fibers increased the micro-pour
inside the concrete. As a consequence, the water absorption capacity of fiber-reinforced was
increased significantly compared with the reference specimen. However, the date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete exhibited much lower water absorption
capacity since the water absorption capacity in good-grade concrete should have to be
lower than 10% by weight [58].
The correlation between the water absorption capacity and amount of date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fiber content, respectively for the application of heat–cool cycles
and without heat–cool cycles with strong R2 values as revealed in Figure 8b–d. The water
absorption capacity of high-strength concrete encompassing date palm, polypropylene, and
steel fibers with and without heat–cool cycles might be projected by the subsequent equations.

WcDF = 0.24v f + 1.70 f or date palm f ibers with heat − cool cycles (20)

WcDF = 0.14v f + 1.64 f or date palm f ibers without heat − cool cycles (21)
WcPF = 0.29v f + 1.83 f or polypropylene f ibers with heat − cool cycles (22)
WcPF = 0.15v f + 1.90 f or polypropylene f ibers without heat − cool cycles (23)
WcSF = 0.25v f + 1.55 f or steel f ibers with heat − cool cycles (24)
WcSF = 0.25v f + 1.51 f or steel f ibers without heat − cool cycles (25)
where WcDF , WcPF , and WcSF are the water absorption capacity (%) of date palm, polypropy-
lene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete specimens, respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 16 of 24

2.5
2.5 Without Heat-cool Cycles With Heat-cool Cycles
2.5 Without Heat-cool Cycles With Heat-cool Cycles

(%)
Without Heat-cool Cycles With Heat-cool Cycles

(%)
2.0

(%)
Capacity
2.0
2.0

Capacity
Capacity
1.5
1.5
Absorption
Absorption
Absorption
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Water

0.5
Water

0.5
Water

0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
Specimens
Specimens
Specimens
(a)
(a)
1.95 (a)
1.95 Without Heat-cool Cycles
1.95 Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles
(%)

1.90 Without
With Heat-cool
Heat-cool Cycles
Cycles
(%)

1.90 With Heat-cool Cycles

(%)

y = 0.24x + 1.70
Capacity

1.90
y = R²
0.24x + 1.70
Capacity

1.85 = 0.93
y =R²0.24x + 1.70
Capacity

1.85 = 0.93
1.85 R² = 0.93
Absorption

1.80
Absorption

1.80
Absorption

1.80
1.75
1.75
1.75 y = 0.14x + 1.64
Water

y = R²
0.14x + 1.64
= 0.98
Water

1.70 y =R²0.14x + 1.64

= 0.98
Water

1.70
1.70 R² = 0.98
1.65
1.65 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
1.650.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
0.00 0.20 Volume
0.40 Fraction
0.60of Fibers0.80
(%) 1.00 1.20
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
Volume Fraction
(b) of Fibers (%)
(b)
2.25 (b)
2.25 Without Heat-cool Cycles
2.25 Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles
(%)

2.15 Without Heat-cool Cycles y = 0.15x + 1.90

With Heat-cool Cycles
(%)

2.15 With Heat-cool Cycles y = R²

0.15x + 1.90
= 1.00
(%)
Capacity

2.15 y =R²0.15x + 1.90

= 1.00
Capacity

2.05 R² = 1.00
Capacity

2.05
2.05 y = 0.29x + 1.83
Absorption

1.95 y = R²
0.29x + 1.83
= 0.91
Absorption

1.95 y =R²0.29x + 1.83

= 0.91
Absorption

1.95 R² = 0.91
1.85
1.85
1.85
Water
Water

1.75
Water

1.75
1.75
1.65
1.65 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
1.650.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
0.00 0.20 Volume
0.40 Fraction
0.60of Fibers0.80
(%) 1.00 1.20
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
Volume Fraction
(c) of Fibers (%)
(c)
Figure 8. Cont. (c)
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 17 of 24

1.85
Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles y = 0.25x + 1.55

Water Absorption Capacity (%)

1.80
R² = 0.97
1.75

1.70

1.65 y = 0.25x + 1.51

R² = 0.99
1.60

1.55

1.50
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)

(d)
Figure 8. Variation
Figure of water
8. Variation absorption
of water capacity
absorption of fibrous
capacity concrete
of fibrous duedue
concrete to heat–cool cycles.
to heat–cool (a)(a)
cycles. Var-
Varia-
iation ofofwater
tion waterabsorption
absorptioncapacity
capacitydue
duetotoheat–cool
heat–coolcycles;
cycles;(b)
(b) Correlation
Correlation between the water absorp-
ab-
sorption capacityand
tion capacity andamount
amount ofof date
date palm
palm fibers;
fibers; (c) Correlation
(c) Correlation between
between the water
the water absorption
absorption capacity
capacity and amount of polypropylene fibers; (d) Correlation between the water absorption
and amount of polypropylene fibers; (d) Correlation between the water absorption capacity capacityand
and amount of steel fibers.
amount of steel fibers.

