RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES

IN UNDERGROUND MINING

VERSION 3 - PUBLISHED 2022

THE ELECTRIC MINE WORKING GROUP

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 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING | i

ABOUT GMG
The Global Mining Guidelines Group (GMG) is a network of representatives from mining companies, original equipment man-
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GMG guidelines are peer-reviewed documents that describe good practices, guide on the implementation and adoption of new
technologies, and/or develop industry alignment. They are the product of industry-wide collaboration based on experience and
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topic covered and enable operational improvements for safe, sustainable, and productive mines.
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RELATED GMG DOCUMENTS

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RELATIONSHIP TO STANDARDS
GMG guidelines are not standards and should not be treated as such. The guidelines can be used to assist the mining com-
munity with practices to improve their operations and/or implement new technologies. They aim to supplement, not replace,
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ful practices and feed into standardization efforts. GMG does not develop standards but does participate in standardization
efforts through partnerships.

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ii | RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING

CREDITS
The following organizations and individuals were involved in the preparation of these guidelines at various stages including
content definition, content generation, and review. Please note that the guidelines do not necessarily represent the views of the
organizations listed below.

Project Group
Battery Electric Vehicles v3

Working Group
The Electric Mine Working Group

Project Leaders
Troy Charsley, Hatch
Craig Harris, Glencore
Maarten Van Koppen, MacLean Engineering

Project Steering Committee

Thiago Amaral, Siemens Luke Mahony, Vale

Nic Beutler, ABB David Rababy, Stäubli
Nick Gardner, Vale Sasan Khajavi, Stäubli
Anders Lindkvist, Epiroc Michel Serres, BBA
Brian Huff, Sandvik Paul Summers, Miller Technology

Content Contributors

Franck Boudreault, Epiroc Dan Laing, Stantec

Denis Caron, Agnico Eagle John Le, Natural Resources Canada
James Coe, Komatsu Kevin Lueschow, Caterpillar
Jean-Francois Couillard, Adria Power Systems Mike Mayhew, Mayhew Performance
Jerry Davis, Komatsu Kent Mei, TestSafe
Fred Delabbio, Strategy Focused Innovation Pty Ltd Shawn Samuels, Epiroc
Kyle Ferguson, Siemens Doug Turnbull
Adrianus (Adrian) Halim, Jayde Webb, South32
Luleå University of Technology, Sweden Larry Widdifield, Elphinstone
Jacques Jodouin, Jodouin Mine Ventilation Jian Zhao, Meglab
Leonard Kaskiw, Government of Saskatchewan, Canada

PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF THESE GUIDELINES (VERSION 3)

3ME Technology, ABB, Adria Power Systems, Agnico Eagle, Artisan Vehicles, AusIMM, BBA, BESTECH, Boliden, Byrnecut, Cater-
pillar, China Mining Products Safety Approval and Certification Center, Clean Air Metals, EELO Solutions, Elphinstone, Epiroc,
General Dynamics, Glencore, Government of Saskatchewan, Hatch, Hermann Paus Maschinenfabrik, Jodouin Mine Ventilation,
Komatsu, Kovatera, Luleå University of Technology, MacLean Engineering, Mayhew Performance, Meglab, Miller Technology,
MineRP, Mining Plus, Natural Resources Canada, Northern Light Technologies, Northern Star Resource, Nutrien, Rio
Tinto, Saminco, Sandvik, Schunk, Sibanye-Stillwater, Siemens, South 32, Stantec, Staubli, Strategy Focused
Innovation,Tembo e-LV, TestSafe, Vale, Verdant Holdings

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 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING | iii

PUBLICATION INFORMATION
This guideline version is a significant revision of the previous version. While the base content is similar, sections have been
rewritten, removed, reordered, and revised. See Section 1.4 for further detail on the types of updates made.
Guideline Number: GMG07-EM-2022
Version Three Published: 2022-06-23
Version Two Published (in partnership with CMIC): 2018-05-11
Version One Published (in partnership with CMIC): 2017-08-28
Revision Cycle: 2 years

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© Global Mining Guidelines Group. Some rights reserved.
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Recommended citation: Recommended Practices for Battery Electric Vehicles in Underground Mining — Version 3
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CONTACT INFORMATION
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[email protected]
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DISCLAIMER
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This guideline describes recommended practices for the use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in underground
mining. Its intent is to provide guidance and an overall discussion about the benefits, drawbacks, and planning needed
to design and implement a BEV fleet within an existing or new mine.

BUSINESS CASE
Converting to an all-electric mine offers many advantages. However, like all new adaptions, there are challenges asso-
ciated with the integration of a new system or technology.

Topic Core considerations

Revenue Differences in productivity and performance to accommodate BEVs.
Potential development of traditionally uneconomic orebodies.
Capital cost Electrical infrastructure costs on-site to distribute power to operations.
Mine design related changes such as quantity and size of drifts and shafts.
Operating cost Choices in charging/fuelling strategies can drive operating costs.
Typically, lower ventilation-related costs.
Health, safety, Improved workplace conditions in terms of vibration, noise, air quality, temperature, and
environment, and humidity.
community
Reduced environmental emissions.

MINE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

Important considerations for mine design and operations include accommodation of changes associated with charging
methods, ventilation and cooling, mine cycle and schedules, risks, and maintenance and operations requirements.

Topic Core considerations

Mine layout and Key operational constraints of BEVs include a limited range, time required to charge and
infrastructure swap batteries, estimated cycle times, and distances from charging stations.
Planning and scheduling changes are required to integrate BEV constraints and conform to
plans.
Factors associated with the ore/waste handling system that should be considered include
the OEM requirements, grade of the ore, and site conditions. Regenerative braking while
tramming downhill should be assessed with the operational profile of the BEV to optimally
place charging locations and reduce the charging times.
Maintenance areas Typical designs optimizing shop workflow with repair bays and specialty bays for welding,
tire handling, or lube are still desirable.
Space and infrastructure to test, maintain, discharge, charge, and store batteries is needed.
Personnel movement Shaft access: Movement between the shaft station and BEV need to be considered to
and parking accommodate charging and personnel safety.
Ramp access: Group travelling is highly recommended for efficiency.
Mobile electric Design and operational considerations vary for different equipment types. For example,
equipment tethered equipment typically requires accommodations for the cable, while trucks might
focus more on regenerative braking.

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Charging A general layout of the mine and its development is required to design charging infrastructure.
infrastructure Overall considerations include:
• Operational constraints such as appropriate infrastructure and cost implications of charging
methods (on-board charging, off-board charging, battery swapping, or alternatives)
• Mining cycle and schedules for charge time versus operating time
– Charging The starting point should be the mine layout and the operational map of the vehicles.
philosophy Considerations include:
• Standardization of charging methods and connection interfaces versus hybrid or mixed
methods depending on fleet size and equipment types
• Haulage routing and scheduling and methods of accommodating long uphill haulage
– Charging Considerations include the physical environment, the preparation of the charging area for
station layout installation, spacing and parking, battery swapping, power distribution, and fast charging.
– Opportunity Charging occurs during the natural or process-imposed downtime of the BEV and does not
charging reduce productivity.
Ventilation and Ventilation and cooling system designs in an electric mine consider temperature, dust, and air
cooling velocity parameters, however because of the elimination of diesel, some aspects of the criteria
associated with DPM regulations might not be required. Local regulations should be consulted for
specifics. Key considerations during the development of the ventilation design and planning include:
• Sizing, placement, and number of airways
• Heat
• Blast gas clearing
• Monitoring
• Controlled recirculation
• Presence of strata gases (e.g., radon)
• Dust
– Heat load Despite heat reduction in BEVs, there are still factors that contribute to the heat generated
including efficiency, usage work rate, and gradient. Heat from other sources (e.g., summer
surface climate, auto compression, wall rock, groundwater) also contributes to the overall heat
load. These sources are not dependent on the type of the equipment used, but they should still be
managed by the mine ventilation and cooling system.
– Dust Consideration of ventilation air volumes can contribute to removal of dust contaminants,
however, it can also create new risks if the air volume is too high/low.
– Radon If significants amounts of radon are produced from the orebody, then large air volumes might be
required to manage it. Additionally, mines with radon typically needs to excavate more ventilation
shafts than mines that do not have radon.
Battery and fire BEVs can present several battery chemistries and battery designs, which require specific
safety consideration when involved in an incident that structurally damages batteries or causes a fire on
the BEV. Emergency response is a key consideration in case a battery fire occurs. The OEM needs
to supply the fire scenarios and specialized safety measures dependent on the types of batteries
they provide. General guidance includes:
• Consider equipment health and condition monitoring plans to support prevention and early
detection.
• Refuge stations should be planned in the production and development levels in each mining
zone to mitigate risks.
• Make sure battery chemistry and fire suppression techniques for the BEV are understood.
Consult local regulations for specifics.
• In mixed fleets, emergency personnel might have to quickly identify the battery chemistry on-
board a given BEV and choose the appropriate suppression technique.
• Fires and structural damage can potentially lead to a cleanup operation.
Training All personnel working with or around a BEV should be properly trained.
Depending on the role of personnel, different training requirements are needed (e.g., operators
might need to be trained in new inspection criteria, emergency procedures, test procedures, or
equipment start-up procedures).

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Risk assessment The risk assessment is a key step in operational planning, the following should be
considered:
• Financial risks (e.g., increased infrastructure capital expense, early battery replacement)
• Production risks (e.g., discharged vehicle recovery, production rate impact)
• Health and safety risks (e.g., fire/explosion, electric shock, arcing fault)
• Environmental risks (e.g., worn battery skulls toxic to environment)

BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN

The design of a BEV comprises several different components and should integrate a strong relationship between the
design of the electric motor and other BEV components.

Topic Core considerations

Braking system Rheostatic braking should have the capacity to dissipate the braking power.
Regenerative braking using batteries requires a reserve battery capacity in which energy can
be returned to the battery by the supply line.
The battery system and traction motor affect regenerative brake limits and shortfalls.
An electric traction motor requires an electric supply to hold a vehicle stationary against an
external force.
High-voltage direct System modeling, fault current, and arc flash studies should be conducted to confirm the
current (HVDC) BEV is designed in accordance with electrical principles, that all electrical components are
electrical system able to withstand the full range of voltage and current to which they can be subjected, and
to estimate the incident energy that would be present in the event of an arcing fault.
Overcurrent and overage protection are crucial to prevent injury, battery fire, and irreparable
damage to the BEV.
Insulation and ground fault monitoring systems should monitor high-voltage energy
between the electrical system and vehicle chassis, and they should alert personnel if there is
a risk of shock.
Low-voltage and Low-voltage distribution and control systems should be designed to avoid operating modes
control systems or sequences that can cause a fault condition or component failure leading to a hazard.
A high-voltage interlock loop should be used to prevent direct exposure of high voltage.
An emergency stop function should be included in the BEV design.
Operator interfaces should include visible and audible signals to advise personnel that a
vehicle is underway and if there are critical safety alerts.
Risk assessments should include the identification and analysis of any firmware/software
controls that directly impact critical functions or identified risks.
Maintenance and Battery packs can require special procedures to bring down overall potential to an
service areas on the acceptable service value.
equipment
Design of maintenance and service areas should consider the arrangement and handling of
components, enclosures and covers, service areas, and signage and labels.
OEMs should provide recommended schedules and procedures for inspecting and
maintaining BEVs and their components.
Electrical and radio BEVs should be designed to conform to electromagnetic compatibility standards to avoid
interference affecting nearby equipment or devices.
Drivetrain Motor setup for an underground BEV depend on the vehicle type and size. Key specifics to
consider with BEVs include wheel or axle motors, hydraulic pumps, and the cooling system.
Shock and vibration BEVs should be designed to meet shock and vibration profiles that align with the anticipated
use environment.
Fire safety The system should be designed to help make sure that a vehicle fire does not propagate to
the battery.

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ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (BATTERIES)

The rechargeable energy storage system (battery) is central to BEV operations. The battery storage capacity (energy
density) limits the range that the BEV can travel or perform its task between charges and is the main obstacle when
considering implementation, particularly in mining due to high vehicle weight and energy requirements.

Topic Core considerations

Battery management The BMS should be integrated into the BEV design and be able to communicate with
system (BMS) the charging infrastructure and emergency shutdown subsystems.
Thermal management The BMS monitors the temperature, which can prevent hazardous situations and
and testing damage to the battery in the event of high temperature conditions.
Cycle performance Conditions and usage profiles should be defined, and additional testing procedures can
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

and battery life be applied to the systems to better estimate battery life.
Automatic shutdown The automatic shutdown of the system should be designed and tested to comply with
relevant safety standards.
System enclosure Protection specifications such as venting requirements and designated lifting points
for the battery system enclosure are supplied by the OEM.
Extreme temperature Because batteries have optimal temperature ranges, it is key to minimize the amount
considerations of time they are outside that range to maximize the performance.
Storage Storage conditions such as temperature range and component life with and without
state of charge (SOC) or state of health checks should be fully defined by the battery
manufacturer or OEM.
End-of-life Batteries should be decommissioned and disposed of according to local laws or can
be rebuilt by qualified personnel for extended use. Three options to consider are
disposal as waste, recycling, and second life.
Hazard conditions Key hazard conditions include charging or discharging at low temperature, over- and
undervoltage, overloading, overtemperature, external and internal short-circuit, external
heating, chemical reactions, mechanical crush, shock, penetration, and rupture of a cell
resulting in liquid or flammable/toxic gas release.
Key methods of preventing hazard conditions include:
• Sensor data that notify the BEV control unit to take corrective action and cause an
alarm if the battery temperature is out of safe operating range
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

• Appropriate battery mechanical protection, usage, and handling

Fire hazards Batteries can be compromised due to physical or hazard conditions that lead to an
increase in temperature, resulting in thermal runaway and the production of flammable
and toxic gases.
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen fluoride are especially dangerous risks in underground
fires as they can both spread through mining zones.
Fire suppression and Early detection of a battery fire and an effective fire responsive practice can prevent
response incidents from becoming more serious. The suppressant should have the ability to
contain and cool the battery fire and prevent reignition.
Transportation Transportation regulations should be consulted to transport battery systems, BEVs,
and spare parts containing batteries safely. Damaged or suspect batteries should be
transported according to applicable regulations.

CHARGING SYSTEMS AND METHODS

A BEV charging system typically consists of a step-down and isolation transformer, a rectification system/variable
direct current (DC) supply, and a charge rate controller. Some mine operations will depend on the availability of fully
charged batteries; therefore, sufficient design in the charging system is crucial.

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Topic Core considerations

Safety considerations The charger should be compliant with regional safety standards and should be
designed to prevent shock, mechanical hazards, and avoid physical risk.
Charger installation The charger should be compatible with the energy storage type and chemistry in use,
CHARGING SYSTEMS

rated for the appropriate charging rate, and compatible with different conditions.
Incoming power A power study is recommended for the overall underground electrical design along
systems with several other considerations.
Operation and Two key components are operator control visibility and emergency shutdown
controls terminals.
Communications and These systems should be capable of load management, reporting and monitoring of
monitoring charging infrastructure, notification of events to relevant staff, and prioritization of
which vehicle is charged and at what power level (if load or charging configuration
constraints are imposed).
On-board charging Can be a good option for mixed fleets or if additional fixed infrastructure is not feasible.
Advantages Disadvantages
• No separate charging infrastructure • Additional weight and size of chargers
• Charging location flexibility can limit battery size and range
• Reduced downtime • Design challenges with
accommodating the charger on the
equipment
• Charging equipment exposed to
harsh conditions
• Lower power capacity
Off-board charging of Can be a good option if high-power chargers are required or if operating a large BEV
on-board batteries fleet.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Less equipment onboard • Fixed infrastructure required
• Size and weight reduction (especially challenging in large
CHARGING METHODS

mines)
• Chargers in contaminant-free locations
• BEV needs to move to a specific
• BEVs can share chargers
location to charge
• High power capable batteries needed
Off-board charging of Can be a good option if long uphill trips are required, especially if implementing BEVs in
off-board batteries existing mines. This method also shares some advantages with off-board charging of
(swapping) on-board batteries.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Potentially improve productivity (e.g., not • Additional
out of service to charge) infrastructure/mechanisms needed
• Lower charger power required either on– or off-board to facilitate
swapping (removal and mounting)
• Some reduction in infrastructure
requirements (e.g., designated parking) • More chargers and batteries required
• Less flexibility and can be difficult to
standardize
• Battery inventory management can
be challenging
Hybrid A combination of on- and off-board charging arrangements can offer some benefits of
both.
Off-board proprietary OEMs can choose to develop and supply off-board proprietary chargers. Trials and
chargers small-scale implementations could benefit from the simplicity of not needing to handle
multiple systems.

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TYPES OF CHARGING AND CONNECTION INTERFACES

Charging and connection interfaces can vary depending on the chosen charging method, region, and equipment design.
Standardization is recommended as much as possible.

Topic Core considerations

On-board charging Connector types are defined by IEC 62196-1, IEC 62196-2, and IEC 62196-3 and vary
from alternating depending on region.
current (AC) supply
interface This interface is typically used for low-rate charging and consideration.
It is recommended to use a long and easily replaceable output cable.
Off-board charging Multiple DC connectors are typically required.
interface, manually The two versions of combined charging systems CCS-Type 1/Combo 1 and Type 2/Combo
operated
2 are most widely used in mining.
For chargers using a cable to connect to a BEV, taking precautions to prevent damage is
recommended.
Off-board charging The potential benefits over manual interfaces include saving time, greater comfort, reliability,
interface, automated and future-readiness.
Potential disadvantages include a higher initial cost, greater weight, and higher complexity
due to the number of components.
Types of automated charging interfaces include infrastructure mounted pantograph
systems, enclosed pin and socket systems, and inductive systems.
Battery swapping and It is recommended to use a durable connector to accommodate many
charging interface connection/disconnection cycles.
The connector needs to be able to handle the high power requirements for batteries to be
charged at very rapid rates.
Interoperability is a key challenge.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Once the electric mine is operating, data should be collected and analyzed to assess mine performance. The duty cycle
can be more complex than it is for diesel vehicles because how the equipment gets the energy (i.e., the charging
method) needs to be evaluated. Battery charging and swapping can also affect availability and utilization.

Topic Core considerations

Equipment Equipment performance parameters include general requirements, equipment performance
performance assessment, regenerative braking systems, specifications, impact of tires and road surface
on BEV performance, and heat generation.
Key performance considerations include:
• The ability to achieve the same or better output for a given duty cycle as a comparable
diesel unit
• The energy requirements to perform the duty cycle and number of such cycles the
battery is capable of before charging is required
• The time required to charge or swap the battery
Battery performance Considerations include determining battery life, cycle life, state of health, charge and
discharge rates, depth of discharge (DOD), estimation, and charging temperature
estimation.
Charger performance It is important to understand the timing of charging, the location of charging stations, and
the potential opportunity for charging considerations based on mine power availability.

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ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BMS Battery Management System
CCS Combined Charging System
CO Carbon Monoxide
DC Direct Current
DOD Depth of Discharge
DPM Diesel Particulate Matter
FLA Full Load Amperage
GHG Greenhouse Gas
HF Hydrogen Fluoride
HRR Heat Release Rate
HVDC High-Voltage Direct Current
HVIL High-Voltage Interlock Loop
IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life of Health
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LHD Load-Haul-Dump
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
LMO Lithium-Ion Manganese Oxide
LTO Lithium Titanate
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
NCA Lithium Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum Oxide
NMC Lithium-Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide
OCPP Open Charge Point Protocol
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OWHS Ore/Waste Handling System
PE Protective Earth
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
SEI Solid Electrolyte Interface
SO2 Sulphur Dioxide
SOC State of Charge
TLV Threshold Limit Value
TWA Time Weighted Average
VDC Variable Direct Current

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY v

Business Case v

Mine Design and Operations v

Battery Electric Vehicle Design vii

Energy Storage Systems (Batteries) viii

Charging Systems and Methods viii

Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces x

Performance Standards x

ABBREVIATIONS xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS xii

1. INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Purpose and Audience 6

1.2 Scope 6

1.3 Navigating this Guideline 7

1.3.1 Finding Similar Content 8
1.3.2 Finding Safety Content 8

1.4 Description of Updates in Version Three 8

2. GENERAL BACKGROUND 9

2.1 Advantages of Battery Electric Versus Diesel Vehicles 9

2.2 Disadvantages of Battery Electric Versus Diesel Vehicles 10

3. BUSINESS CASE 11

3.1 Introduction 11

3.2 Revenue 12
3.2.1 Performance and Productivity 12
3.2.2 Traditionally Uneconomic Orebodies 13

3.3 Capital Costs Considerations 13

3.3.1 Overall Infrastructure Considerations 13

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3.3.2 Vehicle and Battery Assets 13

3.3.3 Ventilation and Cooling Infrastructure 13
3.3.4 Electrical Infrastructure and Power Distribution 14
3.3.5 Layout 14

3.4 Operating Cost Considerations 14

3.4.1 Overall Energy Requirements and Costs 14
3.4.2 Differences in Ventilation-Related Operating Costs 15
3.4.3 Maintenance Costs 15

3.5 Health, Safety, Environment, and Community 16

3.5.1 Working Environment 16
3.5.2 Training 16
3.5.3 Sustainability and Community Acceptance 16

4. MINE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS 17

4.1 Introduction 17

4.2 Mine Layout and Infrastructure 18

4.2.1 Ore/Waste Handling System 18
4.2.2 Regenerative Braking and Ramp Design 19

4.3 Maintenance Areas 20

4.4 Personnel Movement and Parking 20

4.4.1 Shaft Access 20
4.4.2 Ramp Access 20

4.5 Mobile Electric Equipment 21

4.5.1 Charge-While-Operating Equipment Group (Tethered) 21
4.5.2 Trucks 22
4.5.3 LHD Machines 22
4.5.4 Auxiliary Vehicles 22

4.6 Charging Infrastructure 22

4.6.1 Design Prerequisites 23
4.6.2 Charging Philosophy 23
4.6.3 Charger Diversity 25
4.6.4 Opportunity Charging 25
4.6.5 Charging Station Layout 25
4.6.6 Charging System Operation and Maintenance 28

4.7 Ventilation and Cooling 28

4.7.1 Determining Air Volume 30
4.7.2 Regulations 30

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4.7.3 Equipment Fleet 31

4.7.4 Heat Load 31
4.7.5 Dust 33
4.7.6 Radon 33
4.7.7 Developing the Ventilation Design and Plan 33

4.8 Battery and Fire Safety 35

4.8.1 Refuge Station Considerations 36
4.8.2 Emergency Response and Battery Fires 36

4.9 Training 36
4.9.1 Operator Training 37
4.9.2 Maintenance Personnel Training 38

4.10 Risk Assessment 38

4.10.1 Financial, Production, Health and Safety, and Environmental Risks 39
4.10.2 Risk Management Tools 41

5. BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN 44

5.1 Introduction 44

5.2 Braking System 45

5.3 HVDC Electrical System 46

5.3.1 Direct Current (DC) System Architecture 46
5.3.2 System Modelling, Fault Current, and Arc Flash 47
5.3.3 Overcurrent and Overvoltage Protection 48
5.3.4 Insulation/Ground Fault Monitoring 48
5.3.5 Isolation and Service Disconnect 48
5.3.6 Traction Drive and Motor 48
5.3.7 Auxiliary Drives and Motors 49
5.3.8 DC/DC Conversion 49
5.3.9 Battery Charger Integration 49