4.5.4.5.
Ultrasonic
UltrasonicPulse Velocity
Pulse Velocity
OneOneof the most well-known
of the most well-known non-destructive
non-destructive methods
methodsfor forevaluating
evaluatingthe theproperties
properties of
of concrete is UPV [59,60]. “The travel time between the first set
concrete is UPV [59,60]. “The travel time between the first set and the acceptance and the acceptance of the
of the
pulse when the ultrasonic pulse went through the concrete specimen
pulse when the ultrasonic pulse went through the concrete specimen is used to construct is used to construct
the the
UPV UPVmethod.
method.TheThetravel route
travel distance
route between
distance between transducers
transducers cancanbe used to determine
be used to determine
the the
average
average wave
wavepropagation
propagationvelocity [61]. Figure
velocity [61]. Figure9a9adepicts
depicts thethe
UPV UPV of high-strength
of the the high-
strength concrete
concrete comprising
comprising date palm,
date palm, polypropylene,
polypropylene, and steel andfibers
steel fibers
with andwith and without
without heat-cool
heat-cool cycles. The date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers were
cycles. The date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers were added to the high-strength added to the high-
strength concrete with increasing amounts, which helped to reduce
concrete with increasing amounts, which helped to reduce ultrasonic wave travel fartherultrasonic wave travel
farther
and and through
through greater
greater efficiency
efficiency withoutwithout heat-cool
heat-cool cycles.cycles.
ThereThere
was no was no influence
influence of
of heat-cool
heat-cool
cycles oncycles on the
the date palm,date palm, polypropylene,
polypropylene, and steel
and steel fibers addedfibers
to theadded to the high-
high-strength concrete
strength concrete with
with increasing fiberincreasing
quantities”.fiber quantities”.
This was done This was done
to ensure to ensure the
the uniformity anduniformity
homogeneity
andofhomogeneity of thisfiber-reinforced
this high-strength high-strength fiber-reinforced
concrete. concrete.
TheThecorrelation
correlationbetween
betweenthe the
UPV UPVandandvolume
volumefraction
fractionof date palm,
of date polypropylene,
palm, polypropylene,
andandsteel fiber for the application of heat–cool cycles and without
steel fiber for the application heat–cool cycles and without heat–cool cycles heat–cool cycles as
as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 9b–d.9b–d. The UPV
The UPV of high-strength
of high-strength concrete
concrete incorporating
incorporating date palm,
date palm, poly-
polypropylene,
and steel
propylene, andfibers
steelwith
fibersandwithwithout heat–cool
and without cyclescycles
heat–cool would wouldbe estimated
be estimated by successive
by suc-
equations.
cessive equations.
𝑈 = 1562.50𝑣 − 22.50𝑣
2 + 4.71 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (26)(26)
UvDF = 1562.50v f − 22.50v f + 4.71 f or date palm f ibers with heat − cool cycles
𝑈
= −13.50𝑣 + 5.07 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (27)
UvDF = −13.50v f + 5.07 f or date palm f ibers without heat − cool cycles (27)
𝑈 = −15.00𝑣 + 4.67 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (28)
UvPF = −15.00v f + 4.67 f or polypropylene f ibers with heat − cool cycles (28)
𝑈 = −11.49𝑣 + 4.86 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (29)
UvPF = −11.49v f + 4.86 f or polypropylene f ibers without heat − cool cycles (29)
𝑈 = −15937.50𝑣 + 130𝑣 + 4.50 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (30)
UvSF = −15937.50v2f + 130v f + 4.50 f or steel f ibers with heat − cool cycles (30)
𝑈 = −35.74𝑣 + 5.16 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (31)
UvSF = −35.74v f + 5.16 f or steel f ibers without heat − cool cycles (31)
where 𝑈 , 𝑈 , and 𝑈 are the UPV (km/s) of date palm, polypropylene, and steel
where UvDF , UvPF , and UvSF are the UPV (km/s) of date palm, polypropylene, and steel
fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete specimens, respectively.
fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete specimens, respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24

Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 18 of 24

The mathematical equations are very useful for the different mix proportions of fiber-
reinforced high-strength concrete, especially when many variables are used. The out-
comes ofThe
themathematical equations
fiber-reinforced, are very
high-strength usefulmight
concrete for the
be different mix proportions
obtained without the need of
fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete, especially when many variables are
to conduct experimental investigations or other field studies. It also might be usefulused. toThe
investigate the effects of one or more variables on the performance of high-strength con-the
outcomes of the fiber-reinforced, high-strength concrete might be obtained without
need to conduct experimental investigations or other field studies. It also might be useful to
crete.
investigate the effects of one or more variables on the performance of high-strength concrete.

6.00
With Heat-cool Cycles Without Heat-cool Cycles

5.00

4.00
UPV (km/s)

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00

Specimen
(a)

5.10
Without Heat-cool Cycles
5.05 With Heat-cool Cycles
5.00
y = -13.50x + 5.07
4.95 R² = 0.86
UPV (km/s)

4.90
4.85
4.80
4.75
4.70 y = 1,562.50x2 - 22.50x + 4.71
R² = 1.00
4.65
4.60
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 1.2%
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)
(b)
Figure 9. Cont.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 19 of 24

4.90
Without Heat-cool Cycles
4.85 With Heat-cool Cycles

4.80
y = -11.49x + 4.86
4.75 R² = 0.27
UPV (km/s)
4.70

4.65

4.60 y = -15.00x + 4.67

R² = 1.00
4.55

4.50
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 1.2%
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)

(c)

5.20
Without Heat-cool Cycles
With Heat-cool Cycles
5.00

4.80 y = -35.74x + 5.16

UPV (km/s)

R² = 0.97
4.60

4.40
y = -15,937.50x2 + 130.00x + 4.50
4.20 R² = 1.00

4.00
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 1.2%
Volume Fraction of Fibers (%)

(d)
Figure
Figure9. Deviations of of
9. Deviations UPV due
UPV to heat–cooling
due forfor
to heat–cooling high-strength fiber-reinforced
high-strength concrete.
fiber-reinforced (a)(a)
concrete. UPVUPV
of of
thethe
fibrous concrete changed due to heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the
fibrous concrete changed due to heat–cool cycles; (b) Correlation between the UPV UPV and
and
amount of date palm fibers; (c) Correlation between the UPV and amount of polypropylene fibers;
amount of date palm fibers; (c) Correlation between the UPV and amount of polypropylene fibers;
(d) Correlation between the UPV and amount of steel fibers.
(d) Correlation between the UPV and amount of steel fibers.

4.6. Energy
4.6. Absorption
Energy AbsorptionCapacity
Capacity
The energy absorption
The energy absorption capacities
capacitiesand
andtheir enhancement
their enhancement forfor
high-strength date
high-strength palm,
date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete specimens without heat–cool
polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete specimens without heat–cool cycles cycles are
demonstrated in Figure
are demonstrated 10a. The
in Figure 10a.use
Theofuse
dateof palm, polypropylene,
date palm, and steel
polypropylene, and fibers re-
steel fibers
vealed an enhancement in the energy absorption capacity of up to 2%, 2.5%,
revealed an enhancement in the energy absorption capacity of up to 2%, 2.5%, and 39%, and 39%,
respectively,
respectively,compared
comparedwith
with the
the reference specimenwhen
reference specimen whenno noheat–cool
heat–coolcycles
cycles were
were ap-
applied.
plied. Increasing the amount of fiber reinforcement in the concrete mixes progressively
Increasing the amount of fiber reinforcement in the concrete mixes progressively enhanced
enhanced the load-bearing
the load-bearing capacity capacity
and energyandabsorption
energy absorption capacities.
capacities.
The high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete
specimen’s energy absorption capacities with and without heat–cool cycles are shown in
Figure 10b. According to the assessment of the ruptured failure specimens, the crack-
 bridging influence between the fibers and the grout matrix triggered the failure. As a con-
sequence, the steel fibers exhibited greater energy absorption in both cases (with and with-
out heat–cool cycles) over the date palm and polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete
specimens since the steel fiber had a higher stiffness. Therefore, it should be suggested
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 that the concrete with steel fibers is more applicable in harsh weathering action compared
20 of 24
with the date palm and polypropylene fiber concrete specimens.

250 45
Energy Absorption Capacity

Energy Absorption Capacity (kN-mm)

Enhancement 40
200 35

Enhancement (Times)
30
150
25

20
100
15

50 10

0 0

Specimens
(a)

Without Heat-cool Cycles

Energy Absorption Capacity (kN-mm)

200 With Heat-cool Cycles

150

100

50

Specimens
(b)
Figure 10. 10.
Figure Performance energy
Performance absorption
energy capacity
absorption of high-strength
capacity concrete
of high-strength duedue
concrete to heat–cooling
to heat–cooling
cycles. (a) Energy absorption capacity and its enhancement without heat–cool cycles; (b) Energy
cycles. (a) Energy absorption capacity and its enhancement without heat–cool cycles; (b) Energy
absorption capacity comparison without and with heat–cool cycles.
absorption capacity comparison without and with heat–cool cycles.