5.4 Low Voltage and Control System 49

5.4.1 Low-Voltage Distribution and Control 49
5.4.2 High-Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL) 49
5.4.3 Master Disconnect 49
5.4.4 Emergency Stop 49
5.4.5 Operator Interfaces 51
5.4.6 Software/Firmware Risk Assessment 51
5.4.7 Remote Control 51

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5.5 Electrical and Radio Interference 52

5.6 Drivetrain 52

5.7 Fire Safety 52

5.8 Shock and Vibration 52

5.9 Maintenance and Service Areas on the Equipment 53

5.10 Standards Cited in this Section 54

6. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (BATTERIES) 59

6.1 Introduction 59

6.2 Background on Battery Types 59

6.3 Functional Requirements 60

6.3.1 Battery Management System 60
6.3.2 Accessibility, Maintenance, and Service 60
6.3.3 Thermal Management and Testing 60
6.3.4 Cycle Performance and Battery Life 61
6.3.5 Automatic Shutdown 61
6.3.6 System Enclosure 61
6.3.7 Extreme Temperature Considerations 61
6.3.8 Storage 62
6.3.9 End-of-Life 62

6.4 Safety Requirements 63

6.4.1 Hazard Conditions: Causes and Effects 63
6.4.2 Hazard Condition Monitoring, Prevention, and Mitigation 64
6.4.3 LIB Chemistry and Thermal Runaway 65
6.4.4 Fire Hazards and Suppression 65
6.4.5 Transportation 67

6.5 Standards Cited in this Section 67

7. CHARGING SYSTEMS AND METHODS 71

7.1 Introduction 71

7.2 Safety Considerations 72

7.3 Charger Installation 72

7.4 Incoming Power System 72

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7.5 Types of Charging Methods 72

7.5.1 On-Board Charging 73
7.5.2 Off-Board Charging of On-Board Batteries 74
7.5.3 Off-Board Charging of Off-Board Batteries (Battery Swapping) 75
7.5.4 Hybrid Charging Method 76
7.5.5 Off-Board Proprietary Chargers 77
7.5.6 Alternative Charging Systems and Equipment Types 77

7.6 Operation and Controls 78

7.6.1 Operator Control Visibility and Lighting 78
7.6.2 Emergency Stop 78

7.7 Communications and Monitoring 78

7.8 Standards Cited in this Section 78

8. TYPES OF CHARGING AND CONNECTION INTERFACES 80

8.1 Introduction 80

8.2 On-Board Charging from Alternating Current (AC) Supply Interface 81

8.3 Off-Board Charging Interface 82

8.3.1 Manually Operated Connection Interface 82
8.3.2 Automated Connection Interfaces 83

8.4 Battery Swapping and Charging Interface 87

8.4.1 Durability 88
8.4.2 Power 88
8.4.3 Interoperability 89

8.5 Standards Cited in this Section 89

9. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 92

9.1 Introduction 92

9.2 Definitions 92
9.2.1 Duty Cycle 92
9.2.2 Availability and Utilization 93
9.2.3 Idle/Queued Periods 93
9.2.4 Battery Charge Time 93

9.3 Equipment Performance 94

9.3.1 General Requirements 94
9.3.2 Equipment Performance Assessment 95

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9.3.3 Regenerative Braking Systems 95

9.3.4 Specifications 95
9.3.5 Considering Production and Service Requirements 95
9.3.6 Impact of Tires and Road Surface on BEV Performance 96
9.3.7 Heat Generation 96

9.4 Battery Performance 99

9.4.1 Performance 99
9.4.2 Specifications 100

9.5 Charger Performance 100

9.5.1 Performance 100
9.5.2 Specifications 100

10. FUTURE WORK 102

GLOSSARY 103

APPENDIX A. REFERENCE CASES 105

APPENDIX B. EXPLOSION PROTECTION FOR GASSY MINES 106

APPENDIX C. BEV GENERAL INFORMATON FORM (EXAMPLE) 108

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1. INTRODUCTION
This guideline describes recommended practices for the use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in underground mining.
This is the third version of this guideline and was updated collaboratively by participants from the GMG Electric Mine
Working Group.

1.1 PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE

The intent of this guideline is to provide guidance and an overall discussion about the benefits, drawbacks, and planning
requirements for designing and implementing a BEV fleet within an existing or new mine. It aims to strike an appropriate
balance between standardization and innovation by providing key considerations, questions to ask, and guidance on
where to look for further information.
While it is not a standard, this guideline is intended to enable
discussions between mining companies and mining vehicle
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). It can also be used Note on the current standards landscape
by OEMs, battery manufacturers, and charger manufacturers in
Standardization for mining BEVs is still in its early stages.
research and development efforts.
Some existing standards identified as applicable to mining
This guideline aims to assist mining companies with operating BEVs are IEC 60204-1, IEC 60204-11, ISO 14990 Series, and
a fleet of BEVs. It leverages and references existing standards Canadian standards CSA M421-16 and CSA M424. While
there are many established BEV standards from other
and guidelines, including those that have some applicability
industries that can be useful references, they are not always
from automotive, electrical, automation, and other industries.
directly applicable in mining settings.
At the same time, this guideline should not be an obstacle to
innovation for OEMs.

1.2 SCOPE
This guideline is intended to cover a wide range of considerations and practices around using BEVs and to support the
adoption of them, but its scope is not intended to be exhaustive. It is intended to support, not replace, the advice of qual-
ified experts and relevant standards and regulations. The table below gives a general summary of in scope and out of
scope items.

Table 1.1 Summary of Guideline Scope

Category In scope Out of scope
Equipment • Mobile, trackless, fully battery electric vehicles • In-depth guidance on other types of electric
in mining equipment (e.g., trolley assist systems,
• Mixed fleets and fully electric fleets tethered systems), though some high-level
• Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the reference considerations are covered
technology for BEVs in mines, although other • Hybrid diesel/electric vehicles
chemistries are considered

Mining • Underground mining • Surface mining, except in some instances as

contexts • Greenfield and brownfield operations a point of comparison

Global • Should be able to be used by mining • Specific or prescriptive information about

applicability companies and OEMs globally while regional regulatory frameworks
acknowledging that regional differences exist
in terms of local regulatory frameworks

Relationship • Leverages and references existing standards • Prescriptive information or information to

to standards and guidelines replace existing standards

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1.3 NAVIGATING THIS GUIDELINE

This guideline is structured into eight sections arranged in a logical sequence for an underground operation considering
going electric. These topics and their primary audiences (indicated in blue text below) are briefly summarized below.
Please note that the guidance can still be helpful to many beyond the identified primary audience.

General Background (Section 2): Provides a general overview of the advantages and disadvantages of BEVs in
underground mining when compared to diesel vehicles.
Those starting to think about BEVs as an option.

Business Case (Section 3): Includes guidance on building the business case and considering the scope for
implementation. It expands on key considerations including revenue, capital cost, operating cost, health and
safety, and environment and community.
Those at the conceptual stage looking to understand and develop the business case for BEVs.

Mine Design and Operations (Section 4): Includes guidance and considerations about mine design and
operations to accommodate BEVs. It includes information on mine layout and infrastructure, other electric
equipment, personnel movement and tracking, charging infrastructure, ventilation and cooling, training, risk
assessment, and related safety concerns such as fire risk and emergency response.
Mine planners and engineers, operations and maintenance teams, training personnel, and health and
safety personnel.

Battery Electric Vehicle Design (Section 5): Includes information about the systems and components of a BEV
and their design and use, including braking systems, electrical systems, control systems, and drivetrain as well as
considerations around shock and vibration, safety, and electrical and radio interference.
Mine operations, maintenance, and project teams to understand the systems from both a
procurement/specification aspect as well as OEMs for use in research and development and enabling
communications with customers.

Energy Storage Systems (Section 6): Includes information about the components, use, and design of energy
storage systems (batteries), including information on functional requirements such as accessibility and service,
thermal management, cycle performance and battery life, and safety requirements such as hazard conditions and
safe transportation.
Mine operations and maintenance teams to understand the systems, and battery manufacturers for use in
research and development and enabling communications with customers.

Charging Systems and Methods (Section 7): Includes information on charging systems and methods, including
safety considerations, incoming power system, types of charging methods, and operations and controls.
Mine operations and maintenance teams to understand the systems and charger manufacturers for use in
research and development and enabling communications with customers.

Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces (Section 8): Covers types of charging and connection interfaces
including on-board charging, off-board charging interfaces (manually connected, conductive automated
connection, proprietary chargers, and standardized interfaces), and battery swapping interfaces.
Mine operations and maintenance teams to understand the systems and charger manufacturers and OEMs
for use in research and development and enabling communications with customers.

Performance Standards (Section 9): Describes the type of data and information required to assess the
capabilities of BEVs and define typical performance parameters and requirements to enable the development of
standard approaches.
Mine management and operations personnel to understand performance requirements and capabilities to
enable improvements and OEMs to understand industry needs and requirements.

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1.3.1 Finding Similar Content

Many topics covered in this guideline are covered from different perspectives across the
sections. For example, regenerative braking is covered in Section 4 from a design and layout
perspective, Section 5 from a BEV design perspective, and Section 9 from a performance
standards perspective. Text boxes (see example on the right) are included throughout the
guideline to indicate some other sections with related content. • Example cross reference box

1.3.2 Finding Safety Content

While some sections of this guideline focus primarily on safety (indicated in their titles), guidance related to safety is
prominent throughout many other sections as well. A navigation box is included in the introduction of each of the longer
sections featuring information on where to find safety-related information.

Section navigations include lines of blue text preceded by a safety warning symbol to identify the type of
safety-related information covered in the section.

1.4 DESCRIPTION OF UPDATES IN VERSION THREE

Version three of this guideline is a significant revision from version two, published in 2018. While much of the content is similar,
the entire guideline has been revised to bring it up to date with the current information available on BEVs in mining and to
improve its quality. Some key content updates include:
• New and expanded content on safety, risk, and emergency response, particularly in reference to battery fires.
• New and expanded content on maintenance, including maintenance area design, charging system and maintenance,
training, and equipment maintenance and service area design.
• Expanded content on developing the business case.
• New sections on automated connection interfaces.
Because electric mining technology is evolving rapidly, the approach to updating this guideline was to keep it general enough
that it would not go out of date. Some notes and examples related to emerging technologies and practices are considered, but
very specific guidance is avoided as much as possible. Because BEVs are more widely adopted globally than they were in 2018,
additional clarity was also added throughout to recommend the user consult the regulations and standards relevant to their
local jurisdictions. Further work was also done to make sure the guidance is non-prescriptive and can be applied broadly.
Structural improvements are another key feature of version three. The introductions to each section have been restructured to
improve navigation and to highlight key areas of the section that cover safety. Other key structural changes include:
• The General Background, Business Case, and BEV Design sections were internally restructured for clarity.
• The Mine Design and Operations sections from version two were combined for continuity and to reduce repetition.
• The information on types of connection interfaces considered in the Charging Systems section in version two, was
separated out as its own section because it applies to both the charging systems and the vehicle.
• A glossary was added to the back matter of the guideline.

SECTION REFERENCES
CSA Group. (2016). Use of electricity in mines (Standard No. M421-16[R2016]). CSA Group.
https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/M421-16/
CSA Group. (2022). Flameproof non-rail-bound diesel-powered machines for use in gassy underground coal mines (Standard
No. M424.1:22. CSA Group. https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2700953/
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2016). Safety of machinery—Electrical equipment of machines—Part 1: General
requirements (Standard No. IEC 60204-1:2016). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/26037
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2018). Safety of machinery—Electrical equipment of machines— Part 11: Require-
ments for equipment for voltages above 1 000 V AC or 1 500 V DC and not exceeding 36 kV (Standard No. IEC 60204-11:2018).
https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/31752
International Organization for Standardization. (2016). Earth-moving machinery—Electrical safety of machines utilizing electric
drives and related components and systems—Part 1:General requirements (Standard No. ISO 14990-1:2016).
https://www.iso.org/standard/63299.html

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2. GENERAL BACKGROUND
This section provides a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of mobile trackless BEVs in underground
mining when compared to diesel vehicles. It is intended for those who are starting to think about whether the technol-
ogy is right for their situation.
Most underground mining operations today make extensive use of diesel-powered trackless mobile vehicles. There are
many vehicles that range from prime movers for transporting ore and waste to utility vehicles for installing and main-
taining mine infrastructure. As battery technologies advance, many companies are seeing the benefits of replacing
diesel-powered trackless vehicles with BEVs in underground mining operations.

2.1 ADVANTAGES OF BATTERY ELECTRIC VERSUS DIESEL VEHICLES

The advantages of employing BEVs can be great, especially for underground mining. However, the extent of the benefits
will depend on the specifics of the mine.
BEVs can enable a safer, cleaner, and healthier working environment by reducing products
of combustion and liquid pollutants (e.g., oil, transmission, and radiator fluid) from the
working environment and reducing noise exposure levels. The noise, heat, and odour gen-
erated from diesel engines can negatively affect the underground work environment. Fur-
ther, diesel emissions include carbon monoxide (CO) and dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (NOx) and
sulphur oxides (SOx), hydrocarbons, and diesel particulate matter (DPM). These emissions • Regenerative Braking and Ramp
Design (Mine Design), Section 4.2.2
pose a health hazard and have recently been classified as “Group 1: carcinogenic to
• Ventilation and Cooling (Mine Design),
humans” by the World Health Organization (International Agency for Research on Cancer, Section 4.7
2012). For a specific example on how BEVs improve working conditions by reducing diesel • Braking (BEV design), Section 5.2
exhaust-related contaminants, see the results of a field study at a Finnish mine as • Performance Standards, Section 9
described in Halim et al. (2021).
Another key advantage is that BEVs offer an alternative to prohibitive ventilation costs asso-
ciated with diesel equipment during underground mine expansion and production programs. Mine regulations through-
out the world have evolved to mandate appropriate ventilation measures to clear emissions. For example, the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (2012) has reduced the NO2 threshold limit value from diesel engines
from 3 to 0.2 mL/m3. Protecting personnel underground from diesel emissions requires expensive and electricity-con-
suming ventilation and cooling infrastructure. As mines descend to greater depths, the demands for further ventilation
grow. This limits the economic viability of deep greenfield mines as well as the expansion of existing mines to greater
depths.
In many cases, by eliminating the main source of air pollution in underground mines using BEVs, airflow requirements
can be significantly reduced. In deep mines where cooling is a requirement, airflow reduction translates into a corre-
sponding decrease in cooling requirements. In addition, by eliminating diesel exhaust requirements, a one-pass-then-
exhaust ventilation strategy is no longer necessary, thereby allowing partial recirculation/reuse of air leading to a further
reduction of airflow to and from the surface.
In addition to decreased air volumes, BEVs can also reduce refrigeration costs through decreased heat loading and fric-
tion braking. BEVs are also able to implement regenerative braking and do not idle at rest.
BEVs can also provide some performance advantages such as low speed torque characteristics that can enhance vehi-
cle acceleration, responsiveness, and traction control through use of electric traction motors. These advantages can
lead to higher vehicle productivity. They also often have fewer moving parts, which can potentially require less mainte-
nance and generate less heat (this has been a finding for road vehicles, see Harto, 2020).
Environmental and social benefits are also a key consideration. BEVs can decrease the greenhouse gas (GHG) profile
from both the elimination of direct diesel combustion and a net decrease in power consumption due to ventilation sav-
ings. BEVs also are broadly perceived as socially acceptable (Hanke, Hülsmann, & Fornahl, 2014).

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2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF BATTERY ELECTRIC VERSUS DIESEL VEHICLES

BEVs also present new challenges for mines regarding infrastructure, maintenance, and operating requirements and
constraints. Depending on the situation, they might not always be the appropriate choice for the mine operation to
achieve their goals. The potential benefits listed above also might not apply to all situations.
Even with recent advances in battery technology, one of the key benefits of fossil fuels over electric is high energy den-
sity. The specific energy density (energy per unit mass) refers to the capacity to store energy, thus it determines a vehi-
cle’s range and capacity to do useful work. The specific energy of diesel is nearly 50 MJ/kg—more than 55 times higher
than the most energy-dense LIB (0.900 MJ/kg). The volumetric energy density of diesel is approximately 35 MJ/L—
nearly six times higher than the most energy-dense LIB (6.2 MJ/L). Therefore, when adopting BEVs, allowances need
to be made in mine planning and scheduling to allow for charging. In addition, charging infrastructure will become a key
requirement for a mine.
The higher energy density of diesel can be somewhat offset by lower efficiency of use. A large portion of the energy
content is lost as heat during diesel combustion and through losses in transmissions, torque converters, and gear-
boxes. By comparison, the loss of energy to heat in BEVs is substantially lower, as noted above. Despite these compen-
sations, the net energy content is still substantially higher in diesel than LIBs.
Standardized fuel is another key advantage of diesel equipment. Refineries handle the
complexities of converting raw petroleum products into a portable fuel. BEVs do not
share this convenience because the battery pack can be a more complex energy storage
medium and the battery charging process can be more complicated. The BEV market is
developing quickly with updated products increasingly being commercialized. As such,
there are many options available for charging batteries, although these options are not
• Charging Infrastructure, Section 4.6
yet standardized. • Charging Systems and Methods,
Another consideration is how the sites are powered. Depending on the net power demand, Section 7
• Types of Charging and Connection
those implementing BEV equipment on remote sites where site electricity is generated by
Interfaces, Section 8
diesel-powered generators should evaluate if they add more load to a system that is gen-
erally designed without considering BEVs and if it could be balanced by ventilation savings.

SECTION REFERENCES
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (2012). Threshold limit values and biological exposure indices.
Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Hanke, C., Hülsmann, M., & Fornahl, D. (2014). Socio-economic aspects of electric vehicles: A literature review. In M. Hülsmann
and D. Fornahl (Eds.), Evolutionary paths towards the mobility patterns of the future, Lecture notes in mobility. Berlin Heidel-
berg: Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37558-3_2
Harto, C. (2020). Electric Vehicle Ownership Costs: Chapter 2- Maintenance. Consumer Reports. https://advocacy.consumer-
reports.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Maintenance-Cost-White-Paper-9.24.20-1.pdf
Halim, A., Lööw, J., Johansson, J., Gustafsson, J., van Wageningen, A., and Kocsis, K. (2021). Improvement of Working Condi-
tions and Opinions of Mine Workers When Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) Are Used Instead of Diesel Machines – Results of
Field Trial at the Kittilä Mine, Finland. Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-021-00506-8
International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2012, June). IARC: Diesel engine exhaust carcinogenic [Press Release No. 213].
World Health Organization. https://www.isglobal.org/en/-/iarc-diesel-engine-exhaust-carcinogenic?inheritRedirect=true

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3. BUSINESS CASE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This section includes guidance on developing the business case for BEVs and considering the scope for implementa-
tion. It expands on key considerations including revenue, capital cost, operating cost, health and safety, and environ-
ment and community. It is intended for those at the conceptual stage looking to understand and develop the business
case for BEVs.
As noted in Section 2, all-electric mines can offer distinct advantages compared to conventional mines, especially in
reducing diesel emissions and associated negative impacts on personnel health. However, compared to conventional
mines, all-electric mines also present several challenges that should be considered. These challenges can affect the
business case from revenue, capital cost, and operating cost perspectives.
Table 3.1 provides some guidance on considering the scope for implementation and review-
ing these challenges and advantages. This table is intended to identify considerations for
developing the business case for BEVs but is not intended to be exhaustive. The check marks
are assigned to columns for existing underground operations, underground greenfield pro-
jects, and surface operations. These check marks are intended to indicate situations where
• Some reference cases with examples
these considerations are especially important, but the absence of a check mark does not
of data comparing BEVs to diesel
mean that the consideration will not apply in that type of operation. Surface operations are vehicles can be found in Appendix A
also considered here for comparative purposes.

Table 3.1. Business Case Guidance for Considering the Scope for Implementation
Existing Underground Surface
underground greenfield operations
operations projects
Revenue
Differences in productivity due to air quality ✓ ✓ ✓
Differences in productivity due to work environment temperature & ✓ ✓
humidity (particularly related to work/rest regimes in hot work
environments)
Differences in productivity compared to conventional diesel (e.g., due ✓ ✓ ✓
to availability, utilization); performance improvements of BEV
equipment and battery charging/swapping requirements
Potential to mine traditionally uneconomic orebodies ✓ ✓
Capital cost
Cooling battery-related infrastructure such as charging areas ✓ ✓ ✓
Infrastructure for storing and charging batteries ✓ ✓ ✓
Diesel fuel handling system ✓ ✓ ✓
Capital expenditures for BEVs and associated batteries vs diesel ✓ ✓ ✓
equivalent
Differences in ventilation-related capital ✓ ✓
Electrical infrastructure costs on-site to distribute power to ✓ ✓ ✓
operations, including possible upgrades to accommodate additional
loads for chargers
Electrical infrastructure costs to get power on-site through utility or ✓ ✓
self-generation

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Table 3.1. Business Case Guidance for Considering the Scope for Implementation (continued)
Existing Underground Surface
underground greenfield operations
operations projects
Differences in mine air heating and/or cooling-related capital ✓ ✓
All other mine design related changes affected by the introduction of
BEVs, such as quantity, and size of drifts and shafts ✓ ✓

Potential for government subsidies or grants for using green

technologies ✓ ✓ ✓

Operating cost
Differences in overall mine energy requirements and energy costs ✓ ✓ ✓
Differences in ventilation-related operating costs ✓ ✓
Diesel fuel transportation and storage systems and the related ✓
logistics costs
Mobile equipment maintenance, labour costs, and parts warehousing ✓ ✓
costs
Choices in charging/fuelling strategies can drive operating costs (e.g., ✓ ✓ ✓
fuel truck operations and swap vs fast charge)
Differences in carbon taxation or fuel surcharges ✓ ✓ ✓
Battery handling costs including storage, disposal, and recycling ✓ ✓ ✓
Health, safety, environment, and community
Workplace conditions; vibrations, noise, air quality, temperature, ✓ ✓ ✓
humidity
Environmental emissions; air & noise emissions, mine water effluent ✓ ✓
quality
Environmental risks; hydrocarbon spills on-site, supply chain spill risks ✓ ✓ ✓
Local community; social acceptance of BEV vs diesel ✓ ✓
Investors, regulators, general public perception, broader social license, ✓ ✓ ✓
and brand value
“Responsibility beyond compliance”–exceeding the minimum ✓ ✓ ✓
regulatory requirements
Risk of regulatory reductions in NOx and DPM ✓ ✓
Training ✓ ✓ ✓
Workplace cultural conditions and change management ✓ ✓ ✓
Meeting GHG-specific sustainability commitments ✓ ✓ ✓

3.2 REVENUE
In the context of this guideline, revenue refers to the ways in which productivity and per-
formance affects the volume mined—and thereby affecting the revenue of the mine—
rather than financial calculations.

3.2.1 Performance and Productivity • Performance Standards, Section 9

BEVs can enable performance improvements that increase tonnes mined, thereby
increasing revenues. For example, with diesel equipment, available ventilation volumes
can affect the engine size and limit some aspects of the vehicle’s performance or the equipment fleet size that can be
deployed. These constraints do not exist for BEVs. Thus, more powerful electric drives can be selected for units with
similar payload capacity, potentially resulting in improved equipment performance (e.g., breakout/lifting capacity,

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acceleration, and speed). Lifting these constraints through use of BEVs would be beneficial if the mine is the bottle-
neck in the production chain. Otherwise, this higher productivity would be left unused by the mill.
However, these performance improvements can be somewhat offset by the time required to charge or swap batteries.
It is recommended to study these impacts on overall productivity to confirm that BEV adoption meets the expectations
of the mine.
It is also recommended to monitor vehicle performance not only from a preventive maintenance standpoint but also to
obtain feedback on operator performance. This monitoring can accelerate adaptation to battery-powered vehicles and
improve overall vehicle performance.
If BEVs are being used as a trial to confirm the business case, data collection (e.g., from ventilation and equipment per-
formance) along with analysis of the diesel and BEV options need to be considered prior to the equipment arrival. Once
equipment has arrived, it is also beneficial to accumulate early performance data to verify operating performance and
be used if there is a simulation phase before confirming the operationalization of the BEV implementation.

3.2.2 Traditionally Uneconomic Orebodies

Upgrading or building ventilation infrastructure to accommodate diesel equipment can be technically challenging
and/or cost prohibitive. Therefore, the fewer ventilation constraints associated with low-emission BEVs can be a factor
in making the development of some traditionally uneconomic orebodies profitable.

3.3 CAPITAL COSTS CONSIDERATIONS

3.3.1 Overall Infrastructure Considerations

When considering a change to BEVs, the infrastructure factors to consider depend partly on whether the operation is a
modification of an existing brownfield operation or a new greenfield operation. Existing mine infrastructure has the
potential to limit the benefits because it was designed for a different context. Considering the capital costs and potential
savings associated with mine infrastructure is a key part of the business case. For greenfield operations, the overall
mine system (e.g., layout, operating approach) can be optimized with a mixed fleet of BEVs, diesel hybrid vehicles, diesel
vehicles, tethered equipment, and trolley-assist systems, or a complete non-diesel operation.

3.3.2 Vehicle and Battery Assets

When comparing BEVs with diesel equivalents, the capital expenditure depends on the
method of paying for the battery. Battery costs can be significant and can either be an
upfront capital expenditure or as part of an operational expenditure approach through rental
or lease.
As the adoption of BEVs increases, battery and electric components are expected to further
• Charging Philosophy, Section 4.6.2
improve while costs are expected to decline, enabling OEMs to continue to improve vehicle • End-of-Life (Energy Storage
design for both performance and cost. Systems), Section 6.3.9
Battery disposal is an issue that needs to be addressed because batteries can be used for
new applications before they need to be recycled.

3.3.3 Ventilation and Cooling Infrastructure

In terms of capital expenditure, using BEVs generally results in a decrease in required air
volumes, which in turn requires smaller and potentially fewer ventilation shafts, smaller
access drifts, and smaller fans. These benefits can reduce costs for all-electric greenfield
mines, but they can be limited for brownfield or mixed fleet mines. Possible questions to be
considered include: • Ventilation and Cooling, Section 4.7
• Developing the Ventilation Design and
• Can ventilation and cooling infrastructure be reduced?
Plan, Section 4.7.7
• What changes are possible with the ventilation plan?

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• Is ventilation and cooling driven by dilution or are there other drivers such as radon and dust?
• Will future infrastructure expansions be reduced or eliminated?

3.3.4 Electrical Infrastructure and Power Distribution

Possible questions to consider when planning or designing electrical infrastructure and distribution of power include:
• Is there sufficient electrical energy available at all times of the mining cycle?
• What is the impact of different daily demand load variations?
• How will BEVs affect the underground distribution system and the potential for
power infrastructure upgrades?
• Do charging requirements and the infrastructure to facilitate them impact the
• Charging Philosophy, Section 4.6.2
supply to the mine? • HVDC Electrical System, Section 5.3
• Are there potential fleet size increases that will change the charging demand • Charging Systems and Methods,
and pose additional constraints on economics? Section 7
• Is it possible to have early standardization on charging infrastructure across
OEMs?
While the capital cost implications for BEV-specific infrastructure are significant, choices based on the charging phi-
losophy can have a positive impact on the total cost of the ownership calculations. In addition to any changes with the
upstream electrical distribution system, a complete system of chargers needs to be implemented. The mine could have
one charger associated with each piece of equipment, or one charger for multiple pieces of equipment. The charging
infrastructure affects the mine’s internal environment. For example, these chargers become localized heat sources that
require additional ventilation.
For new projects, total mine power requirements should be taken into consideration for self-generation or utility con-
nection decisions. As the net power demand for most projects drops due to ventilation savings, it could result in signif-
icant capital savings.

3.3.5 Layout
Possible questions to be considered when planning the layout include:
• Is equipment operating on an existing layout or future levels that can be
designed around BEVs?
• Will the primary ventilation network change to accommodate the location of the
charging stations?
• Personnel Movement and Parking,
• Are there changes in the mine layout such as charge station cut outs, parking
Section 4.4
location of vehicles, roadway grades and directions, and maintenance shop lay- • Mine Layout and Infrastructure,
out/requirements? Section 4.2
• Can a reduced vent ducting size translate into smaller drift sizes?

3.4 OPERATING COST CONSIDERATIONS

While there can be many upfront costs with implementing BEVs, operational expenditures can be improved with their
use.

3.4.1 Overall Energy Requirements and Costs

One of the key differences between mobile diesel equipment and BEVs is the amount of energy used to perform the
same work. Additional considerations include:
• Benchmark operational costs from diesel mines do not apply to electric mines
• The power required for ventilation is typically lower for BEVs
OEMs should be able to provide the energy requirements for required duty cycles to inform the energy budget for elec-
tric mines.

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Utilizing BEVs could represent a significant change in the power distribution strategy for both greenfield and brownfield
mines. For example, battery chargers can be a 100% duty cycle load while charging and nearly 0% while not charging.
These step loads can create demand peaks on the electrical system that needs to be reviewed and trend monitored to
determine how it might affect any existing infrastructure and protection equipment.
Effects from any additional electrical equipment, such as variable frequency drives, should be evaluated to confirm that
power quality is maintained. Possible questions to be considered include:
• What is the net change of electrical power for the mine based on the total?
• How do the requirements vary during the day?
• What can be done to rebalance the load?
• How is power quality affected by the type of loads?
• HVDC Electrical System (BEV Design),
• What provisions will need to be made?
Section 5.2
Charging infrastructure decisions affecting workflow and equipment availability should also • Incoming Power System (Charging
be considered. Systems), Section 7.4
• Performance Standards, Section 9
3.4.2 Differences in Ventilation-Related Operating Costs
The following are some key considerations around differences in ventilation-related operating costs associated with
BEVs:
• Operational savings can also be substantial in electricity costs given the affinity curves of ventilation fans.
• Depending on the local climate, a lower air flow rate can yield savings in winter heating and/or refrigeration
costs. Conversely, energy consumed in winter months to heat the ventilation could be increased for non-ther-
mal engine mines.
• Smaller fans generate less heat, further contributing to heat savings of BEV com-
pared to diesel mobile equipment.
• Ventilation on demand systems complement the energy savings already associ-
ated with BEVs while allowing for efficient blast gas clearing times. See Gyamfi, et
al. (2021) for a case study that found that combining BEVs with ventilation on • Ventilation and Cooling, Section 4.7
demand saves ventilation power costs but that the presence of strata gases (e.g.,
radon) restricts their reduction.

3.4.3 Maintenance Costs

Maintenance costs can be lower for electric than diesel engines, primarily because of the
high reliability of the electric motor and the static nature of the electric drive and controllers
for the motor. Furthermore, a well designed electrical drive system incorporates many inter-
connected sensors to monitor and warn the operator of faults and provide trending data for
• Maintenance Areas, Section 4.3
the predictive maintenance system.
• Charging System Operation and
Using BEVs presents an opportunity to reduce maintenance time, effort, and expenses Maintenance, Section 4.6.6
already attributed to traditional vehicles. In addition, maintenance cost savings can be tar- • Drivetrain, Section 5.6
geted with the reduction in mine ventilation, refrigeration requirements, and other support • Maintenance and Service Areas on
the Equipment, Section 5.9
systems which accompany BEVs. It is recommended that maintenance shop requirements
consider space requirements for chargers and clearances for working on high-voltage sys-
tems.
The design of the BEV drivetrain will determine the extent of operation maintenance savings. Vehicles that replace the
diesel engine with an electric one and still require the full mechanical drivetrain will inherently have more moving compo-
nents than fully electric drivetrains and are therefore likely to have higher maintenance costs. Batteries also require main-
tenance that needs to be considered when defining maintenance costs, equipment availability, and charging strategy.
While the benefits above can reduce planned maintenance time and cost, BEVs have the potential to increase oper-
ator-related, non-planned events (e.g., charging cable damage, receptacle, or plug damage). Further, while fixed
maintenance costs can be reduced for fuel stations, they can be increased for charging stations and cranes. Differ-
ences in labour costs are also a consideration.

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3.5 HEALTH, SAFETY, ENVIRONMENT, AND COMMUNITY

3.5.1 Working Environment

The general improvement in the working environment—including benefits such as no emissions, less noise, and
reduced heat and vibration from electric drives—is another potential benefit of BEVs.
BEVs present an opportunity to reduce heat, particularly in warm climates and in deep mines, which can lower the need
to implement work/rest regimes depending on the ventilation and cooling plan implemented in the mine. Choice of
energy source might also affect external mine related emissions, which can contribute to
support from the communities in surrounding areas.
While BEVs offer many health, safety, environmental, and social (community) advantages,
they can also present change management considerations around mine rescue and new
risks such as battery fires and electrical shocks.
• Risk Assessment, Section 4.10
3.5.2 Training
Different skills are required to troubleshoot and replace components. It is important to
consider the costs associated with training personnel who currently work with diesel equipment to operate and main-
tain BEVs.

3.5.3 Sustainability and Community Acceptance

The use of BEVs can help operations meet GHG and work environment-related sustainability goals and commitments
and potentially improve their license to operate credentials and access to certain projects.

SECTION REFERENCES
Gyamfi, S., Halim, A., and Martikainen, A. (2021). Development of Strategies to Reduce Ventilation and Heating Costs in a
Swedish Sublevel Caving Mine – a Unique Case of LKAB’s Konsuln Mine. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-021-00483-y

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4. MINE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Mine design and operations should be adjusted to accommo-
date charging methods, mine cycle and schedules, risks, and General note on safety content in this section
maintenance and operations requirements associated with Safety is considered throughout this section (see the
BEVs. The potential to lower ventilation requirements is a pri- navigation below). Safety considerations that might
mary driver for making mine design changes to accommodate affect mine design include:
mine electrification, whether the application is for a greenfield • Noise
or brownfield site. However, when designing a layout for an all- • Power and voltage
• Hazards specific to ventilation design
electric (battery and/or tethered) or hybrid mine (mixture of
• Air quality (DPM, dust, moisture, and radon, if
diesel vehicles and BEVs), additional infrastructure or adapta- present)
tions to existing infrastructure might be required throughout • Heat
the mine to maintain and operate the BEV fleet. • Fire
• Geotechnical aspects
This section provides guidance and considerations around
High-level risk assessments and safety training are
mine design and operations to accommodate BEVs, cover- also considered.
ing the following:

Mine Layout and Infrastructure (Section 4.2) Provides a brief discussion around some of the major aspects to
consider when tailoring a mine for BEVs, including content on ore/waste handling systems (OWHS) and on
regenerative braking as a method of mitigating the potential limitations associated with the energy density of
batteries.
Discussion of high temperature conditions associated with regenerative braking (Section 4.2.2).

Maintenance Areas (Section 4.3) Outlines some considerations around how maintenance areas should be
equipped and designed to accommodate BEVs.
Enabling the safe handling of batteries and electrical components is a key focus of this section.

Personnel Movement and Parking (Section 4.4) Outlines the considerations for personnel movement and
parking compared to a conventional diesel mine, including guidance on shaft and ramp access.
The potential need for safeguards associated with chargers in parking locations is noted (Section 4.1.1).

Mobile Electric Equipment (Section 4.5) Identifies commonly used types of mobile electric equipment and key
mine design considerations associated with them.
No specific safety guidance.

Charging Infrastructure (Section 4.6) Outlines some key considerations required in designing the charging
infrastructure to confirm availability of fully charged batteries.
While it is not directly focused on safety, designing the charging infrastructure for safety underpins much
of the guidance in this section, particularly around the charging station layout.

Ventilation and Cooling (Section 4.7) Provides insight on design criteria of ventilation and cooling in electric
mines in contrast to traditional diesel mines.
Safety aspects of ventilation and cooling are considered throughout this subsection, including heat, dust,
gases, air quality and temperature, high risk zones, and monitoring systems.

Battery and Fire Safety (Section 4.8) Describes battery fire risk and emergency response from a design and
operations perspective.
Core safety section.

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Training (Section 4.9) Outlines some key considerations around training that all personnel working with or
around a BEV need in order to understand the operational differences, make sure safe practices are used, and
identify and avoid potential hazards.
Identifies some safety training and procedural needs associated with BEVs such as daily inspections and
understanding performance differences.

Risk Assessment (Section 4.10) Provides guidance to help the end user understand what to consider when
developing a risk management framework for the adoption of BEVs in mining including financial, production,
health and safety, and environmental risk considerations.
A table on health and safety risks (Table 4.10) summarizes a range of risk sources and possible treatments
for fire/explosion risk, asphyxiation, electric shock, arcing fault, equipment runaway, and lack of noise.

4.2 MINE LAYOUT AND INFRASTRUCTURE

BEVs have several limitations relative to traditional diesel equipment that affect mine
design and planning; the most important being their limited range and the time needed to
charge. The key to a successful BEV-based mining development will be confirming the
• Performance Standards, Section 9
mine is planned and equipped to accommodate the BEVs while also fully harnessing the (describes performance information
benefits that come with them. The following sections provide a brief discussion around to consider for planning)
some of the major aspects to be considered when tailoring a mine for BEVs.

4.2.1 Ore/Waste Handling System

The ore/waste handling system (OWHS) is the most likely to be affected by the implementation of an electric fleet
because it places the highest demand on electric equipment. During OWHS design, various trade-offs will likely occur
before use of electric equipment is confirmed. This subsection focuses on the impact of electrification and not on
OWHS design or current methods (e.g., diesel equipment, conveyors, or train cars).
New optimization methods are likely to follow broader adoptions of BEVs. For example, if it is possible to haul ore down-
hill, regenerative braking can optimize the use of gravity to capture some of the kinetic energy depending on several
factors including the OEM, grade, and site conditions. This process would typically run as follows:
1. BEV leaves a charging station fully charged (X%) at the start of shift
2. BEV travels up to the mining face and is loaded with ore/waste (discharged to X% – losses)
3. BEV travels down-ramp to a destination prior to entering the loading pocket (based on the elevation in the
mine, the BMS determines the ratio of regenerative and actual braking to use to charge to some level less
than X%)
4. Cycle is repeated until charging is required
Regeneration of energy should be simulated to match the equipment performance to specific applications.
If downhill ore/waste movement is not feasible, alternative methods could be selected to minimize the withdrawal of
ore at elevations lower than the OWHS destination. Top-down mining methods or electric/battery haulage to a central-
ized point with a conveyor uphill are options to reduce the uphill travel of ore in terms of weight and distance. However,
this approach might not be feasible in some top-down mining operations due to factors such as orebody geometry and
location of processing plants, therefore a cost-benefit analysis should be undertaken to determine if it is possible.

4.2.1.1 Trolley Assist Systems

In underground settings, trolley assist systems for OWHS are typically used for uphill
haulage using overhead conductors that are designed for use by electric motors. With the
move towards electrification of the mining fleet, the charging opportunity in ramps or
drifts using an overhead power bar system is becoming more attractive. • Alternative Charging Systems and
Some challenges associated with mine design and trolley assist systems include: Equipment Types, Section 7.5.6
• Requirements for fixed infrastructure and level surfaces

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• The need for well-constructed and maintained roads, which can be challenging with frequent moves to new
production areas/zones
• High infrastructure cost for the trolley line and operational road maintenance (e.g., mine planning having to
allow for downtime associated with electrical lines and supports being extended and relocated)
Including a trolley assist system in an underground mine can introduce challenges with the interaction between elec-
trical cables and mine personnel. In most mines, permanent services are installed in main haulage-ways, but service
personnel sometimes need to access these services for repairs and/or extension, thereby creating a potential for this
interaction.
Trolley assist trucks are currently fitted with small diesel engines that allow for short horizontal movements while dis-
connected from the trolley. There is potential to design a hybrid trolley battery truck with battery-powered motors that
would allow longer trams while disconnected.
BEVs with trolley assist capabilities where trolleys are installed over permanent thoroughfares in the mine are an
emerging technology that could provide the following additional operational advantages:
• Opportunistic charging when in contact with the trolleys over selected sections of the mine with permanent
roadways, delaying or eliminating battery swap during a normal shift
• Allowing easier maintenance retrieval from the working areas to the workshop
• The combination of battery and trolley assist could minimize mine planning inflexibility associated with fixed
infrastructure
See Paraszczak et al. (2014) and Willick (2010) for further information on the benefits of trolley assist systems in under-
ground mines. CSA M421-16 also provides information on trolley assist systems and infrastructure.

4.2.2 Regenerative Braking and Ramp Design

Diesel equipment can either use the engine or friction braking on downgrade tramming to
manage speed. The net result is that both generate heat that is emitted to the environment.
Most modern BEV motors convert most of the kinetic energy into electric energy that goes
• Braking System (BEV Design),
back into the high-voltage batteries. This process is known as regeneration. The amount of
Section 5.2
regeneration that can be achieved depends on ramp grade, gross vehicle weight, speed, • Regenerative Braking Systems
ramp conditions, and operator behaviour. Regeneration has the following advantages for (Performance Standards), Section
BEVs: 9.3.3
• Longer BEV range
• Lower energy consumption (higher efficiency)
• Batteries can be sized smaller
• Less heat is introduced into the mine environment
• Maintenance savings on brakes
The mine layout should maximize the benefits of regeneration. In OWHS planning, this feature can be particularly ben-
eficial due to high gross vehicle weights. A BEV hauling loads up-ramp and returning empty down-ramp has a signifi-
cantly different energy requirement than one hauling loads down-ramp and returning empty up-ramp, which drives the
requirements for battery capacity and charging/swapping frequency.
A BEV travelling down-ramp with a full battery relies on other means to dissipate the energy, such as turning electrical
energy back into heat through braking resistors or using the service brakes. The following strategies can be considered
to avoid tramming down-ramp with a full battery:
• Select charging locations and the designed state of charge (SOC) at the end of the charge cycle: In general,
chargers are more effective at lower elevation because they can top up batteries.
• Limit the charge into the battery when equipment needs to tram down-ramp from the charging location: Lim-
iting the charge will result in the battery having sufficient capacity to absorb regeneration.
Braking resistors should be monitored to indicate when there are high temperature conditions and/or provide controls
to avoid excessive temperature and to enable continuity and optimal resistance value. An alert should be sent when
those values are outside of normal ranges.

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4.3 MAINTENANCE AREAS

Although BEVs typically have fewer wear components compared to diesel vehicles, they
still have many components that require traditional service. For example, hydraulic sys-
tems, mechanical brakes, moving joints, bushings, bucket lips, fire suppression systems,
• Charging System Operation and
tires, and greasing systems will require regular maintenance. BEVs still require properly Maintenance, (Section 4.6.6)
equipped maintenance areas to service the equipment. Typical designs optimizing shop • Maintenance and Service Areas on the
workflow with repair bays and specialty bays for welding, tire handling, or lube are still Equipment, (Section 5.9)
required.
Mines designed for BEVs should consider the following for the maintenance areas:
• A crane or lift with larger capacity if needed for lifting/handling larger batteries, and these might also require
higher shop heights to enable sufficient clearance
• Additional rigging requirements for handling batteries if needed
• Charging availability at the shop exit to allow equipment to be charged and ready for use at the completion of
maintenance
• Test load (with DC/DC controller) to test or safely discharge a battery
• Battery fire containment and/or fire control within the shop space, and a containment area to store damaged
batteries
• Electric motor repair space with specialty tools for testing motors
• Low-capacity portable chargers that can move within the maintenance area to recover discharged batteries
or boost the charge level; these chargers will need to be appropriate for the battery
• Battery storage space to store spare batteries
• Battery maintenance space if batteries are to be maintained on-site

4.4 PERSONNEL MOVEMENT AND PARKING

This section outlines the considerations for personnel movement and parking compared to a conventional diesel mine.

4.4.1 Shaft Access

In a shaft accessible mine, BEVs have specific charging and parking requirements that should be considered in the
design.
When charging is done at the end of the shift, movement between the shaft station and BEVs needs to be considered.
Some equipment such as jumbos would not typically report to the shaft station, instead remaining closer to active
headings as they do in diesel mines. Two key personnel transport methods are:
• Walking
– BEVs are parked close enough to shaft stations for personnel to walk to/from them
– Sufficient parking locations and chargers, and sufficient power supply chargers are required for all BEVs
– Longer charger cables might be required in parking areas around shaft stations to distance and safeguard
the chargers from traffic and dust
• Personnel carriers
– Located near the shaft station to transport personnel to locations in the mine
– Can bring personnel to parking locations
– Can bring personnel to mining levels to reach mining equipment
– Consider charging personnel carriers near work areas once all personnel are delivered
– Rail systems

4.4.2 Ramp Access

Group travelling is strongly encouraged in a ramp-accessible mine because long uphill travel at end-of-shift could
deplete BEV batteries. It can be cost-effective to transport personnel in and out of the mine in dedicated group trans-
portation BEVs; these are charged during shift to be ready for shift change.

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4.5 MOBILE ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

Different types of mobile electric equipment such as tethered equipment, trucks, load-haul-dump (LHD) machines, and
auxiliary vehicles have different charging configurations and will require different design and operations considerations.
Figure 4.1 summarizes some of the considerations based on these differences. Alternate haulage methods such as
conveyors, electric-powered trains, trolleys and monorails, railed conveyor, and continuous haulage systems will also
have specific requirements.