5. Conclusions
The high-strength date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced concrete spec-
The influence
imen’s of heat–cool
energy absorption cycles onwith
capacities high-strength concrete
and without reinforced
heat–cool cycleswith
are various
shown in
percentages (0%,
Figure 10b. 0.2%, 0.6%,
According to and
the 1.0%) of dateofpalm,
assessment polypropylene,
the ruptured failureand steel fibers
specimens, thedur-
crack-
bridging influence between the fibers and the grout matrix triggered the failure. As a
consequence, the steel fibers exhibited greater energy absorption in both cases (with and
without heat–cool cycles) over the date palm and polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete
specimens since the steel fiber had a higher stiffness. Therefore, it should be suggested that
the concrete with steel fibers is more applicable in harsh weathering action compared with
the date palm and polypropylene fiber concrete specimens.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 21 of 24

5. Conclusions
The influence of heat–cool cycles on high-strength concrete reinforced with various
percentages (0%, 0.2%, 0.6%, and 1.0%) of date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers during
manufacturing was investigated. The engineering properties were examined, including
compressive strength, flexural strength, density, water absorption capacity, ultrasonic
pulse velocity, and energy absorption capacity. The following concluding remarks can be
illustrated based on the laboratory examination:
The compressive strength of the high-strength concrete comprising date palm,
polypropylene, and steel fibers was enhanced significantly with increasing fiber contents
without implementing the heat–cool cycles. By contrast, compressive strength was reduced
by applying the heat–cool cycles on the specimens containing date palm and polypropy-
lene fibers; however, the steel fibers encompassing specimens expressed a substantial
improvement in this case, which was due to the higher compressive load-bearing capacity
of the fibers.
The flexural strength substantially improved with increasing the date palm, polypropy-
lene, and steel fibers into the high-strength concrete with and without heat–cool cycles.
Increasing the date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers from 0% to 1.0% enhanced the
flexural strength up to 85%, 79%, and 165%, respectively, compared with the reference
specimen without the implementation of heat–cool cycles. On the other hand, the flexural
strength improved up to 4%, 2%, and 34%, respectively, over the reference specimens with
the implementation of heat–cool cycles.
The density was gradually reduced as the date palm and polypropylene fibers in-
creased without applying the heat–cool cycles, whereas the density for steel fibers was
noticeably improved by the steel fibers’ heavier unit compared to the date palm and
polypropylene fibers. In contrast, the densities were decreased by adding the different
amounts of fiber for date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers, except for the SF1.0 speci-
men in the application of the heat–cool cycles.
The water absorption capacity was increased with the increasing amounts of date
palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers into high-strength concrete as fibers increased the
micropore in the concrete both with and without the implementation of heat–cool cycles.
With the addition of the date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers, the high-strength
concrete exhibited an improvement in UPV compared with the reference specimen without
heat–cool cycles applied. A negligible impact was observed with the implementation of
heat–cool cycles on the date palm, polypropylene, and steel fiber-reinforced high-strength
concrete specimens.
The addition of date palm, polypropylene, and steel fibers into high-strength concrete
showed a substantial improvement in energy absorption capacity compared with the refer-
ence specimen in the cases both with and without the implementation of heat–cool cycles.
Therefore, the natural date palm fibers might be used to produce sustainable fibrous
high-strength concrete and be applicable in severe weathering conditions.
This study only applied 60 ◦ C for thermal cycles on the specimens and afterward,
specimens were cooled for two days at room temperature 25 ± 5 ◦ C (1 cycle) for 180 days.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; methodology, I.H.,
M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; software, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; validation, I.H., M.A.H.,
M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; formal analysis, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; investigation, I.H., M.A.H.,
M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; resources, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; data curation, I.H., M.A.H., M.A.,
S.Q. and Y.Ö.; writing—original draft preparation, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; writing—review
and editing, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; visualization, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.;
supervision, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö.; project administration, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and
Y.Ö.; funding acquisition, I.H., M.A.H., M.A., S.Q. and Y.Ö. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University with
grant number (NU/NRP/SERC/11/26).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 1433 22 of 24

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran Uni-
versity for funding this work under the National Research Priorities funding program grant code
(NU/NRP/SERC/11/26).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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