Ba琀ery Electric Fleet

On-board charging Off-board charging

Charging while
Working while
sta琀onary
plugged in Swap ba琀eries Fast charge
(e.g., unloading boom
(e.g., jumbo/bolter)
truck, transmixer)

• Size ba琀ery and chargers for • Charger sta琀ons at

• Size ba琀ery and chargers overall duty cycle • Swap sta琀ons at strategic strategic loca琀ons
for tramming requirements • Typically does not need loca琀ons • Impacts to produc琀vity
• Typically does not need down琀me to charge if AC • Impacts to produc琀vity to of driving to charge
down琀me to charge connec琀ons can be provided drive to the sta琀on and point and/or charging
• On-board chargers from where machines are sta琀onary swap • Electrical infrastructure
OEM (e.g., storage areas, ready mix • Cost of swap sta琀on requirements might be
• Does not require plants) including excava琀ons prohibi琀ve
addi琀onal ba琀eries and • On-board chargers from OEM • Number of ba琀eries • Does not require
eliminates swapping • Does not require addi琀onal required for fleet addi琀onal ba琀eries and
infrastructure ba琀eries and eliminates produc琀vity requirements eliminates swapping
swapping infrastructure infrastructure

Figure 4.1. Electric Fleet Design Considerations (non-exhaustive)

4.5.1 Charge-While-Operating Equipment Group (Tethered)

Charge-while-operating equipment is typically plugged into alternating current (AC) power
while performing work and travel under battery power when moving between work locations.
This group typically includes:
• On-Board Charging, Section 7.5.1
• Bolters/cable bolters • Alternative Charging Systems and
• Scalers Equipment Types, Section 7.5.6
• Jumbos • On-Board Charging from Alternating
• Production drills Current (AC) Supply Interface,
Section 8.2
• Mobile raise bore units
• Duty Cycle, Section 9.2.1
• Explosive loaders
• Shotcrete sprayers
Because charge-while-operating (tethered) equipment operates under AC power most of the time, it only requires a
smaller capacity battery for travel periods. In addition, the trailing cable presents an opportunity to install batteries that
charge while the equipment is plugged in to AC power. If all charging is accomplished via an on-board charging system,
no external chargers are required.
The duty cycle of the battery on each piece of equipment should be reviewed to calculate the charge frequency, which
can then be used to determine the number of chargers required on each mining level. Off-board charging can be an

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expensive option for charge-while-operating equipment, and it can also increase the complexity and decrease the effi-
ciency of the mining cycle.
Some operational challenges associated with these systems include:
• Mine planning to cater to cable length (restricted to approximately 250 m because longer lengths can make
the cable drum too large and heat generation within the wound cable too great).
• The anchor for the cable to electrical supply interface point has to be robust to prevent anchors from pulling
out of walls or plinths. Any water/corrosion caused on the anchor lines/bolds could cause them to detach.
Some of these challenges can be mitigated with playout cables.
• The associated electrical cable tension spring at anchor points typically requires regular replacement depend-
ing on cable cycles per year.
• The outlayed cable could vibrate at any moment, requiring all access to the area to be cordoned off (physical
barriers) to eliminate possible incidents involving personnel/equipment.
• Scheduled maintenance at work stations requires disruption to the working area (stopped while being
retrieved) and between working area and workshop (portable generator set hooked up to relocate vehicle).
• LHDs can also be tethered, which can cause logistics constraints for other equipment operating in the vicinity
because they are not constrained to one work area and are tramming back and forth.

4.5.2 Trucks
The following options currently exist for ore/waste movement by truck:
• Regenerative braking
• Swap-out battery vs. in-shift charging vs. end-of-shift charging
• Inductive and trolley assist charging
• Hybrid-powered options

4.5.3 LHD Machines

Mine design and operations considerations that affect LHD machine performance include:
• Mine-level grades relative to energy consumption
• Swap-out battery vs. in-shift charging vs. end-of-shift charging
• Inductive and trolley assist charging
• Hybrid-powered options
• Tethered with battery assist options

4.5.4 Auxiliary Vehicles

Support or service vehicles include scissor-lifts, transmixers, forklifts, boom trucks, mechanic trucks, and graders are
well-suited to battery conversion. Considerations for parking and charging requirements should be addressed.

4.6 CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE

Once personnel transport needs are determined, the equipment is chosen, and the mine is
generally laid out, then the charging infrastructure can be defined. This subsection focuses
on general considerations for the overall infrastructure, layout, and planning required to
accommodate charging. The charging philosophy and factors depicted in Figure 4.1 will
influence the mine layout and should be considered in the early stages by all participants • Charging Systems and Methods,
of the mine design team. Section 7
• Types of Charging Methods,
Overall considerations relating to the charging method include: Section 7.5
• Appropriate infrastructure (e.g., excavations and electrical systems) for on-board • Types of Charging and Connection
charging, off-board charging, and/or battery swapping Interfaces, Section 8
• Mining cycle and schedules for charge time vs. operating time
• Cost implications of charging methods

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Depending on the charging method selected, additional infrastructure design options include:
• Charging stations at dedicated locations
• Shared chargers
• One size fits all
• Centralized charging options where there is a power station with a number of charging posts connected to it
so that one power cabinet would be charging more than one system at a time
• Specific chargers match specific equipment
• Footprint of the power source for the charger itself and room to park a BEV to leave it aside to charge

4.6.1 Design Prerequisites

The required excavation footprint and support services depend on the following:
• Selected charging philosophy
• Expected run-time for the equipment—with input from OEMs—based on size and required duty per shift
(accounting for personnel travel time, breaks, setup, and other battery downtime)
• Equipment duty cycle, including opportunity charging
• Number of charging stations, chargers, batteries, and types of chargers required throughout the mine and their
locations based on the equipment fleet and charging philosophy

4.6.2 Charging Philosophy

Without careful design, there is a risk of ending up with incompatible charging stations throughout the mine. The ulti-
mate objective is to make charging and operating BEVs as simple, convenient, and safe as refuelling and operating
diesel vehicles.
The starting point should be the mine layout and the operational map of the vehicles, determined through modeling that
incorporates BEV charging philosophy options. Since electrical infrastructure is spread throughout the mine, chargers
can be added as needed. When laying out the main power cables throughout the mine, junction boxes can be included
in advance if the potential need for future charging stations is recognized. Junction boxes add some upfront costs but
can create an opportunity to add additional charging stations in the future.

4.6.2.1 Establishing the Charging Philosophy

The choice of charging arrangement from among the four approaches described in Section 7.5 (on-board charging, off-
board charging of on-board batteries, off-board charging of off-board batteries, and hybrid charging) should be tailored
to a given mine based on many factors, including the following:
• The energy consumption model to determine the operational plan and charging philosophy
• Whether the mine will be fully electric, or if some diesel vehicles will be employed
• If the mine is a new greenfield development or existing brownfield mine
• The size and capacity of vehicles and/or mine workings
• Available battery capacity for a given vehicle class
• Haulage routing uphill, downhill, or at grade
• Available and desired ventilation
• Shift schedule relative to when charging will take place
The type of implementation can also affect many of the factors above. For example, if a large battery would prohibit
uphill haulage, an existing mine with ramp access to greater depths might be forced to employ some diesel haulage
vehicles or combine the battery usage with trolley systems. By contrast, a greenfield mine could choose to sink a deeper
shaft to enable downhill haulage to take advantage of BEV regenerative braking if it can be justified when considering
the trade-off between increased capital costs for potential reduction in operating costs. Some key charging philosophy
considerations include:

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Consider standardizing the entire mine with one type of charger—to a certain extent, considering that chargers will
be designed according to specific needs.
• If only small BEVs will be deployed and/or if charge time is not a significant concern,
considering on-board charging could be appropriate.
• If multiple OEMs will be supplying BEVs, a standard charging protocol such as com-
bined charging system (CCS) Type 1/Combo 1 (North America) or Type 2/Combo 2
(European) could be appropriate. In this case, the mine might consider developing • Off-Board Charging Interface,
internal procurement specifications that nominate the compatibility requirements for Section 8.3.1 (covers CCS,
their infrastructure inclusive of the charge port connection. automated connection interfaces,
• In the case of high use equipment such as LHD machines, those implementing them and standardization in more detail)
should investigate the advantages and disadvantages of dedicated vs. standard
(e.g., CCS Type 1/Combo 1 or CCS Type 2/Combo 2) high-power chargers to imple-
ment on their operations.
• If using an automatic charging system and autonomous or semi-autonomous operation, a standard protocol
such as CCS Type 1/Combo 1 or Type 2/Combo 2 is recommended for maintaining standardization across the
assets.

Consider hybrid charging for BEVs equipped with a trailing cable (e.g., drills, bolters, loaders).
• These can be equipped with both a DC fast charge port and a small on-board charger to permit slower charging
while operating.

Carefully plan the parking arrangement for stationary charging stations with a designated parking spot for each BEV.
• For opportunity charging, allow space for bigger BEV equipment of the fleet.

For substantial deployment of BEVs of all sizes, consider equipping the mine with two capacities of standardized
off-board chargers with universal charging interfaces.
• For large BEVs (LHD machines and haulage trucks), it is typically recommended to install high-capacity charg-
ers. The mining company deploying BEVs should understand the different charging technologies and their bene-
fits, but the OEM should specify the type of technology and specifications suitable for their equipment and
perform any required analysis.
• If a large BEV is connected to a low-power charger, the charge proceeds but takes longer.
• If a small BEV is connected to a high-power charger, the charger limits output power to what the BEV is able to
accept.

If long uphill haulage is required, a battery swapping arrangement, additional charging stations on a long grade,
opportunity charging stations, or a storage battery should be considered.
• This requires some infrastructure for battery removal, and likely involves cooperation with the OEM.

Chargers should have a wide output voltage range at different nominal voltages.

Consider charging locations to maximize the use of the battery operating range (e.g., hauling uphill, charger not at
the top of the ramp to use regeneration downhill).

The battery run-time is affected by many variables. The following points should also be considered:
• If the battery run-time is longer than the shift length at the design duty, then shift-change charging could be sim-
pler to implement. However, considering the human interactions and applying methods such as monitoring sys-
tems, post-shift checks, or other operating procedures to make sure the vehicle is ready for the next shift is
recommended.
• If the battery run-time is marginally shorter or longer than the shift length at the design duty, then shift-change
charging with opportunity charging, battery swapping, or possibly in-shift charging options could be implemented.

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• If the battery run-time is substantially shorter than the shift length, then alternate methods such as battery
swapping, in-shift charging, or opportunity charging would likely be a necessity.
• If using tele-remote or autonomous technology, then consideration should be given to operating equipment
between shifts and during breaks.
• The definition of state of charge operating points can add constraints to the run-time. How run-time will be
affected by battery capacity being diminished over time as it encounters more charge cycles is also an important
consideration.
There could also be trade-offs concerning the physical size of the battery, the cost of the battery, and infrastructure
requirements and costs for different battery capacities (e.g., additional reserve capacity can affect lifecycle costs and
infrastructure costs).
As technology advances, other methods of charging such as trolley assist, inductive, or other advancing technologies
could become more prevalent.

4.6.3 Charger Diversity

Multiple charging philosophies are currently in use; selecting the appropriate one for a given application will be a key
parameter for successful implementation of a fully electrified mine. Efforts to standardize should be pursued to reduce
delays associated with charging.

4.6.4 Opportunity Charging

Opportunity charging refers to the situation where a BEV is stationary for a portion of time as part of its intended duty,
and the BEV gets charged during that time. The result is that charging can occur without incurring additional downtime
when compared to a diesel equivalent. Examples of such opportunity charging scenarios include:
• A boom truck that charges while loading and unloading supplies
• A transmixer that charges the battery while discharging the drum into a shotcrete sprayer
• A haul truck using fast charging within a cycle time from loading point to loading point, including a fast charge
sequence
• A supervisor choosing to plug in a light vehicle to charge while talking to employees
For many ancillary vehicles, opportunities can be found during the shift to make use of this stationary time if there is a
charger located where the vehicle is stopped. Locating the chargers on-board the vehicle usually reduces the amount
of charging infrastructure that is required; a power supply such as a jumbo cable is typically all that is required as long
as it complies with the company’s internal standards.

4.6.5 Charging Station Layout

Considerations associated with the physical environment, the preparation of the charging
area for installation, spacing and parking, battery swapping, power distribution, and fast
charging are described in the following subsections.

4.6.5.1 Physical Environment • Safety Considerations (Charging

Systems), Section 7.2
Chargers contain sensitive electronics that should be treated with care to survive for sus-
• Charger Installation, Section 7.3
tained amounts of time in harsh mining environments, which contain:
• Dust
• Humidity
• High salinity
• Sulphur fumes (which affect conformal coating)
• Heat
• Vibration
• Percussion blast
• Falling objects
• Water via failed pipes, dripping from the back, or partial flooding in the area
• Blasting gases or off-gases

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Some of the key physical environment considerations are illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Because the charging station is an area where there will be fire risks associated with batteries and electricity, early
detection systems are a key consideration so that events can be addressed as quickly as possible to make sure those
operating the systems can take the appropriate measures. The level of detection will depend on several factors, includ-
ing company insurance policies, company standards, regional regulations, and the type of mine and mining method.
Any additional fire suppression requirements associated with the charging system and station should also be consid-
ered with reference to existing standards and regulations.

Number of
kW charging at Any spare
chargers
once? batteries?
needed?

5–10% in heat
Crane needed?
losses

Substation Charger station Rockmass quality

Clean air? ventilation design design around station

Distance
< 40°C between
charging station
and BEV

Figure 4.2. Air Volume Sizing Process for Battery-Powered Mobile Equipment

4.6.5.2 Preparing the Charging Area for Installation

Key features should be considered for the charging area before installation. Some of these are described in Table 4.1.

4.6.5.3 Spacing And Parking

Equipment spacing should follow OEM recommendations and local regulations, with charging cable maneuverability
being a key consideration. Depending on the chosen technology, the cable length between chargers and connection
points on BEVs could be restricted by cable size (i.e., voltage drop) or communication protocols (e.g., RS-232, Ethernet).
Larger cables or different protocols could remove these restrictions; however, the cost could outweigh the benefits.

4.6.5.4 Battery Swap-Out Station Design

A battery swap-out station should allow a BEV to enter, be charged by an instructed person, and leave in a short period
of time with a charged battery. The logistical plan for scheduling battery swap-out should be an input to the design.
Additional differences associated with a battery swap-out station include:
• Crane system (compatible with all BEV types that will use this system) to remove
and install batteries on equipment and move batteries within the station
• Charger in proximity that has sufficient charging capabilities based on the quan-
tity of spare batteries
• Sufficient spare batteries that are charged, charging, or depleted
• Off-Board Charging of Off-Board
• Significant excavation requirements need to be evaluated against geotechnical Batteries (Battery Swapping),
and hydrogeological conditions, similar to any other area in the mine Section 7.5.3
• Some purpose-built excavations can require special attention to stage charged and
receive discharged batteries
• Safety considerations such as egress space around the batteries
Refer to mine site guidelines and local regulations for safety guidance associated with cranes and battery swaps.

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Table 4.1. Pre-installation Considerations for the Charging Area

Characteristics • Ventilation/cooling system (e.g., recirculated air to avoid filter replacement)
of the area • The area should be away from hazardous areas (e.g., diesel storage, high methane areas)
• Adequate space for personnel to safely operate and maintain
• Early detection and monitoring systems to mitigate battery fire risk
• Remote emergency off switch near the charger outside potential hazard zone
• Clearly identified parking spaces for BEVs
• Location free of water and/or mud due to electrical hazards and should include protection
against ingress of dirt and water that could enter charger connectors
• Protection of charge cable from abrasion (e.g., a retractable cable)
• Adequate visibility and lighting of battery charger controls
• Level floors that can be easily cleaned (concrete if possible)
Electrical • Upstream, overcurrent protection device to supply the charger
• Upstream or integrated earth leakage/ground fault protection device (ground fault circuit
interrupter)
• Upstream, overcurrent protection device to supply the charger
• Ground path
– Charger is tied to mine ground grid
– When plugged in, BEV frame/chassis has a path to ground via charge cable
– The DC power needs to be isolated from ground and monitored for safety
Overall • The overall system should take an evolving mine environment into consideration (e.g., the
charging system might need to be easily relocatable multiple times through the mine life
without special handling or care)
• Compatibility with planned type of charging system (e.g., fixed, cable connected/temporary, or
fixed for operation but easily transported to other areas)
• Strategies such as whether to install power electronics in a dedicated charger or electrical room
or moving the charger around

4.6.5.5 Remote Battery Swapping

Instead of swapping batteries at a charging station, it can be advantageous to swap batteries where the BEVs are work-
ing. This method would require a second means of battery transportation from the charging/storage area to the unit in
need of a replacement and the tooling required to perform the battery swap at the BEV. Remote battery swapping can
add complexity and cost for procuring, maintaining, and operating the additional equipment, but it can also be beneficial
if the distance from the work area or work cycle to the charge location is significant and/or the BEV has a slow tram-
ming speed, ultimately resulting in increased charge-related downtime. This method should be considered as part of a
sustaining capital for mines using battery swapping technology and expanding above threshold.

4.6.5.6 Mine Power Distribution Considerations

Because most chargers operate with an incoming voltage of 400–1,000 V in three phases,
the distribution equipment should be located within an acceptable distance (i.e., 75 m for
600 V) from the chargers to confirm system strength. Because chargers are harmonic pro-
ducing devices, a stiff system—with high available fault power and good voltage regulation—
• Incoming Power System (Charging
is ideal for the operation of multiple devices without interference. Generally, such systems
Systems), Section 7.4
should be able to provide a fault current that is approximately 20 times the full load amper-
age (FLA) of the charger. For example, for a 50 kW charger with 5% losses, the FLA would be
approximately 50.5 A on a 600 V system and should be connected on a network able to provide 1 kA of fault current. If
two 400 kW chargers are to be connected on a common bus, the combined FLA is 808 A and requires a system capable
of delivering 16 kA at 600 V. This might seem to be a high value, but it is typical for a 1 MVA transformer, as long as the
impedance between the transformer and the chargers is not high.

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Transformer size selection is generally based on the mining equipment expected to operate simultaneously in an area
and other loads (e.g., ventilation fans, dewatering pumps, and lights) that are required to support the advancement. In
an all-electric mine, the operation of chargers should be considered when sizing a transformer. It is important to keep
in mind the charging philosophy to prevent oversizing transformers.
For further guidance on power distribution, peak load, and electrical balance of plants, it is recommended to consult
local regulations.

4.6.5.7 Fast Charging Considerations

Due to the large size of mining equipment and the duty cycle required by operations, most equipment would likely require
a fast charger. As batteries approach their theoretical limits and fast charging chemistry becomes readily available, the
high kilowatt demand for short time periods becomes considerable. Since a charger load is a 100% duty cycle, special
attention should be paid to the timing at which the fast charging of different BEVs occurs and the location of the charging
station. A charging schedule or automated method can prevent overloading the mine’s electrical system. It is crucial to
monitor the amount of heat generated during this process, both inside the vehicle and at the charging site.

4.6.6 Charging System Operation and Maintenance

The charger connector cannot be removed until the charger is turned off and similarly, charging cannot be initiated if
the connector is unlocked. If the lock is opened during charging, power flow should be
stopped immediately to prevent arcing and lethal shocks.
If there is a problem/fault during the charge process (e.g., the battery gets too hot or the
cooling system is not working), the vehicle charge control unit should report to the charger
and stop the charging. In addition to the BMS, the charger should have features to protect
itself if the connection to battery is faulted. In case of charger input power failure, the • Battery Management System,
charger will prevent back-feed of power by physically isolating the BEV from the charger Section 6.3.1
• Operation and Controls (Charging
at the DC output on the charger.
System), Section 7.6
Maintenance and pre-operational inspections should be performed according to the OEM
and charger manufacturer recommendations.
Training programs are also essential in order to safely operate the charging system and avoid collisions and pedestrian
interactions in the charging area.

4.7 VENTILATION AND COOLING

The ventilation/cooling systems (e.g., air quality, humidity, noise, and maintenance) will benefit the most by the imple-
mentation of an electric fleet. However, a ventilation study should be conducted to address and deliver solutions for
safety and technical aspects, as well as fit the mining methods and OWHS options. An iterative approach between the
mine and ventilation designers should produce a design that is robust and economical. A set of design criteria provides
a structured approach to achieving a good engineering design. The design criteria for an electric mine include consid-
erations of temperature, dust, and air velocity targets. However, because of the elimination of diesel, some aspects of
the criteria such as DPM regulations might not be required.
Designs are based on battery limits and on constraints such as mine life, capital, geology, OWHS, production profile,
type and level of automation, mining method, environmental considerations, and jurisdictional legislative requirements.
Deliverables from a design would include determining the air volumes and air distribution system with all required
infrastructure and controls (Tables 4.2 and 4.3).
For specific examples of the ventilation-related benefits of BEVs, see the following case studies: Halim et al. (2021)
"Improvement of Working Conditions and Opinions of Mine Workers When Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) Are Used
Instead of Diesel Machines – Results of Field Trial at the Kittilä Mine, Finland" and Gyamfi et al (2021) "Development of
Strategies to Reduce Ventilation and Heating Costs in a Swedish Sublevel Caving Mine – a Unique Case of LKAB’s Kon-
suln Mine."

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Table 4.2. Air Volume Design Data Needs, Sources, and Applications for Electric Equipment
Need Source Application
Jurisdictional air quality Federal, local, and company Drive final air volume and distribution
regulations standard threshold limit values calculations to dilute dust, emissions,
and heat generated by mobile fleet
Equipment fleet required Based on production profile and Mine heat load and dust calculations
throughout affected area or mine equipment capacity Size and number of BEVs can differ from
diesel fleet
Motor power and expected duty Basic data on equipment data Mine heat load calculations
cycles of equipment sheet from OEMs
Might need more specific
information for a given application
Area heat loads from equipment Load/power profile curves from Air volume calculations to dilute heat
based on motor output, efficiency, OEMs based on a variety of
and duty profile operating scenarios
Heat loads from charging OEMs Air volume calculations to dilute heat
stations/areas Heat from charging + heat from
equipment = total heat load from
equipment
Dust loads from mining activities Monitoring database at sites Air volume and/or minimum velocity
calculations to dilute dust
Use in conjunction with historic dust
concentrations at the site and with
industrial health dust monitoring
programs

Heat load from sources other than Local measurements Mine heat load calculations
equipment (surface temperatures, Total mine heat load is the sum of all
wall rock, auto compression,
heat sources (equipment and non-
groundwater)
equipment)
This is the heat that should be manage
by the mine ventilation system
For mines that have radon: Laboratory testing for radon Determine air volume to dilute radon and
Radon emanation rate for mines emanation rate to keep residence time of ventilating air
that are yet to be developed and short
Local measurements for airborne
airborne radon concentration for
operating mines radon concentration

Table 4.3. Ventilation Design Data Considerations, Sources, and Applications for Electric Equipment
Need Source Application
Required airway opening Federal, local, or company Design infrastructure based on air
dimensions guidance volume required to manage gases, heat,
or dust (whichever is higher)
Make sure air velocities from Federal, local, or company Low velocities affect blast clearing times
airway opening and air volumes guidance High velocities can create dust hazards
are within limits
Does heat require maximum Federal, local, or company Are work area temperatures too high?
ventilation rates? guidance

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Table 4.3. Ventilation Design Data Considerations, Sources, and Applications for Electric Equipment (continued)
Need Source Application
Can additional air volume dilute the Thermodynamic analysis and An economic analysis to determine if a
heat? modeling refrigeration plant required

Fixed monitoring for dust, gas and/ Federal, local, and/or company Depends on mine operator preference and
or heat guidance and available air distribution system type and
technology maintenance needs
Will air be recirculated? Jurisdictional regulations or Mandatory if controlled recirculation is part
company standard of the ventilation system
With zero-emission electric equipment,
controlled recirculation can be a solution to
reduce total mine volumes as long as
contaminant concentration levels are met
Determine hazards that could affect Risk assessment as per Address high risks with redesign of mine
the ventilation infrastructure, ability industry or company layouts, infrastructure, and air path and
to rescue personnel, and high risk standards direction
zones for fire

4.7.1 Determining Air Volume

The process for determining air volume for battery-powered mobile equipment is based on heat, dust, and air velocity
(Figure 4.3). The sections below describe basic process steps in the ventilation design for an electric mine with some
reference to diesel-powered equipment.

Air volume for

mine using
electric/battery
equipment fleet

Mining method Base air

Layout depth Calculate air Does volume
Obtain proposed Calculate heat
volume to dilute Infrastructure Yes volume on the
Production rates & schedule equipment fleet loads, dust & gas meet velocity
design including parameter
Design criteria dust, gas & heat criteria
& power ratings concentrations drift size regulations? that requires
Regulations contaminants
largest flow

No

Figure 4.3. High-Level Ventilation Design Process

4.7.2 Regulations
Federal and local (applicable to the mine site jurisdiction) air quality regulations and standards will influence air volume
requirements. It should be noted that there are significant variations between jurisdictions, which are continually being
reviewed and updated. Only the latest versions of these regulations and associated guidance should be referenced. For
example, threshold limit value (TLV) time weighted average (TWA), which is the exposure limit for an eight-hour working
shift, is different between jurisdictions for the same contaminant, as shown in Table 4.4. This table also shows that dif-
ferent standards are used by some jurisdictions to measure exposure to DPM. Germany and Australia use elemental
carbon, while the Province of Ontario and the USA use total carbon. Internal mining company standards should be
determined before beginning mine design. Mobile equipment activities create dust and heat that significantly influence
the air volume and the associated distribution. Note that when the working shift is longer than eight hours, the exposure
limit should be adjusted accordingly. A common adjustment method is the Brief and Scala model (CCOHS, 2017).

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Table 4.4. Examples of TLV TWA of Some Mine Airborne Contaminants in Some Jurisdictions
Contaminant/ NO2 CO CO2 SO2 Respirable dust (straight DPM
jurisdiction (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) concentration, excluding (mg/m3)
silica content)
(mg/m3)
The European 0.5 20 n/a 0.5 n/a 0.05 (elemental carbon). This will be
Union (EU)1 valid from 21 February 2026 based
on the EU directive issued in 2019 2
Sweden3 0.5 20 5000 0.5 2.5 (inorganic dust) Currently not available but will be
0.05 (elemental carbon) after 2026-
02-21 when the EU limit is enforced
Germany4 0.5 20 5000 0.5 1.25 (all dust) 0.05 (elemental carbon). Germany
set its limit before the EU, which was
done in 2017
Australia5 3 30 5000 2 3 (non-coal dust)6 0.1 (elemental carbon)7
2.5 (coal dust)6
Canada (Ontario)8 3 25 5000 2 0.9 (bituminous coal dust) 0.4 (total carbon)9
0.4 (anthracite coal dust)
USA10 5 50 5000 2 1.5 (coal dust)11 0.16 (total carbon)12
South Africa13 3 30 5000 2 2 (coal dust) n/a
Note that Sweden and Germany (and other EU member countries) are required to follow any limits prescribed by the EU due to their membership in the EU. This is why the limit for NO2, CO, and
SO2 are the same in Sweden and Germany. The EU currently do not prescribe limit for CO2, respirable dust, and DPM so each member country has flexibility to determine its limit for these con-
taminants and other contaminants that are not prescribed by the EU.

1. European Union (EU) Commission (2017)

2. European Union (EU) Commission (2019)
3. Arbetsmiljöverket (2018), which follows the directive from the EU Commission (above), but added values for CO2 and respirable dust, which are not included in the EU directive.
4. Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA) (2020), which follows the directive from the EU Commission (above), but added values for CO2 and respirable dust, which are not
included in the EU directive.
5. Safe Work Australia (2019)
6. Government of New South Wales (2014)
7. Safe Work Australia (2015)
8. Government of Ontario (2020)
9. Grenier (2017)
10. Mines Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) (2018a)
11. Mines Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) (2018b)
12. Mines Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) (2018c)
13. Stanton et.al. (2014)

4.7.3 Equipment Fleet

The equipment fleet is based on the production profile and is a key parameter for determining
mine heat loads. The mine planner should work with the OEM(s) to optimize the fleet and
equipment size for the proposed mine layout and production schedule.

4.7.4 Heat Load

• Heat Generation (Performance
The mine heat load is determined by summing the contribution of heat from major sources Standards), Section 9.3.7
such as fixed electrical equipment (e.g., mine load centres, fans, pumps, and chargers), mobile
equipment (diesel vehicles and BEVs), auto compression, wall rock, summer surface climate,
and groundwater (if any) for each level. Auto compression and wall rock temperatures increase with depth; therefore,
ventilation rates in mines with hot conditions increase on each deeper level.
Once the heat load is determined, the air volume and amount of refrigeration required to manage the heat can be cal-
culated. Because the only emission from a BEV is heat, there is potential to lower the overall mine air volume. The resul-
tant heat loads need to be well understood to avoid elevated temperatures in the work area from reduced air volumes
or air velocity. Relevant regulations should be consulted to determine the exact requirements. An analysis that includes
all heat sources will typically be required to determine the optimum ventilation volumes with or without introducing
refrigeration. Several software packages can assist in the calculation of mine total heat loads, typically in kW. Care
should be taken to control the quality of information entered into the solvers.

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4.7.4.1 Heat From Mobile Equipment

The heat load from mobile equipment is determined from the motor power output considering different work duties.
The first step is typically to list the equipment power for both diesel and electric mobile equipment that can be active
on the same level at the same time. Factors are then applied to account for efficiency, usage, work rates, and gradient.
For diesel equipment, the thermal efficiency of the engine is approximately 30%; a significant portion of the power
becomes heat when the engine is loaded or idling. In addition, diesel engines burn fuel on down-ramp travel whereas
most BEVs regenerate significant energy back into the battery.
An electric motor's heat generation equals the energy consumed minus the net work done. Load/power profile curves
obtained from the OEM would facilitate determining the equipment kW ratings for the heat load determinations.
A heat generation comparison between BEV and diesel equipment was presented at the Mining Diesel Emissions Coun-
cil (MDEC) in 2018. In this test, two equivalent LHDs performed identical work in an instrumented drift for a length in
time. The difference in measured temperatures is illustrated in Figure 4.4 and was quantified further in the full presen-
tation (Armburger, 2018).
Based on the theoretical “efficiency” theory, the BEV should be three times more efficient than the diesel version, how-
ever this test run measured a 7.5 times improvement of BEV over diesel with a 0.4°C wet-bulb globe temperature
(WBGT) increase versus a 3.0°C WBGT increase.

WBGT defined as 0.7 x Twet bulb + 0.3 x Tdry bulb

25 25
Temperature (ºC WBGT)

24 24

23 23

22 22

21 21

20 20
06:00 12:00 18:00 06:00 12:00 18:00
Battery Test Diesel Test
2018-03-02 2018-03-03

Figure 4.4. Heat Generation Comparison Between BEV and Diesel Equipment (Reproduced with permission from
Caterpillar presentation “Direct Comparison of Heat Generation, October 2-4, 2018”)

4.7.4.2 Heat From Charging

Typical heat losses from charging equipment are 5–10%, but OEMs and/or charger man-
ufacturers should provide estimates of heat generated when chargers are operating for a
given rate and method. Depending on the charging philosophy and placement of chargers,
particular attention should be paid to the exhaust path of this heat and placement of • Incoming Power System, Section 7.4
infrastructure.
One 50 kWh charger operating with 5% losses would generate 2.5 kW of heat in the charg-
ing area, which can be considered marginal. Four 400 kWh chargers operating in the same area with 10% losses during
a shift change would generate up to 160 kW of heat in the charging area. Therefore, it is important to consider the impact
of chargers on heat loads while considering that chargers do not operate 24 h/day. It is crucial to make sure chargers
are provided with a reasonable means of cooling so that air temperatures in the charging area remain below the charger
manufacturer’s specified limits to prevent electronic failures.

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4.7.4.3 Heat From Other Sources

Information on determining heat from other sources such as summer surface climate, auto compression, wall rock, and
groundwater can be found in McPherson (2009). These sources are not dependent on the type of equipment used, but
they should still be managed by the mine ventilation system. Therefore, air volumes and refrigeration requirements in
mines that have a high amount of heat from these other sources will be different from mines without them regardless
of the use of BEVs.

4.7.5 Dust
Dust is a key criterion to establish air volumes in an electric mine. Dust contaminant removal depends on the air veloc-
ity, but air speeds that are too high can create hazards, including:
• Large dust particles becoming airborne and causing eye injuries
• Extended exposure to moving air causing eye irritation
• Moving air increasing personnel physical exertion
Air velocities that are too low do not remove and dilute heat or small respirable dust particles, and they can also reduce
visibility. Drift size, air volume, and/or recirculation of air should be re-examined in consultation with the relevant local
regulatory authorities. Target design air velocities should be established within the design criteria for different infras-
tructure and work areas (e.g., working face, conveyor drifts, and haulage routes).
Baseline dust loads can be determined from historical data from the mine site's occupational exposure monitoring pro-
gram. These data can be used to determine dust sources and concentrations from mining processes and mineraliza-
tion. Once the air volumes are determined from established target velocities, dilution calculations can determine if the
volumes dilute dust concentrations to acceptable levels.
One method to control dust is to prevent it from becoming airborne at the source (e.g., drill rigs, draw points, transfer
points, and road surfaces) rather than diluting it with ventilating airflow. Dust is usually suppressed by spraying these
sources with water or dust suppressant. Many practitioners agree that ventilation alone is not sufficient enough to
manage dust. Supplying too much air volume can worsen the situation due to turbulence in the airflow, which is pro-
portional to the air volume rate and can keep the majority of the dust on-site.

4.7.6 Radon
Airborne radon can be present, not only in uranium mines, but also in non-uranium mines if there is a small amount of
uranium in the orebody, or if the groundwater has dissolved uranium in it. Radon needs to be managed adequately
because it is a radioactive substance. Making the residence time for ventilating air as short as possible is key to man-
aging radon since hazardous exposure to radon increases with time. The exhaust air from production areas needs to
be ejected immediately to the surface and should not be reused in other working areas. Therefore, air volumes for man-
aging radon should be adequate to dilute radon below its local TLV and to keep the residence time short. When the ore-
body produces significant amount of radon, large air volumes might be required to manage it.

4.7.7 Developing the Ventilation Design and Plan

Conversion to electric equipment at a brownfield mine will be more challenging and require using existing infrastructure
(i.e., fans, raises, controls) that is integrated with new infrastructure limiting some opportunity (Figure 4.5). In greenfield
mines, the primary ventilation system components such as fans, raises, and transfer drifts can be reduced, as well as
auxiliary system fans and ducting. There is also potential to use air heated from chargers, but it needs to be assessed
for work area temperature impact and associated hazards identified from the charging activity. If charging occurs dur-
ing shift change, heated air could be reused for blast clearing and/or to warm cold mine air, but plans should be in place
in case of fire and the emission of hazardous gases.

4.7.7.1 Sizing, Placement, and Number of Airways

The air volume requirements will be based on dilution of contaminants (e.g., heat and dust) generated from mining
activity. The final ventilation rate is based on controlling the higher emitting contaminates to safe and acceptable levels.
Facilities such as garages and leakage paths throughout the mine from various control devices should be included in

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final air volumes. Airway sizing proceeds iteratively until needs such as refrigeration are determined. Airway placement
and quantity are needed in order to consider conditions unique to an electric mine layout such as number and size of
substations and charging stations.
Mines that have radon will typically need to excavate more airways (ventilation shafts) than mines that do not have
radon in order to keep residence time short.

Ventilation design

Mine layout
Production schedule
Equipment selection

Air volumes

Mine does not have heat concerns

Air Optimize
volumes Draft Can heat be Finalize infra.
No Yes infrastructure Climatic No Refrigeration design:
adequate controlled design, distrib., automated
for mine layout: raises, analysis with design velocity, dust,
distribution vent. control
design? increased monitoring, risk system,
air? assessment recirculation
Yes

Figure 4.5. High-Level Ventilation Design Process

4.7.7.2 Heat
If the heat load generated in the mine will approach or exceed any design criteria temperature limits (e.g., work area,
intake, or reject), a study should be completed to determine if additional air volume can dilute the heat or if mine air
cooling is required. Study results will be based on the mine schedule impact and the economics of larger ventilation
infrastructure to meet the design temperature criteria versus the cost of a refrigeration system. If a refrigeration system
is the selected option, air volumes will be reduced throughout the system. Therefore, air velocities throughout the mine
should be verified to remain within the design criteria limits.

4.7.7.3 Blast Gas Clearing

The time required to clear blasting fumes from the face and through the path to exhaust depends on the air speed. In
an electric mine, the opportunity to reduce air volume can create a low air velocity condition, which would extend the
blast clearing time and delay personnel reaching the work area. Once a preliminary ventilation design is complete, a
review of the clearing time should be conducted to highlight any problem areas. Consideration should be given to
include controls in the design to allow the air velocity to be increased after a blast in affected areas. Options could
include variable speed drives on fans, automated ventilation control systems, and ventilation on demand.

4.7.7.4 Monitoring
A mine site should determine if real-time monitoring of the underground environment or ventilation controls will be part
of the mine design. This decision, as well as what will be monitored and why, will influence the placement, resolution,
and type of monitoring instrumentation. If underground fixed monitors are installed, it is recommended to communi-
cate the signal to a surface human-machine interface and set it up to track trends. A significant factor in the decision
for fixed monitoring is the ability to calibrate and maintain the system.
Fixed monitoring systems are generally installed underground for detecting heat and gases that commonly occur and
for which reliable sensors exist (e.g., carbon monoxide [CO], sulphur dioxide [SO2], and nitrogen dioxide [NO2]). Addi-
tional monitoring can also be required based on battery chemistry. CO can be a good surrogate indicator for potential

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environmental issues. Heat monitoring instrumentation commonly measures dry-bulb temperature and relative
humidity; wet bulb temperature is calculated from these values and from the barometric pressure. Dust and DPM are
currently not commonly measured in real time.

4.7.7.5 Controlled Recirculation

The application of controlled full or partial recirculation is limited in a ventilation system design because of safety and
health implications from typical mining methods and hazards. Electric mine design presents an opportunity to use con-
trolled recirculation because electric equipment produces zero gas emissions, less heat, and generates less dust than
the diesel powered equivalent. If controlled recirculation is part of the design, fixed monitoring would be required to con-
firm regulatory compliance of air quality. Fire risk analysis should be included in this design as well to confirm that in
the event of fire, combustion products will not be recirculated into intake airways. It should also be noted that controlled
recirculation might not be feasible in mines that have radon.

4.7.7.6 Ventilation for BEVs in Coal Mines

Coal mines will have specific ventilation requirements that replacing diesel vehicles with BEVs will not change. Ventila-
tion design in coal mines is mostly based on diluting methane that is emitted by coal seams to be below the concen-
tration limit prescribed in health and safety regulations. This limit (in % volume) is the safe limit to prevent methane from
forming an explosive gas mixture, which is determined by risk assessments and is different between jurisdictions. For
example, in the State of New South Wales in Australia, the limit of methane in intake airflow to any development and
longwall face is 0.25% (Government of New South Wales, 2014), while in the neighbouring State of Queensland, the limit
is 0.5% (Government of Queensland, 2017). In both states, the limit in panel exhaust (return) airway is set at 1% to allow
diesel equipment to enter it.
Large equipment in coal mines (e.g., longwall shearers, continuous miners, and belt conveyors) are electric and get their
power directly from the mine substation using cables. Small to medium diesel equipment like loaders, personnel carri-
ers, and longwall shield carriers are occasionally used. Air volume that is supplied to dilute methane is usually more
than adequate to dilute diesel exhaust emissions, therefore replacing this equipment with BEVs will not necessarily
reduce the airflow requirements. In many coal mines, it is not possible to reduce air volume below the maximum capac-
ity of the ventilation circuit due to high methane emission.

4.8 BATTERY AND FIRE SAFETY

The adoption of BEVs can reduce some potential fire risks by minimizing or removing diesel
fuel and hot engine sources of ignition from the underground environment. However, BEVs
also present a unique risk to personnel. BEVs can present several battery chemistries and
• Energy Storage Systems, Safety
battery designs that require special consideration when a BEV is involved in an incident that
Requirements, Section 6.4
structurally damages batteries or causes a vehicle fire. • Explosion Protection for Gassy
Relative to the number of rechargeable batteries in active use, LIBs have caused little harm Mines, Appendix B
in terms of damage and personnel injury. Battery manufacturers and OEMs achieve this level
of safety by adding layers of protection, which include but are not limited to:
• Limiting the amount of active material to achieve a workable equilibrium of energy density and safety
• Including numerous safety mechanisms within the cell
• Adding an electronic protection circuit in the battery pack
Safety challenges include risks associated with static discharge, faulty chargers, overdischarge, contamination from
metal particulates, cold temperature charging, and inaccurate testing. Heat-related battery failures are taken very seri-
ously by OEMs and battery manufacturers, who typically choose a conservative approach.
The hazards presented by lithium batteries are generally associated with either electrical potential or chemistry. It is the
responsibility of OEMs to adequately address the various hazards associated with batteries and to make sure the cus-
tomer is fully informed of the risks and requirements for handling and operating batteries and battery equipment safely.

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Those operating BEVs should consider what equipment health and condition monitoring plans will be required for pre-
vention and early detection of these hazards. Requirements for design adaptations (e.g., fire doors, egress require-
ments) and personal protective equipment (e.g. oxygen-generating self rescue devices) should also be considered. Fire
prevention, mitigation, and response strategies should be developed in consultation with local regulators, insurance
providers, and OEMs.
Resources such as the Swiss Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications DETEC
(2020) research report on Minimizing the risk of electric vehicle fires in underground transport infrastructures provide fur-
ther information about infrastructure.

4.8.1 Refuge Station Considerations

When designing to accommodate BEVs, it is necessary to understand the potential for fire and the ease or difficulty to
reach personnel if they require rescue.
Refuge stations should be planned in the production and development levels in each of the mining zones to mitigate risks
of uncommon gases being released into the ambient atmosphere. These risks will vary depending on the battery make
and model. Key gases to consider for BEVs underground are CO and HF, which can both spread throughout mining zones
and exceed safe levels and reach dangerous and potentially fatal levels, depending on the duration of exposure.

4.8.2 Emergency Response and Battery Fires

There are unique issues associated with fighting a fire on a BEV, which should be identified
(e.g., through special labelling) to protect mine rescue personnel from harm. These include:
• An electric mine changes the form and distribution of energy sources on-board
mobile equipment when compared with traditional mines. • Fire Hazards and Suppression,
• There can be areas where large numbers of equipment are concentrated for (Energy Storage Systems), Section
6.4.4 (covers technical aspects of
charging.
battery fires in more detail)
While battery electric fires will generally require the same treatment as other fires, fire pro-
tocols at the mine need to be revisited to confirm that they incorporate the specific haz-
ards and protocols associated with the battery. For example, LIBs differ from lithium metal batteries and each battery
type can have variances in chemistries that prohibit the use of standard fire suppression techniques. Employing the
incorrect techniques on a battery chemistry can exacerbate damage to the BEV and potentially put personnel at risk.
Each battery is different, and due to the ongoing evolution of battery chemistry, more studies are required to indicate
what contaminants could be or are present in case of fire.
The OEM therefore needs to supply the fire scenarios and specialized safety measures for the types of batteries they
are providing. Based on these scenarios, protocols for fire response need to be incorporated in the mine design. Table
4.5 describes some key issues that should be considered before any BEV is introduced into the mine.
Detailed guidance on fire rescue will vary depending on jurisdiction. Some references from the United States include
the National Fire Protection Association recommendations for response to BEV fires from LIBs (Long & Blum, 2016;
Mikolajczak, 2011) and an online course (National Fire Protection Association, 2018). Ontario Mine Rescue also pro-
vides some guidance on underground battery fire hazards and emergency response (Rulli, 2020).

4.9 TRAINING
All personnel working with or around a BEV should be properly trained to fully understand the operational differences,
make sure safe practices are used, and identify and avoid potential hazards. A brief summary of examples of training
needs for different roles is provided in Table 4.6, but it is not intended to be exhaustive.
Table 4.7 lists standards that could be used as a starting point and general guidance to design an appropriate training
program for both maintenance and operations personnel. Please note that these standards are not necessarily specific
to mining BEVs and do not apply to all situations.

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Table 4.5. Emergency Response Considerations

Are the battery chemistry • Is the BEV equipped with an appropriate fire extinguisher?
and fire suppression • Are the operators trained in the appropriate response to a fire on-board?
techniques understood for
this BEV? • Is the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) available (refer to
manufacturer’s instructions)?
• Are emergency services aware of the proper fire suppression techniques?
• Do emergency services have the appropriate training to fight a fire on this BEV?
• Do emergency services have the appropriate fire suppression equipment?
• Do emergency services understand the time required for the fire to burn out?
Please note, requirements vary between jurisdictions, so it is important for owners
to consult with local emergency services.
In mixed fleets, emergency • Can emergency personnel quickly identify the battery chemistry from a distance
personnel might have to during an emergency?
quickly identify the battery
• Have operators been trained to identify the battery chemistry and any unique
chemistry on-board a given
BEV and choose the responses they should take based on that chemistry?
appropriate suppression
technique.

Fires and structural • Are mine maintenance personnel aware of the battery chemistry on-board the
damage will likely lead to BEV?
a cleanup operation later.
• Do maintenance personnel have access to the appropriate equipment to clean up
after a chemical spill from the BEV?
• Do mine maintenance personnel have the proper training to safely clean up after a
battery chemical spill?

Table 4.6. Examples of Training Needs for Personnel Associated with BEVs (non-exhaustive)
Role Training Requirements
Operators Some training on the battery user interface, power and drive systems, charging systems,
battery chemistry and safety, and machine-specific safety considerations (e.g. where
high- and low-voltage areas are, how to isolate by lock out and tag out as well as other
procedures for capacitance discharge)
Mechanics General training for non-electric components (e.g., hydraulic packs)
Electricians Possibly with aptitude for instrumentation; likely require additional personnel specifically
trained for battery electric equipment (similar to instrumentation technologists)
Battery maintainers Battery maintenance will either be handled by the OEM or the mine and requires
additional skillsets
Remote service/support Additional skillsets might be required when troubleshooting, perhaps direct towards
OEMs and/or engineers
Mine rescue personnel Training on differences in addressing fire risks associated with BEVs
All personnel All personnel need to be trained to conduct the chosen charging method

4.9.1 Operator Training

Operator manuals should be provided by the OEM; additional training options can potentially be available. Charger train-
ing might need to be covered more in depth and be provided by the charger manufacturer if the charging is done off-
board by a third party supplier.
Typical BEV operational practices that can differ from a diesel equivalent include:
• Daily inspections (e.g., looking for frayed wires, damaged cables)
• Unit start-up
• Brake test procedures
• Emergency procedures

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• Accommodation of performance differences, such as:

– Lower noise levels (BEV design should incorporate warning sounds that can be
triggered manually, such as a horn, or automatically for BEVs travelling in for-
ward or reverse)
– Higher torque output and quicker acceleration • Charging System Operation and
– Higher maximum speed Maintenance, Section 4.6.6
– Regenerative braking • Definitions (Performance
• Procedures for removing BEVs due to malfunction or loss of power (the OEM is Standards), Section 9.2 (describes
responsible for providing such procedures) duty cycle planning and availability
and utilization)
Operational differences will exist among OEMs and among BEV models manufactured by • Maintenance Areas, Section 4.3
a given OEM. • Charging System Operation and
Maintenance, Section 4.6.6
Duty cycle planning is critical for maximizing BEV availability and utilization because the
• Maintenance and Service Areas on
energy density differs between typical battery chemistries and diesel fuel. Regeneration of the Equipment, Section 5.9
energy into the battery can play a role in planning out what charge the battery should
receive to avoid tramming down-ramp with a full battery. Relative to refuelling with diesel,
BEVs have a shorter tramming range or working time between charges and take longer to charge or swap the battery.
Operators should have an understanding of the energy required to complete a specific task to make sure the charge level
is sufficient or make the decision to charge the unit before proceeding. Range and regeneration performance estimates
from the OEM and training can assist the operator with determining how to proceed.

4.9.2 Maintenance Personnel Training

When selecting BEVs, the change management for service and repair should be a key consideration. OEMs should be
queried about the documentation/training available for their equipment.

Table 4.7. Examples of Standards Related to BEV Operator and Maintenance Personnel Training
Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
ISO 14990-1 – Earth-moving See Section 15.7 for maintenance manual and service International International
machinery—Electrical safety of literature, including reduction of electrical hazards while Organization for
machines utilizing electric drives and servicing a BEV. This standard applies to electric equipment, Standardization,
related components and systems—Part not specifically to mining BEVs. 2016a
1: General requirements
ISO 20474-1 Earth-moving machinery— Specifies appropriate technical measures for eliminating International International
Safety—Part 1: General requirements or reducing risks from relevant hazards, hazardous Organization for
situations, or events during commissioning, operation, and Standardization,
maintenance. This is a general standard and reference for 2017d
good practice but not specific to mining BEVs.

ISO 8152 Earth-moving machinery— Training of mechanics appropriate for earth-moving International International
Operation and maintenance—Training of machinery. Not specific to BEVs. Organization for
mechanics Standardization, 1984
ISO 6750 Earth-moving machinery — Specifies the content and gives guidance on the format of International International
Operator’s manual — Part 1: Contents operators manuals for earth-moving machinery. For Organization for
and format reference only as many organizations would also have Standardization,
internal standards. 2019b
ISO 7130 – Earth-moving machinery— Basis for content and methods used for operator training International International
Operator training—Content and methods for earth-moving machinery. This standard is a reference Organization for
for making sure there is sufficient operator training and Standardization, 2013
safety.

4.10 RISK ASSESSMENT

Introducing BEVs into the mining environment can introduce new risks, reintroduce once well managed risks, and fur-
ther mitigate other already controlled risks in underground mining. The risk assessment is therefore a key part of oper-
ational planning.

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In each of the sections within this guideline, potential risks are identified with suggested controls for the mining busi-
ness, mine design and operations, BEV design, energy storage systems, and charging systems. Although controls are
suggested in most cases, this guidance is not considered to be exhaustive. This subsection intends to help consolidate
guidance on what to consider when developing a risk management framework for the adoption of BEVs in mining. It
summarizes the risk presented in other sections in a table format to help guide a risk assessment. The risks are not
evaluated in this document because the end user is expected to use their risk management toolset to analyze, evaluate,
and categorize the risk treatment. It is not possible to provide defined risk outcomes because every instance of BEV
installation will have unique risks and challenges that need to be evaluated with appropriate risk treatment applications.

4.10.1 Financial, Production, Health and Safety, and Environmental Risks

Risks can be categorized into at least four categories:
• Financial or business risks where the capital or operating expense profile is negatively impacted due to the
changes required to support BEV fleets (Table 4.8).
• Production risks where the overall productivity is impacted due to negative impacts on equipment utilization
or availability (Table 4.9).
• Health and safety risks where BEV equipment and infrastructure present risk to personnel (Table 4.10).
• Environmental risks where the byproducts can adversely impact the natural environment (Table 4.11).
A risk assessment team can have more or differing categories depending on the approach taken.

Table 4.8. Financial Risk Considerations

Risk Risk Source Possible Treatment
Increased • Larger capacity power infrastructure • Mine design optimized for BEV
infrastructure • Charging infrastructure • Mine energy management system
capital • Battery handling infrastructure • Optimized charging philosophy and control
expense • Service upgrades • Lease versus own battery
• Battery procurement • Capital reduction or ventilation and fuel infrastructure
• Electric vehicle premiums
Increased • Increased power demand • Optimize charging philosophy and control
operating • Decrease in production rate • Decrease power demand for ventilation & refrigeration
expense • Increase in performance compared to diesel when
operating
• Fast charge
• Battery swap
• Opportunity charging
• Reduced equipment (mobile platform) maintenance
Early battery • Overdischarge • Battery monitoring system
replacement • High or low temperature • Selected battery chemistry
charging/discharge • Battery maintenance program
• Overcharge • Battery lease programs

Table 4.9. Production Risk Considerations

Risk Risk Source Possible Treatment
Production • Battery charging time • Mine design optimized for BEV
rate impact • Charger availability • Charger location optimized
(utilization, • Energy management system
availability) • Optimized charging philosophy and control
• Lease versus own battery
• Opportunity charging

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Table 4.10. Health and Safety Risk Consideration

Risk Risk Source Possible Treatment
Discharged • Battery failure • Provide available charging at deeper elevations
vehicle • Discharged battery • Towing disabled vehicle plans
recovery • Battery lifecycle near end • Charging vehicle to vehicle
• Operator error • Optimize charging locations to match haulage patterns
• On-board charging to common equipment plugs
• Opportunity charging
• Battery monitoring system
• Reserve capacity for recovery mode
Early battery • Overdischarge • Battery monitoring system
replacement • High temperature • Selected battery chemistry
• Overcharge • Battery maintenance program
• Frequent under charge • Battery lease programs

Fire/explosion • Battery failure • Battery chemistry selected

• Short-circuit • Battery monitoring system
• Overcurrent • Short-circuit protection
• Overcharge • Overcurrent protection
• Excessive charge rate • Wiring methods
• Excessive regeneration • Protection from puncture
• Thermal runaway • Arcing faults
• Collision/impact/puncture • Firefighting plan
• Remote machine monitoring
• Fire suppression
• Design quality and redundant controls
Asphyxiation • Battery/vehicle fire • Battery chemistry selected
• Immediately dangerous to life • Automatic fire suppression systems
or health (IDLH) levels of toxic • Mine design/location of concentrated battery storage,
combustion products parking, or charging locations
• Protections against fire/explosions above
• Mine ventilation design
• Fire door/containment in concentrated battery locations
• Oxygen generating self rescue devices
Electric shock • Exposed live electrical parts • Battery isolation
• Damaged battery • Work methods and PPE
• Damaged wiring/charging • Insulated tools
cable • Insulated covers/blankets
• Faulty charger • Charger isolation
• Faulty/damaged • Charger control system
connector/plug • Earth fault protection
• Battery cannot be de- • Resistance grounding limiting current less than 35 mA (AC)
energized • Open bus height/protective insulation
• Open bus on trolley assist • Isolated poles/earth fault detection
• Design quality and redundant controls
Arcing fault • Same as electrical shock • Short-circuit protection
(burns, arc • Overcurrent protection
explosion) • Arc fault detection
• Battery isolation
• Work methods and PPE
Equipment • Battery overcharge • Spring applied hydraulically released/fail-safe braking
runaway • Excessive regeneration systems
• Faulty/damaged/overheated • Braking resistor and cooling
resistor • Optimized charging philosophy

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Table 4.10. Health and Safety Risk Consideration (continued)

Risk Risk Source Possible Treatment
Noise (lack of) • No diesel motor • Lighting/marking lights/strobe lights
• Beacon
• Collision avoidance systems
• Personnel alert systems
• Audible alarm

Table 4.11. Environmental Risk Considerations

Risk Risk Source Possible Treatment
Worn battery • Old batteries • Battery chemistry selected
skulls toxic to • Recycling program with manufacture/lease arrangement
environment

Electrolyte • Damaged batteries • Battery design with secondary containment

leakage • Battery maintenance program

4.10.2 Risk Management Tools

There are many risk management techniques available to document, classify, and categorize risk such as HAZOP (haz-
ard operability), HAZAN (hazard analysis), HAZID (hazard identification), and SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportu-
nities, and threats). The technique can depend on the stage of the design/implementation process and is an integral
part of the overall safety management system. Tools such as bowtie, root cause, fishbone, and event chain help to cat-
egorizes, rank, and evaluate the effectiveness of controls. These techniques and tools listed are not exhaustive and
intended only to inform the reader of multiple options; it is expected the techniques and tools of choice will be used to
evaluate risk in managing the introduction of a BEV fleet. For further reference, see https://www.ispatguru.com/haz-
ard-hazid-hazan-and-hazop-part-of-safety-and-risk-management/.
Risk management treatments attempt to reduce risk by applying a hierarchy of controls and mitigations impacting
either the consequence (severity) or likelihood (probability) of a risk event. The more effective the control, the greater
the impact for the safety management program. The risk treatments listed above can be classified within the hierarchy
of controls to enable effective management (NIOSH, 2015). Having lower layers backing up more effective controls fur-
ther enhances the overall effectiveness. Standards such as ISO 31000 and ISO 12100 can be used for further guidance
and developing an overall change management plant with effective risk controls.

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European Union Commission. (2014). Directive 2014/35/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014
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Council Directive 98/24/EC, and amending Commission Directives 91/322/EEC, 2000/39/EC and 2009/161/EU (Text with EEA
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2019 amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or muta-
gens at work. Official Journal of the European Union.
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Government of Ontario. (2020). Current Occupational Exposure Limits for Ontario Workplaces Required under Regulation 833
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Government of Queensland. (2021). Coal Mining Safety and Health Regulation 2017.
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Grenier, M. (2017). Diesel Particulate Matter–Limits of Exposure and Exposure Data. Lung Cancer and Prevention in Mining
[Symposium Presentation]. Natural Resources Canada, Sudbury, ON, Canada. http://www.occupationalcancer.ca/wp-con-
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Gyamfi, S., Halim, A., and Martikainen, A. (2021). Development of Strategies to Reduce Ventilation and Heating Costs in a
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Halim, A., Lööw, J., Johansson, J., Gustafsson, J., van Wageningen, A., and Kocsis, K. (2021). Improvement of Working Condi-
tions and Opinions of Mine Workers When Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) Are Used Instead of Diesel Machines – Results of
Field Trial at the Kittilä Mine, Finland. Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-021-00506-8
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mechanics. (Standard No. ISO 8152:1984). https://www.iso.org/standard/15235.html
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and risk reduction (ISO 12100:2010). https://www.iso.org/standard/51528.html
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(Standard No. ISO 7130:2013). https://www.iso.org/standard/55300.html
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tric drives and related components and systems—Part 1: General requirements (Standard No. ISO 14990-1:2016).
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International Organization for Standardization. (2017d). Earth-moving machinery—Safety—Part 1: General requirements (Stan-
dard No. ISO 20474-1:2017). https://www.iso.org/standard/60734.html
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format (Standard No. ISO 6750-1:2019). https://www.iso.org/standard/68900.html
Long, T. R., & Blum, A. (2016) Lithium ion batteries hazard and use assessment—Phase III. National Fire Protection Association.
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ion-batteries-hazard-and-use-assessment
McPherson, M.J. (2009). Subsurface Ventilation Engineering. Mine Ventilation Services, Inc. https://www.srk.com/en/publica-
tions/subsurface-ventilation-engineering-book-published-paper
Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., & Long, R. T. (2011). Lithium-ion batteries hazard and use assessment. National Fire Pro-
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subpart E Diesel engines intended to be used in underground coal mines regulation 7.84, pp. 32.
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Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). (2018b). Title 30 Mineral Resources. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Part
70 subpart B Dust standards regulation 70.100, pp. 454. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title30-
vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title30-vol1.pdf
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57 subpart D Air quality, radiation, physical agents, and diesel particulate matter, regulation 57.5060, pp. 372. https://www.gov-
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Paraszczak, J., & Svedlund, E., Fytas, K., & Laflamme, M. (2014). Electrification of Loaders and Trucks – A Step Towards More
Sustainable Underground Mining. Spain, RE&PQJ 1(12), 88-86. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj12.240
Rulli, Dan (2020, February 12). Ontario Mine Rescue: Emergency Response to Battery Fires [Conference Presentation]. Battery
Electric Vehicle Safety in Mines, Workplaces Safety North, Sudbury, ON., Canada.
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Safe Work Australia (2015). Guide to Managing Risks of Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in the Workplace. https://www.safe-
workaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/guidance-managing-risks-exposure-diesel-exhaust-in-the-work-
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Stanton, D.W., du Plessis, J.J.L., Belle, B.K. (2014). Occupational Exposure Limits for Airborne Pollutants, In duPlessis, J.L.L
(Ed.), Ventilation and Occupational Environment Engineering in Mines (pp. 237-254). Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa,
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/publication/fd8e6b47-d767-11e4-9de8-01aa75ed71a1
Willick, Dave (2011). Underground Electric Haulage Trucks Introduction and Benefits, MDEC.
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5. BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to electric traction motor(s), BEVs comprise of an operator interface, braking
system, electrical system (including the battery and BMS), and in some cases, an on-board
charging system. Depending on the design, a given BEV can use: a transmission; a clutch,
gearbox, differential, and fixed gearing; and battery packs and motors (Figure 5.1). Overall, • Equipment Performance
the BEV design should integrate a strong relationship between the design of the electric (Performance Standards),
Section 9.3
motor and other BEV components.
• BEV General Information Form,
Throughout this section, several standards are referenced by standard number. Table 5.1 Appendix C (an example of the types
at the end of this section lists the standards in the order they first appear and provides fur- of information an OEM could provide
ther information, including the title, description, and a citation. about the design of the BEV)

This section includes information about the systems and components of a BEV and their
design and use, summarized in the navigation below.

General note on safety content in this section

Safety encompasses all components of the BEV for the full lifecycle, from commissioning to decommissioning and is considered
throughout this Section (see the navigation table below). Functional safety standards (e.g., ISO 13849, ISO 19014, and IEC 61508) cover
overall risk assessments.

Braking System (Section 5.2) Outlines recommended considerations for dynamic braking and provides guidance
on secondary braking systems.
Includes some information about managing unsafe conditions associated with braking systems and cites
relevant standards.

HVDC Electrical System (Section 5.3) Discusses the high-voltage DC (HVDC) distribution system for the overall
vehicle.
This section has a strong safety focus, covering the safety risks associated with HVDC systems, providing
guidance on their mitigation and management in BEV design, and referencing relevant standards. The risks
covered include short-circuiting, electric shock, arc flash, overcurrent protection, insulation and ground fault
monitoring, and isolation and service disconnect.

Low Voltage and Control System (Section 5.4) Discusses low-voltage components of BEVs and control systems,
including information on low-voltage distribution and control, high-voltage interlock loop (HVIL), master discon-
nect, emergency stop, operator interfaces, software and firmware, and remote control.
This section has a strong safety focus, identifying ways in which controls are designed for safety and to
mitigate hazards and failures.

Electrical and Radio Interference (Section 5.5) Outlines precautions needed to be sure that BEVs do not adversely
affect nearby equipment, communication devices, or other microprocessor-controlled devices.
Identifies the risk of interference associated with blasting caps as a particular concern.

Drivetrain (Section 5.6) Outlines the drivetrain components and design specific to BEVs.
Content does not specifically focus on safety, but components are designed for safe operation.

Fire Safety (Section 5.7) A brief section that guides the reader very generally on what to think about regarding fire
safety.
The key recommendation is for the vehicle to be designed in alignment with local legislation so that any
vehicle fires should not propagate to the battery.

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Shock and Vibration (Section 5.8) A brief section that guides the reader very generally and references relevant
standards.
The key recommendation is that the BEV should be designed to meet shock and vibration profiles that
align with the anticipated use environment.

Maintenance and Service Areas on the Equipment (Section 5.9) Describes considerations related to
components, enclosures and covers, and service areas in the BEV design.
Most considerations in this section focus on designing these areas so that they can be accessed and
maintained safely (e.g., to prevent contact with high voltage or other hazards).

Vehicle documentation & markings

(ratings, safety labels, informative)

On-board
charging Energy storage
Off-board system
charging Battery
management
E-stop system

Operator Control
interface power

Service/diagnostic Controller(s) Motor drive

port

Master Safeguards & Sensors &

disconnect warning devices actuators

Charging coupler
Electric
Wiring Hydraulic pumps motor(s)
Vehicle performance data
Protection from:
• Electric shock
• Thermal hazards
• Mechanical hazards Steering Braking
• Abnormal operation system system Driveline
• Electrically caused fire

Figure 5.1. Representative BEV Block Diagram. Some functions are not indicated for simplicity.

5.2 BRAKING SYSTEM

The vehicle is generally required to have a service brake system, a secondary braking system,
and a park brake system as defined in ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 or other appli-
cable standard.
See the Glossary for a list of definitions. • Regenerative Braking and Ramp
The following should be noted regarding dynamic braking: Design, Section 4.2.2
• Rheostatic braking should have the capacity to dissipate the braking power. Given • Equipment Performance,
Regenerative Braking, Section 9.3.3
the current state of the technology, this is typically accomplished by the use of grid

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brake resistors. Depending on the design strategy, rheostatic brakes might need to be combined with service
brakes or adjusted to accommodate larger vehicles.
• Regenerative braking using batteries requires a reserve battery capacity in which energy can be returned to
the battery by the supply line. Regenerative braking requires that the battery SOC can fully accommodate
absorbing this energy at all times or the system combines battery capacity and grid brake resistor capacity.
• The regenerative brake limits, shortfalls, and traction motor are affected by the battery system.
• An electric traction motor requires an electric supply to hold a vehicle stationary against an external force. If
this electric supply fails, the motor will no longer be able to hold the vehicle stationary. Thus, if the battery of
a BEV is disconnected, the motor will not be able to hold the BEV stationary on a ramp. The secondary braking
system needs to take over in this scenario.
To be consistent with conventional drivetrains, when using an electric motor and electrical energy storage system as
the main traction drive, loss of motor braking torque should automatically apply the secondary braking system in com-
pliance with ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 or other appropriate standards. The secondary braking system
should be applied automatically following the activation of a warning after the system senses an unsafe condition from
the BMS, or vehicle control system in conjunction with CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 or other appropriate standards. The
braking system circuit should be designed in accordance with ISO 13849-1 and tested in accordance with ISO 13849-
2, ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90, or other appropriate standards.

5.3 HVDC ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The function of the high-voltage DC (HVDC) distribution system is to safely transfer electrical energy from the vehicle’s
batteries to the various loads, such as the drivetrain, hydraulic systems, DC/DC converters, and other powered devices
that can be on-boarded. In addition, the HVDC system should also have a provision for charging the batteries.
The term high voltage is not universally defined and can vary between jurisdictions as well as between industries and
trades. For the purposes of this document, high voltage refers to the nominal voltage produced by the main batteries
on-board the vehicle, which typically ranges from 200 to 1000 VDC.
The HVDC distribution system is critical to the safe operation of the vehicle. A well designed system manages the flow
of the electrical currents to the loads and responds appropriately to abnormalities such as overloads or short circuits.
It is similar to any utility distribution system used in fixed industrial or commercial applications. Given the typical capac-
ity of the energy storage system on-board a mining BEV, the available electrical energy can be comparable to portions
of a fixed plant distribution system.
The HVDC distribution system needs to be designed and installed in accordance with sound electrical engineering
practices and by a team of competent electrical designers and engineers. A poor design or execution can result in elec-
tric shock, arc flash, or a vehicle fire. It is advisable to ultimately have an experienced licensed engineer review, approve,
and take responsibility of the overall HVDC design in accordance with local professional engineering practice and reg-
ulations.
The risk of exposure to electric shock and arc flash should be observed and analyzed. Batteries are stored energy sys-
tems and the means by which operators and technicians are prevented from inadvertent exposure should be consid-
ered. A process of identification, assessment, and control implementation should be executed during the design phase
of BEVs with respect to high-voltage exposure. Using risk control methods, the vehicle lockout and safe shutdown pro-
cedure should be well defined so that operators and technicians have an effective procedure that they can refer to with
confidence.
Electrical systems should be designed in accordance with ISO 14990-1, ISO 14990-2, and ISO 14990-3 or other appli-
cable standards. Applicable local codes should also be reviewed and followed.

5.3.1 Direct Current (DC) System Architecture

Figure 5.2 provides an overall visual of DC system architecture. Note that this figure does not include all details.

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Figure 5.2. DC System Architecture

5.3.2 System Modelling, Fault Current, and Arc Flash

To help confirm that the HVDC system of the BEV is designed in accordance with electrical design principles, the dis-
tribution system should be modelled to understand its behaviour under both steady state and upset conditions.
It is essential to calculate the available short-circuit fault current for the system to determine the rating of the electrical
components – in particular, the overcurrent protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers. A mid-sized BEV bat-
tery system is often capable of delivering upward of 10 kA under bolted short-circuit conditions.
Battery pack voltage and internal resistance are key parameters that determine available fault current. These parame-
ters vary according to the SOC. An equipment duty study can be used to make sure that all electrical components are
able to withstand the full range of voltage and current to which they can be subjected.
While the electrical distribution scheme on-board a BEV is relatively simple, a protection coordination study should be
undertaken to determine the sequence in which the overcurrent protective devices will operate under both short-circuit
and overload conditions.
An arc flash study should be performed in order to estimate the incident energy that would be present in the event of
an arcing fault. The arc flash study should be conducted in alignment with the workplace electrical safety standard
applicable in the jurisdiction to which the BEV will be delivered. Examples of such standards include NFPA 70E and CSA
Z462.
Arc flash calculation methods are based on experimental results from testing. While there is a wealth of arc flash test
data for AC systems, the data for DC arc flash is quite limited, which is why there are a number of methods to calculate
arc flash for DC systems. Some existing methods include Phillips (2016) Complete Guide to Arc Flash Hazard Calcula-
tion Studies and Doan (2010) “Arc Flash Calculations for Exposures to DC Systems.” It should be noted that Doan’s
method has been shown to yield very conservative results, thus modelled incident energy will likely be in the order of
3-10 times higher than any actual arc flash scenario (Weimann, 2018). These results could result in maintenance per-
sonnel being required to wear PPE in excess of the hazard that can actually be present.
The outcome of an arc flash study is highly dependent on the battery system parameters such as voltage and internal
resistance. These battery characteristics should be carefully validated and entered into the model. These parameters
vary somewhat depending on the battery SOC, therefore it is recommended to perform arc flash calculations at various
SOC values. It is not unusual for the greatest arc flash hazard to exist at the lowest battery SOC. Referencing the dia-
gram from the battery manufacturer that provides open circuit voltage versus SOC values could be useful.
When the arc flash study is completed, a set of arc flash labels are affixed near the sources of the arc flash hazards.
The requirements for an arc flash label vary by region, but NFPA 70E and CSA Z462 provide some examples.

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5.3.3 Overcurrent and Overvoltage Protection

Overcurrent protection for energy storage systems is crucial for BEVs. If not properly interrupted, a short-circuit will
result in the stored energy of the battery being released in the form of intense electrical arcing and uncontrolled heating
of the battery system. In many situations, this can lead to injury, a battery fire, and irreparable damage to the BEV.
Energy storage systems, whether within or outside the BEV, should be protected against fault current and overcurrent.
An overcurrent protective device should be in close proximity to the energy storage cells and should not require a cur-
rent greater than the fault current available to open. The overcurrent protective device should be rated to interrupt the
maximum fault current available from a fully charged energy storage system.
Overvoltage should also be considered, and the high-voltage bus voltage should be controlled to protect high-voltage
components from overvoltage consequences. The overvoltage protection should be independent of the battery contac-
tors status.

5.3.4 Insulation/Ground Fault Monitoring

Because high-voltage energy is always present in a BEV battery system, insulation systems between the high-voltage
battery bus and the vehicle chassis protect operators, technicians, and service personnel from potential shock hazards
(e.g., IEC 60204-1, UL 2231-1, and ISO 6469-3). If the insulation system breaks down or if the electrical system is com-
promised, there is a potential risk of electric shock to personnel in contact with the BEV.
A BEV should include an insulation monitoring system to alert personnel of the risk of electric shock due to a compro-
mised high-voltage electrical system. These systems continuously monitor the path between the high-voltage electrical
system and the vehicle chassis and alert personnel that there is a risk of electric shock from coming in contact with a
high-voltage conductor and the vehicle chassis. If insulation resistance drops below a predetermined value (typically
100 ohm/V based on the nominal voltage of the battery system), a visual and audible indicator or alarm is activated.
The insulation monitoring system can be tested by connecting an OEM-recommended test impedance between any
point on the high-voltage bus and vehicle chassis (e.g., ISO 14990-1 is an example of a standard that includes such
tests). If the insulation monitoring system is working properly, an indicator and/or alarm will become active when the
test impedance is applied. Upon detection of an insulation fault, the BEV should be inspected and repaired by trained
service personnel as soon as possible.

5.3.5 Isolation and Service Disconnect

When performing an absence of voltage test of the high-voltage electrical system, it can be possible to reduce or poten-
tially eliminate the requirement for arc flash PPE and setting physical boundaries. Even if absence of voltage can be reli-
ably confirmed without exposing the technician to potentially energized high voltage components, this does not
eliminate the necessity of an arc flash study as all risks need to be identified and then assessed.
An example of a remote validation method would be a voltage test station with a voltage presence indicator and termi-
nals to measure the voltage within the system. These voltage test stations provide the technician the ability to confirm
absence of voltage without exposing bare terminals or opening a panel which would otherwise protect from arc flash
and electric shock. Voltage test stations should be used in conjunction with appropriate safe shutdown procedures and
are not a replacement for a high-voltage lockout/tagout procedure.

5.3.6 Traction Drive and Motor

The electric motors that power BEVs are mostly three-phase AC motors. These motor technologies vary, and a key dif-
ference is the number of permanent magnets. Permanent magnets make the motors smaller but are also more costly
due to the rare-earth metals in the magnets. The type of motor best suited for a BEV depends on the type, size, and
cost of the vehicle. The motors are normally liquid cooled with water-glycol or oil.
There are two safety issues to consider in addition to electrical and mechanical safety issues present on all motors:
• Motors with permanent magnets produce voltage when forced to rotate, which can be a problem during towing.
• The strong permanent magnets can crush fingers during disassembly of such a motor. Although rare, these
service incidents require special actions.

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Traction motors are controlled by inverters that transform DC from the battery to AC with varying frequency to control
the speed of the motor. The inverters have a variety of control settings and are vital parts of the drivetrain control sys-
tems, most of which are liquid cooled.

5.3.7 Auxiliary Drives and Motors

The technology in the motors for auxiliary drives is similar to traction motors in that they are also powered from invert-
ers of the same type.

5.3.8 DC/DC Conversion

A BEV needs a 12 V or 24 V electric system to power components such as the control system and lights. That system
is powered from the large battery through a DC/DC converter. A smaller 12/24 V battery is needed to power the control
system during start-up of the large battery.

5.3.9 Battery Charger Integration

In many instances, the BEV design should allow for an interlock device to prevent movement
of the BEV while connected to the power source, unless the BEV is designed to operate while
plugged in (e.g., jumbos and bolters).

• Types of Charging and Connection

5.4 LOW VOLTAGE AND CONTROL SYSTEM
Interfaces, Section 8
This section covers BEV design considerations about low voltage and control systems.

5.4.1 Low-Voltage Distribution and Control

BEVs should be designed to avoid operating modes or sequences that can cause a fault condition or component failure
leading to a hazard. Components should be selected based on the expected stress levels encountered during the life-
time of the BEV. Stress factors include mechanical vibration, low and high temperatures, low and high humidity levels,
presence of conductive contaminants and pollution, and the presence of water or corrosive environments.

5.4.2 High-Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL)

A high-voltage interlock loop (HVIL) should be used to prevent direct exposure of high voltage on BEVs (Figure 5.3 and
Figure 5.4). It should be used for lids, covers, and connectors that do not fulfill ingress protection class IP2X code (IEC
60529) when open. The HVIL can be one loop covering all components or several loops covering different parts of the
machine. It should be monitored to detect faults in the circuit. Opening the HVIL loop will trigger a power shutoff for the
battery power outlet. The shutdown can be delayed to make it possible to reduce current through power contactor(s).
The function can be supplemented with discharge function for high voltage to decrease discharge time. Additional cir-
cuits might be available as a risk mitigation against faulty high voltage connectors.

5.4.3 Master Disconnect

A BEV should incorporate one or more manual master disconnect devices (possible configuration illustrated in Figure
5.5), which completely de-energizes a BEV for service or storage. When activated, it physically disconnects all high- and
low-voltage sources of electrical energy to the BEV controls and traction system, including protective functions such
as fire suppression and vehicle entrapment prevention. The master disconnect is not required to disconnect electrical
connections internal to the battery system, however, it does have the capability to incorporate lockout/tagout.

5.4.4 Emergency Stop

If the hazards and risks associated with a BEV energy storage system cannot be eliminated or sufficiently reduced by
safe design, an emergency stop function should be included in the BEV design that complies with ISO 13850 or other
applicable standard that deals with safety aspect(s) or one or more types of safeguard that can be used across a wide
range of machinery.

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HVIL supervision Connector Lid 1 Lid 2

ETC

* The contactor signal can be delayed to

limit the contactor current before open

HV source Supervised HV circuit

Figure 5.3. Conceptual Diagram of High-Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL)

Figure 5.4. Example of High-Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL)

24 V power
Master disconnect distribution Vehicle loads

24 V High voltage battery

DC-DC
converter

Figure 5.5. Example of a Master Disconnect Device

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5.4.5 Operator Interfaces

The symbols for operator controls and displays should be designed in accordance with cur-
rent versions of ISO 6405-1 and ISO 6405-2 or other applicable standards. The BEV operator
interface is the site of human-machine interaction, so it is critical for a correct and safe BEV
operation. In addition to the operator interface requirements by the machine, such as those
prescribed in ISO 6011 or other applicable standards, the operator interface should visually
• Battery Management System,
display information about the battery SOC to the operator at all times since the SOC deter- Section 6.3.1
mines the power available to get the machine back to a charger. • Charging System Operations and
Visible and audible signals are also part of the operator interface, for example: Controls, Section 7.6

• A manual alarm to notify personnel that the BEV is underway. Some road vehicle
standards on sound requirements such as FMVSS 141 are available, although not
all aspects of such standards will be applicable to mining equipment.
• Automatic alarms to notify the operator that the SOC is at a critical level, the insulation resistance is low, or if
battery cells have been automatically disabled due to malfunction.
The SOC is also linked to the regenerative braking system that returns energy to the battery when the BEV is braking,
coasting, or going downhill. If battery or drivetrain parameters (e.g., temperature, current, voltage, or SOC) reach a crit-
ical level, the system should be capable of alerting the operator. If the SOC or temperature prevents the battery from
absorbing the regenerative energy, the operator should be warned if the vehicle’s braking performance will be affected.
This warning is particularly important if service brakes create only regenerative energy and their capacity is affected by
the battery SOC. Alternatively, the regenerative braking functionality can be automatically turned off before the battery
SOC limits brake capacity. The regenerative braking state (on or off) should always be clearly displayed on the operator
interface.

5.4.6 Software/Firmware Risk Assessment

It is highly recommended that a risk assessment is completed whenever BEVs, charging sys-
tems, and other BEV support equipment are planned for a mine. The mine operator typically
completes a risk assessment for the application of the equipment, but should consult with
the OEM for information on the design risk assessment. BEVs often use firmware/software
• Risk Assessment, Section 4.10
systems to monitor, protect, and communicate the state of the battery system within the
vehicle. In these situations, a risk assessment should include identification and analysis of
any firmware/software controls that directly impact critical functions or identified risks.
Differences in design and applications of BEVs mean a detailed recommendation is not possible. It is recommended
that during the risk assessment process, mine operations work closely with the OEMs to identify firmware/software-
based functions that should be included in the risk analysis. Open protocols such as ethernet/industrial protocol (Eth-
erNet/IP) should be considered when conducting a risk analysis. Additionally, a firmware/software risk review should
consider (but not be limited to) braking systems, steering systems, personal protection systems, and fire and other haz-
ard protection systems. Software risk assessments should be performed for all software updates, as well as new
equipment. If it is determined that critical functions are controlled by firmware/software systems, then a deeper anal-
ysis of the identified risks is warranted.

5.4.7 Remote Control

Several factors should be considered when designing a system that can be controlled remotely. The following factors
are unique to, or can be of significance to BEV design:
• Communicating SOC and warnings to a remote operator
• Whether or not charging infrastructure needs to be automated or remotely controlled
The list is not comprehensive: all the factors typically used in a diesel-powered application should also be considered.
Some standards that cover remote operations include ISO 15817, ISO 17757, and AS/NZS 4240.1.

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5.5 ELECTRICAL AND RADIO INTERFERENCE

To be sure that BEVs do not adversely affect nearby equipment, communication devices, or other microprocessor-con-
trolled devices due to electrical and radio interference, they should be designed to conform to electromagnetic compat-
ibility standards such as ISO 13766-1 and ISO 13766-2 or other applicable standards that outline requirements and
limit values for electromagnetic emission and immunity to external electromagnetic fields, as well as the procedure and
criteria for testing machinery and associated electrical/electronic systems.
The risk of interference with blasting caps is a key concern. During electric blasting, an employer and a blaster should
make sure that minimum distances from radio frequency transmitters are maintained as detailed in SLP 20 or other
applicable standards or guidelines. For example, the Institute of Makers of Explosives (2011) recommended minimum
distances are “100 m from a citizens’ band radio, cellular telephone, satellite telephone or other mobile or portable radio
frequency transmitter; and… 1000 m from a TV transmitter or an AM, FM or other radio frequency transmitter."

5.6 DRIVETRAIN
A BEV for underground mining normally has one central motor, two axle motors, or four wheel motors. More motors
reduce the need for mechanical drivetrain but add cost and can add complexity. The best practices for motor setup for
an underground BEV depend on the vehicle type and size.
Wheel or axle motors are connected to the wheels through fixed-gear reduction. A central motor is connected through
a fixed reduction or a gearbox. The motor needs to be oversized in case it is fixed to get enough traction force and high
vehicle speed, but it can be smaller if a gearbox is used. It is possible to use gearboxes with wheel or axle motors, how-
ever it is less common.
Hydraulic pumps and other pumps are mechanically driven from the engine in diesel-powered vehicles. In BEVs where
the traction motor runs in both directions and sometimes stands still, a separate electric motor is needed to power the
pumps. This allows control of the pump speed according to flow need instead of engine speed, which will reduce
losses. More than one motor can be used to power pumps, further reducing losses but adding costs and potentially
adding complexity. With a low-cost version, pumps can be connected to the traction motor where it spins with the gear-
box in neutral while standing still. This can be suitable in small or low-cost vehicles for which energy efficiency is less
important.
The cooling system on a BEV handles much less heat but runs at a lower temperature than cooling systems for diesel-
powered vehicles. There are also a large number of components to cool, so the cooling system can be quite complex.

5.7 FIRE SAFETY

The fire suppression strategy for a BEV will be in alignment with local legislation and code,
OEM documentation, and insurance policies. The system should be designed to help make
sure that vehicle fire does not propagate to the battery. • Battery and Fire Safety, Section 4.8
Other sections of this guideline provide further information on fire safety. • Fire Hazards and Suppression,
Section 6.4.4

5.8 SHOCK AND VIBRATION

BEVs should be designed to meet shock and vibration profiles that align with the anticipated use environment. As a
minimum, the requirements of ISO 19014-1, IEC 60068-2-64, or other applicable standard should be met. Standards
used for passenger cars such as IEC 60068-2-6 and ISO 16750-3 can be applicable to personal carrier BEVs but might
not be directly applicable to other mining BEVs.

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5.9 MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE AREAS ON THE EQUIPMENT

High-voltage energy is always present in vehicle battery systems because components
can contain capacitors or other devices that do not immediately dissipate charges. Even
when turned off or de-energized, chemical batteries or capacitors of a BEV energy storage
system can present a risk of electric shock and burns by high short-circuit current. Battery • Design of Maintenance Areas (Mine
Design), Section 4.3
packs can require special procedures to bring down overall potential to an acceptable ser-
• Operation and Maintenance of
vice value. OEMs should provide recommended schedules and procedures for inspecting Charging Systems, Section 4.6.6
and maintaining BEVs and their components. BEVs intended for use in mines should typ- • Training, Section 4.9
ically be ruggedly constructed and designed to facilitate inspection and maintenance by a
skilled person.
Some maintenance considerations around BEV design include:

Components
• Arrangement of components for easy access for inspection and maintenance
• Lifting points for heavy components, located such that cables/chains do not interfere with other components
• Proper clearance for inspecting and maintaining components
• High- and low-voltage components separated
• Battery electric systems with a VDC of 75 or higher; the main system voltage should be identified according
to a relevant standard (e.g., ISO IEC 60204-1, see Table 5.1)

Enclosures and covers

• Access openings in enclosures located only where necessary for maintenance or inspection
• Covers as lightweight as is feasible (i.e., < 1 kg); if covers cannot be lightweight, consider using hinged covers
with a handle and warning label
• In the event that a high-voltage enclosure can be opened without tools, it should be touch-safe
• Enclosures where access is for maintenance personnel only; barriers, partitions, and covers provided and
arranged so that testing and troubleshooting can be safely conducted
• Conductors energized with high voltages should be located behind protective covers that require a tool to
access or remove

Service areas
• Service areas on a BEV should be designed to prevent unintentional contact with hazardous moving parts and
voltages when adjusting or resetting controls or performing work similar to that while the BEV is energized.
• Service areas accessed without tools containing high voltages after the BEV is turned off should self-dis-
charge to a non-hazardous level within 10 seconds of the BEV being turned off.
• Service areas containing high voltages after the BEV is turned off and take longer than 10 seconds to self-dis-
charge, require a manual discharge procedure, or cannot be discharged to a low voltage (e.g., batteries) should
be labelled with a warning symbol and a notice of where to obtain appropriate maintenance procedures and
should require tools for access.
• Conductors energized with high voltages should be located behind protective covers that require a tool to
access or remove.

Signage and labels

• Appropriate signage attached for service
• Warning labels should not be attached to removable protective covers
• Signage to discourage welding or other modifications to the battery and electrical system

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5.10 STANDARDS CITED IN THIS SECTION

The following standards are cited throughout the section. The table is not intended to be comprehensive, and not all
standards listed will be applicable to all situations. It is the responsibility of the user to reference local regulations and
implement the appropriate standard for their situation. The citations listed are for the latest version of the standard at
the time of this guideline’s publication. Please consult the most recent version of any standard referenced.

Table 5.1. List of Standards Cited in the BEV Design Section (listed in the order they are cited)
Sections(s) Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 5.1 ISO 13849-1 Safety of machinery— Functional safety standard, not specific to International International
Introduction Safety-related parts of control BEVs. Safety requirements and guidance Organization for
Section 5.2 systems—Part 1: General principles for on design and integration of safety- Standardization,
Braking System design related parts of control systems including 2015b
software

Section 5.1 ISO 19014-1 Earth-moving machinery Functional safety standard for earth- International International
Introduction — Functional safety — Part 1: moving machinery, but not specific to Organization for
Section 5.8 Methodology to determine safety- BEVs. Provides methodology for Standardization,
Shock and related parts of the control system and determining performance levels 2018c
Vibration performance requirements

Section 5.1 IEC 61508-1 Functional safety of Overall functional safety standard for International International
Introduction electrical/electronic/ electrical /electronic/programmable Electrotechnical
programmable electronic safety related electronic safety-related systems, but not Commission, 2010
systems – Part 1: General requirements specific to BEVs

Section 5.2 ISO 3450 Earth moving machinery— Minimum performance requirements and International International
Braking System Wheeled or high-speed rubber-tracked test procedures for service, secondary, Organization for
machines— Performance requirements and parking brake systems of wheeled Standardization,
and test procedures for brake systems and high-speed, rubber-tracked earth 2011a
moving machines

Section 5.2 CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 Braking Minimum performance criteria for the Canada CSA Group, 2020
Braking System performance–Rubber-tired, self- service braking, secondary braking, and
propelled underground mining parking system for rubber-tired, self-
machines propelled underground mining machines

Section 5.2 ISO 13849-2 Safety of machinery— Functional safety standard. Procedures International International
Braking System Safety-related parts of control and conditions to validate by analysis and Organization for
systems—Part 2: Validation testing specified safety functions, the Standardization,
category achieved, the performance level 2012c
achieved by the safety-related parts of a
control system designed in accordance
with ISO 13849-1

Section 5.3 ISO 14990-1 Earth-moving General safety requirements for electrical International International
HVDC Electrical machinery—Electrical safety of equipment and components incorporated Organization for
System machines utilizing electric drives and into earth-moving machines as defined in Standardization,
related components and systems—Part ISO 6165 2016a
1: General requirements

Section 5.3 ISO 14990-2 Earth-moving Safety requirements for electrical International International
HVDC Electrical machinery—Electrical safety of equipment and for components Organization for
System machines utilizing electric drives and incorporated in externally-powered Standardization,
related components and systems—Part (mains–connected or dedicated 2016b
2: Particular requirements for generators), electrically-driven earth
externally-powered machines moving machines

Section 5.3 ISO 14990-3 Earth-moving Safety requirements for electrical International International
HVDC Electrical machinery—Electrical safety of equipment and components incorporated Organization for
System machines utilizing electric drives and in self-powered (utilizing on-board Standardization 2016c
related components and systems—Part electric power sources) electrically-driven
3: Particular requirements for self- earth moving machines
powered machines

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Table 5.1. List of Standards Cited in the BEV Design Section (listed in the order they are cited)
Sections(s) Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 5.3.2 NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Requirements to protect personnel by United States National Fire
System Safety in the Workplace reducing exposure to electrical hazards Protection
Modelling, Fault Association, 2021
Current, and Arc
Flash

Section 5.3.2 CSA Z462 Workplace electrical safety Guidance on safety management systems, Canada CSA Group, 2021
System safe work procedures, PPE, and other safety
Modelling, Fault devices to protect people from hazards
Current, and Arc associated with electrical equipment
Flash

Section 5.3.4 IEC 60204-1 Safety of machinery— General safety requirements of electrical, International International
Insulation/ Electrical equipment of machines— electronic, and programmable electronic Electrotechnical
Ground Fault Part 1: General requirements equipment and systems to machines not Commission, 2016b
Monitoring portable by hand while working

Section 5.3.4 UL 2231-1 Standard for safety for Requirements to reduce the risk of electric USA UL, 2012
Insulation/ personnel protection systems for shock to the user from accessible parts in
Ground Fault electric vehicle (EV) supply circuits: grounded or isolated circuits (external to or
Monitoring General requirements on-board) for charging BEVs
Section 5.9
Maintenance
and Service
Areas on the
Equipment

Section 5.4.2 ISO 6469-3 Electrically propelled Note that this is a road vehicle standard for International International
High-Voltage road vehicles Safety specifications— reference only and not directly applicable to Organization for
Interlock Loop Part 3: Protection of persons against mining BEVs. Requirements for electric Standardization,
(HVIL) electric shock propulsion systems and conductively 2018d
connected auxiliary electric systems of
electrically propelled road vehicles for the
protection of persons inside and outside the
vehicle against electric shock

Section 5.4.2 IEC 60529 Degrees of protection Specific to degrees of protection provided International International
High-Voltage provided by enclosures (IP Code) by enclosures for electric equipment (rated Electrotechnical
Interlock Loop voltage not exceeding 72.5 kV) Commission, 2013
(HVIL)

Section 5.4.4 ISO 13850 Safety of machinery— Functional requirements and design International International
Emergency Stop Emergency stop function—Principles principles for the emergency stop function Organization for
for design on machinery, independent of the type of Standardization,
energy used 2015a

Section 5.4.5 1SO 6405–1 Earth moving Standardizes symbols on operator controls International International
Operator machinery—Symbols for operator and other displays on multiple types of Organization for
Interfaces controls and other displays—Part 1: earth-moving machines as defined in 1SO Standardization,
Common symbols 6165 2017a

Section 5.4.5 1SO 6405–2 Earth moving Standardizes symbols on operator controls International International
Operator machinery—Symbols for operator and other displays on specific machines, Organization for
Interfaces controls and other displays—Part 2: equipment, and accessories as defined in Standardization,
Symbols for specific machines, 1SO 6165 2017b
equipment and accessories

Section 5.4.5 ISO 6011 Earth-moving machinery — Functional information presented on visual International International
Operator Visual display of machine operation displays of earth-moving machinery Organization for
Interface Standardization, 2003

Section 5.4.5 FMVSS 141 Minimum sound Note that this is a highway vehicle standard USA United States National
Operator requirements for hybrid and electric for reference only and not be directly Highway traffic safety
Interfaces vehicles applicable to mining BEVs. Minimum sound administration, 2013
requirements for BEV’s to warn persons that
BEV is underway

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Table 5.1. List of Standards Cited in the BEV Design Section (listed in the order they are cited) (continued)
Sections(s) Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 5.4.7 ISO 15817 Earth-moving machinery— Example of a standard that covers remote International International
Remote Control Safety requirements for remote operations. Safety requirements for Organization for
operator control systems remote operator control systems used on Standardization,
earth-moving machinery as defined in 2012d
ISO 6165

Section 5.4.7 ISO 17757 Earth-moving machinery Example of a standard that covers remote International International
Remote Control and mining Autonomous and semi- operations. Safety requirements for Organization for
autonomous machine system safety autonomous and semi- autonomous Standardization,
machines and systems used in earth- 2019a
moving and mining operations

Section 5.4.7 AS/NZS 4240.1 Remote control Example of a standard that covers remote Australia and Standards Australia,
Remote Control systems for mining equipment Design, operations. Requirements for the design, New Zealand 2009
construction, testing, installation and construction, testing, installation,
commissioning commissioning, and modification of
remote-control systems for mining
equipment and machinery

Section 5.5 ISO 13766-1 – Earth-moving and General EMC. Test methods and International International
Electrical and building construction machinery— acceptance criteria for evaluating the Organization for
Radio Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of EMC of earth moving machines as Standardization 2018a
Interference machines with internal electrical power defined in ISO 6165
supply—Part 1: General EMC
requirements under typical
electromagnetic environmental
conditions
Section 5.5 ISO 13766-2 Earth-moving and General EMC standard. Safety-related International International
Electrical and building construction machinery— parts of the control system. Test methods Organization for
Radio Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of and acceptance criteria for evaluating the Standardization 2018b
Interference machines with internal electrical power EMC of earth moving machines as
supply—Part 2: Additional EMC defined in ISO 6165
requirements for functional safety

Section 5.5 SLP 20 Safety guide for the prevention Suggest guidelines for the safe use of USA Institute of Makers of
Electrical and of radio frequency radiation hazards in commercial electric detonators near radio Explosives, 2011
Radio the use of commercial electric frequency energy sources
Interference detonators (blasting caps)

Section 5.8 IEC 60068-2-64Environmental testing - Tests to demonstrate the adequacy of International International
Shock and Part 2-64: Tests - Test Fh: Vibration, specimens to resist dynamic loads Electrotechnical
Vibration broadband random and guidance without unacceptable degradation of its Commission, 2019
(Consolidated Version) functional and/or structural integrity
when subjected to the specified random
vibration test requirement

Section 5.8 IEC 60068-2–6 Environmental Standard procedure to determine the International International
Shock and testing—Part 2–6: Tests— ability of components, equipment, and Electrotechnical
Vibration Test Fc: Vibration (sinusoidal) other articles to withstand specified Commission, 2007a
severities of sinusoidal vibration. Note that
these tests are used for smaller vehicles
and might not apply to heavy mining BEVs

Section 5.8 ISO 16750-3 Road vehicles — Applies to electric and electronic International International
Shock and Environmental conditions and testing systems/components for road vehicles. Organization for
Vibration for electrical and electronic equipment As a road vehicle standard, it does not Standardization,
— Part 3: Mechanical loads apply to heavy mining BEVs, but might be 2012b
a relevant reference for personnel carriers

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SECTION REFERENCES
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International Electrotechnical Commission. (2004). International Electrotechnical Vocabulary Part 826: Electrical installations
(Standard No. IEC 60050-826:2004). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/266
International Electrotechnical Commission (2007a). Environmental testing—Part 2–6: Tests—Test Fc: Vibration (sinusoidal)
(Standard No. IEC 60068-2-6:2007). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/544
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2010a). Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety
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International Electrotechnical Commission. (2013). Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code). (Standard No. IEC
60529:1989+AMD1:1999+AMD2:2013 CSV). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/2452
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2016b). Safety of machinery—Electrical equipment of machines—Part 1: General
requirements (Standard No. IEC 60204-1:2016). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/26037
International Organization for Standardization. (2003). Earth-moving machinery — Visual display of machine operation (Stan-
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(Standard No. ISO 13850:2015). https://www.iso.org/standard/59970.html
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plays—Part 1: Common symbols (Standard No. ISO 6405-1:2017). https://www.iso.org/standard/68551.html
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International Organization for Standardization. (2018a). Earth-moving and building construction machinery—Electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) of machines with internal electrical power supply—Part 1: General EMC requirements under typical electro-
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tion of persons against electric shock (Standard No. ISO 6469-3:2011). Retrieved from
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autonomous machine system safety (Standard No. ISO 17757:2019). https://www.iso.org/standard/76126.html
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6. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (BATTERIES)

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The rechargeable battery is central to BEV operations. The battery storage capacity (energy
density) limits the range that the BEV can travel or perform its task between charges, which
is the main obstacle facing widespread commercial and mining BEV implementation. In the
past four decades, the drive for smaller, lighter, more efficient, less expensive, and more • Battery Performance (Performance
energy-dense storage systems has driven innovation in battery technologies. These needs Standards), Section 9.4

are even more critical in mining applications because BEVs are large, heavy, and have high
energy demands.
Throughout this section, several standards are referenced by standard number. Table 6.5 at the end of this section lists
the standards in the order they first appear and provides further information, including the title, description, and a citation.
This section includes information about the components, use, and design of energy storage systems (batteries), sum-
marized in the navigation below.

Background on Battery Types (Section 6.2) Outlines some of the components of batteries and some commonly
used battery types.
No specific safety guidance.

Functional Requirements (Section 6.3) Describes some of the functional considerations associated with
monitoring, maintaining, testing, and storing batteries.
Designing for safety and controls to prevent incidents underpins many of the functional considerations
outlined in this section, such as accessibility and service for inspections and preventive maintenance,
automatic shutdown, safe system enclosures, extreme temperature considerations, safe storage, and end-of-
life disposal.

Safety Requirements (Section 6.4) Provides context and offers guidance on hazard condition monitoring,
prevention, and mitigation.
Core safety section. Hazards considered include charging/discharging at low temperature,
over/undervoltage, overloading, overtemperature, external/internal short-circuit, external heating, chemical
reactions, and flammable/toxic gas release. Includes subsections with a particular focus on LIB chemistry and
thermal runaway, fire hazards and suppression, and transportation.

6.2 BACKGROUND ON BATTERY TYPES

At the most basic level, a battery is one or more energy
(voltaic) cells containing a conductive electrolyte to facilitate Table 6.1. Specific Energy of Some Rechargeable
the movement of ions from the negative terminal (anode) to Battery Types (non-exhaustive) (Data from Battery
the positive terminal (cathode), thereby creating an electrical University, 2019 and Cowie, 2015)
current. For example, lead-acid batteries often contain six Type Specific Energy (Wh/kg)
cells with metal plates immersed in a water/sulphuric acid Lead-acid 30–50
solution. Lead-acid batteries have long been—and continue
Nickel cadmium 45–80
to be—used in conjunction with fossil fuels to power cars,
Nickel metal hydride 60–120
boats, and other vehicles.
Lithium-ion (cobalt) 150–250
Table 6.1 identifies the specific energy of some recharge-
able battery types. Given the relatively high energy density Lithium-ion (manganese) 100–150
of LIBs, they are currently the most common choice for Lithium-ion (phosphate) 90–120
BEV applications. The cathode in LIBs for commercial
Lithium-titanate 30–110
BEVs can comprise a metal oxide (nickel, cobalt, nickel-

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cobalt-aluminum, or nickel-manganese-cobalt), manganese spinel, or iron phosphate (Canis, 2013). The cathode is
separated from the graphite, carbon, or titanate anode by a porous polyethylene or polypropylene membrane (Fig-
ure 6.1). The electrolyte is a mixture of lithium salt and organic solvents in liquid or gel form.
Another commercially used battery type is a molten salt battery where the electrolyte is sodium chloride, which is kept
at a temperature high enough for it to be liquid. The possibility of using ultracapacitaors (i.e., very high-capacity elec-
trical capacitors) has been proposed, either on their own or in combination with batteries.

Negative Positive
(anode) (cathode)
Typically carbon Compound containing
compound lithium
S
E
P
Charging A
R
A
T
O
R Discharging

Figure 6.1. Conceptual Sketch of Lithium-Ion Battery

6.3 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

This subsection describes some of the functional considerations associated with monitoring, maintaining, testing, and
storing batteries.

6.3.1 Battery Management System

The BMS is central to the safe and efficient operation of the battery. Under the control of a microprocessor, the BMS
monitors the energy consumed by the BEV during operation, battery pack voltage, current, SOC, depth of discharge
(DOD), temperature, and voltage of individual cells. The BMS also varies the current being delivered to the battery during
charging. Additionally, the BMS redirects the energy produced during regenerative braking to the battery pack.
The BMS monitors large quantities of data related to the operation, performance, and health of the battery, and it should
therefore be integrated into the BEV design and be able to communicate with charging infrastructure and emergency
shutdown subsystems. While some of the data are proprietary to the OEM, the rest can be very valuable to the equip-
ment operator to help them understand how the battery is performing.

6.3.2 Accessibility, Maintenance, and Service

Only a skilled person should perform maintenance and service on batteries. The OEM should
provide a preventive maintenance program, including a checklist for inspection of the battery
system and any special repair procedures. Making sure there are no live contacts on the ter-
minal is a key consideration.
• Operator Interfaces (BEV Design),
6.3.3 Thermal Management and Testing Section 5.4.6
• Maintenance and Service Areas
Within a battery, heat is generated by the current flow (the Joule effect); temperature man-
(BEV Design), Section 5.9
agement is within the purview of the BMS, which monitors the mean battery pack tempera- • Safety Requirements (Energy
ture and temperatures of individual cells, as well as the intake and output coolant Storage Systems), Section 6.4
temperatures (if coolant is used). A high temperature condition is typically the result of an • LIB Chemistry and Thermal
external heat source or the voltage and/or current being out of the operating range. High Runaway, Section 6.4.4
internal temperatures can cause separator failure, leading to internal short-circuiting. For

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some chemistries, internal short-circuiting can lead to thermal runaway, which can ultimately lead to venting of haz-
ardous and flammable gases, venting of flame, and potential explosion of the battery assembly. In addition to posing a
safety risk, elevated temperatures accelerate the degradation of capacity and power in LIBs and can cause charge
imbalance among battery cells.
Active testing of LIB overtemperature functionality should follow E/ECE/324/Rev.1/Add.82/Rev.5 or other applicable
standards or regulations for the thermal shock and cycling test, and the overtemperature protection test. The
ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.7 T.2 thermal test is similar to the thermal shock test within E/ECE/324/Rev.1/Add.82/Rev.5: the
batteries are stored at 72°C for 6 hours and then at –40°C for 6 hours for 10 cycles. They should exhibit no leaking,
venting, disassembly, rupture, or fire, and voltage cannot fall to less than 90% of the original voltage.

6.3.4 Cycle Performance and Battery Life

Battery system cycle performance is a key metric of battery life. Standard test procedures
in SAE J2288 or another applicable standard should be used to determine the expected
service life—in cycles—of BEV battery modules. Testing battery systems under a standard
procedure yields results that can be compared among systems within the same mine or • Battery Performance. Section 9.4
among different mines. Specific testing (e.g., DOD, SOC, operating temperature) can be
performed to better understand battery life under specific conditions.
Certain battery types are better suited to unique underground usage profiles that are not captured in SAE J2288. These
conditions and usage profiles should be defined and additional testing procedures can be applied to the systems to bet-
ter estimate battery system life. The following standards are relevant references on aspects of the design and testing
of battery systems, though other standards might also be applicable: E/ECE/324/Rev.1/Add.82/Rev.5, UL 1642,
UL 2580, IEC 62133-2, IEC 62485-6, and IEC 62619.

6.3.5 Automatic Shutdown

Depending on the battery type, operating parameters such as temperature, current, voltage, and SOC need to be con-
stantly monitored and maintained within certain values. For LIBs, exothermic reactions from overcharge and overdis-
charge can lead to thermal runaway and destabilize chemicals in the battery. The BMS will typically monitor these
operating parameters across all battery cells and automatically shut down the battery system by disconnecting the
main battery contactors if allowable operating parameters are exceeded. The automatic shutdown of the system
should be designed and tested to based on relevant safety standards (e.g., IEC 61508, IEC 62061, and IEC 61010) where
applicable. Information on BMS safety design and testing can also be found in Section 8 of IEC 62619.

6.3.6 System Enclosure

Generally, ingress protection specifications for the battery system enclosure are supplied by the OEM. Accessibility
could be open (i.e., via covers or lids with interlock functionality) or closed (i.e., so that only qualified personnel can open
the enclosure for activities such as maintenance or repair). Other battery system enclosure considerations include:
• Venting requirements based on energy storage chemistry
• Temperature monitoring
• Harsh underground mining conditions
• Mounting for shock and vibration
• Material for wet, corrosive environment
• Appropriate clearances from battery cells/packs
• Designated lifting points of energy storage modules

6.3.7 Extreme Temperature Considerations

Batteries have an optimal temperature range in which they perform most efficiently. This range is affected by the way
the battery is designed and the battery chemistry. Operating a BEV outside that optimal battery temperature range
means the battery does not perform to its full potential. In practice, these limitations can mean reducing the range

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and/or requiring larger capacity batteries to offset the need for additional systems to raise or lower temperatures to the
appropriate levels.
Many battery chemistries and electrical components on BEVs are temperature sensitive and can be irreparably dam-
aged if subjected to temperature extremes. A suitably designed BEV considers the effects of low ambient temperature
not only on the energy storage and tractive systems but also on the passenger compartment heating and window
defrosting systems.
Conversely, cooling the battery can be a challenge in extreme heat conditions. The upper limit might not leave a large
enough delta for a traditional radiator system to be effective. In these instances, a more advanced cooling strategy (e.g.,
heat pump system) might be needed.

6.3.8 Storage
The maximum number of batteries stored and the storage procedures in a particular location should be confirmed with
the local authority. Protection and isolation during storage should follow CSA M421-16 or other applicable standard.
The battery manufacturer or OEM should fully define the storage conditions for battery packs or components of inter-
est, such as any devices containing battery cells that can be damaged or become inoperable by the effects of long-term
storage. These storage conditions include but are not limited to:
• Storage temperature range and ideal storage temperature
• Component life with and without periodic SOC/state of health check
• Maintenance intervals and documented procedures
• Equipment required to maintain the components during storage
OEMs should supply documented procedures for handling damaged battery systems or system components. Poten-
tially hazardous system components should be identified if they are separate from the system as a whole. These doc-
uments outline safe handling and storage practices for battery systems that have been physically damaged or
subjected to high or low temperatures, flooding, or other forms of abuse. Procedures should provide instructions for the
safe reduction of stored energy (discharging) and verification that the battery is in a safe state. Specialized equipment
(pack discharge resistors) for preparing and handling damaged battery systems should be provided by the OEM.

6.3.9 End-of-Life
Energy storage systems in BEVs have a limited life and will eventually wear out. End-of-life
options for the battery system or individual replaceable components of the system should be
fully defined by the OEM. When a BEV energy storage system reaches end-of-life, it should
be properly decommissioned and disposed of in accordance with local laws. In some situa-
• Transportation (Safety
tions, the battery might need to be rebuilt by a qualified person (e.g., OEM, battery manufac- Requirements), Section 6.4.5
turer, or qualified rebuild shop) to bring it back to compliance with specifications. Regardless
of the approach taken, the battery system will need to be packaged and labelled according to
its requirements before it is transported. These requirements vary by geographic location.
While not universal, many transportation regulations require use of packaging designed and tested to the United
Nations ST/SG/AC.10/Rev.21 content on lithium metal batteries and LIBs. Whereas disposal of used battery systems
might not be a primary consideration in planning a battery electric mine, a plan for disposal should be considered early
in the planning process due to the complexity of transportation regulations and the potential costs of disposal.
Recycling of lithium-ion cells is an alternative to disposal as waste; however, recycling LIBs is likely to provide more
ecological than economical benefits. The wide range of materials present within a lithium-ion cell, materials used in the
battery system packaging, and the potential for the cells to hold significant amounts of stranded energy together make
recycling a complicated process. It is anticipated that as LIB systems become more prevalent (especially in the auto-
motive industry), new battery construction techniques and recycling processes will improve the economics of recycling.
A third option to consider at end-of-life—commonly referred to as “second life"—is becoming available. Battery systems
at end-of-life often have 70–80% of their storage capacity. Used, undamaged LIB systems are finding a second life in
applications such as power grid stabilization systems and residential photovoltaic storage systems and could last
many years at this reduced capacity. Reuse of energy storage systems at mine sites to store wind and solar energy is

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another potential application. Similar to recycling of LIBs, the market for these second life applications has not yet fully
matured. LIB systems have become more prevalent in propulsion systems; therefore, a significant increase in the quan-
tity of battery systems available for second life applications will follow and will likely drive growth in second life appli-
cations.
The significant amounts of energy in a worn-out battery system and the presence of materials that can require special
handling, recycling, or disposal methods based on local laws are key safety considerations. Mine operators should
never attempt to disassemble, dispose of, rebuild, or repurpose a battery system without contacting the OEM or battery
manufacturer for instructions. Disposal, recycling, and transportation methods at the battery system end-of-life should
always be made in consultation with the battery manufacturer and local laws. Components containing hazardous
materials should be properly labelled to avoid improper disposal. OEMs should label energy storage systems to alert
owners of the need for special packaging, transport, and disposal procedures. The energy storage system labelling
should also include OEM contact information.

6.4 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

This subsection provides context on hazard conditions and offers guidance on hazard condition monitoring, prevention,
and mitigation.

6.4.1 Hazard Conditions: Causes and Effects

Hazard identification analyzes how batteries interact with their environment. For LIBs, the following hazard conditions
are identified during charging, discharging, and storage:
• Charging or discharging at low temperature
• Overvoltage (overcharge)
• Undervoltage (overdischarge)
• Overloading (overcurrent)
• Overtemperature
• External short-circuit
• Internal short-circuit
• External heating
• Chemical reactions
• Mechanical crush, shock, penetration, or rupture of a cell resulting in liquid or flammable/toxic gas release
The likelihood of the above hazards depends on the battery chemistry and how the design mitigates and addresses the
risks. Safety data sheets for the BEV battery system should be made available by the battery manufacturer or OEM.
Table 6.2 provides further detail on some hazards and their causes, and comments on the possible effects. A number
of these hazards can be mitigated with the implementation of a BMS.
The cumulative effects of electrical and chemical hazard conditions can lead to thermal runaway. Potential effects of
these hazard conditions are gas release, heat release, fire, and corrosive electrolyte release. These hazards are strongly
linked to thermal runaway and elevated levels of combustible and toxic gases.
An internal short-circuit caused by contamination during manufacture with microscopic metal particles can go unde-
tected and initiate thermal runaway. During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell can propagate to the next
cell, causing it to become thermally unstable as well. In some cases, a chain reaction occurs, in which each cell disinte-
grates at its own timetable. A battery pack can be destroyed within a few seconds or linger for several hours as cells are
consumed one-by-one. Methods to prevent a cascading thermal runaway throughout the battery should be considered.
Another safety issue is cold temperature charging. Although some LIB packs appear to be charging normally, some
cannot charge below 0°C. Permanent, irreversible plating of metallic lithium occurs on the anode during sub-freezing
charging. If done repeatedly, cold temperature charging can compromise the safety of the pack, making the battery
more vulnerable to failure if subjected to impact, crushing, or high-rate charging.

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Table 6.2. Hazards and Causes for LIBs (see also Mikolajczak, Kahn, White, & Long, 2011).

Hazard Cause Effects

Thermal Overcharge, overvoltage Can cause lithium plating, where lithium ions deposit dendritic
runaway metallic lithium on the anode, leading to a potential short-circuit.
Overtemperature (70°C) Can also lead to increased temperatures.
Overdischarge, undervoltage Can cause degradation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer
on the anode, which if breached, allows the electrolyte to react with
the anode in a high temperature exothermic reaction. Does not apply
to lithium titanite anodes, which do not depend on the SEI layer.
Overcurrent, rapid charge, Can cause anode copper to dissolve in the electrolyte, which may
and discharge form dendritic metallic copper when the cells voltage is increased,
leading to potential short-circuit.
Internal short-circuit due to High currents can increase the temperature of the cells. See over-
cell defect temperature.
Internal short-circuit due to Possible defects include component deformation, blocked separator
lithium plating, precipitated pores, uneven anode coating, uneven contact between separator and
anode copper. anode, delamination of current collector, contamination, and dry
electrolyte caused by overcharge or overdischarge.
Mechanical damage, abuse Puncturing a cell would damage the SEI layer on the anode and
cause a high temperature exothermic reaction between the anode
and electrolyte. See over-temperature.
Venting External heat source, fire, Breakdown of organic solvents in the electrolyte into highly toxic and
thermal runaway flammable gases.
Combustion of Thermal runaway Can occur when the flammable gases are released and mix with
battery cells oxygen if the temperature is high enough or if there is an external
source of heat or spark.
Rapid Thermal runaway, poor Battery modules could explode if the gases produced during thermal
disassembly venting runaway are not allowed to vent to the atmosphere.
of battery
module

Venting with Thermal runaway, high External sources of heat or spark near battery vents.
flame, ignition temperature, external spark
of vented gas

6.4.2 Hazard Condition Monitoring, Prevention, and Mitigation

Temperature detection by the BMS should be adequate to identify dangerous temperatures in the battery pack by hav-
ing a sufficient number of temperature sensors next to battery cells. Sensor data are used to prevent the following haz-
ard conditions by notifying the BEV control unit to take corrective action and cause an alarm if battery temperature is
out of a safe operating range:
• Charging or discharging at low temperature
• Overvoltage (overcharge)
• Undervoltage (overdischarge)
• Overloading (overcurrent)
• Overtemperature
Actions could be to request the BEV to stop using the battery, control ambient heating or cooling, or as a last measure,
open the battery contactors.
External short-circuit conditions can be prevented by fusing. The following hazard conditions can be prevented by
appropriate battery mechanical protection, usage, and handling:
• External heating

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• Chemical reactions
• Mechanical crush, shock, penetration, or rupture of a cell resulting in liquid or flammable/toxic gas release
If electric, electronic, or software controls and systems are relied upon for critical safety, then the system should be sub-
jected to analysis for functional safety. Based on the risk assessment, an integrity level or performance level target is
acquired for the functions, and the BMS and other systems should be designed according to applicable standards.
During battery swap-out, a combination of intrinsically safe connections (touch-safe, fail-safe, and redundant systems)
and procedures need to maintain isolation of high potential cell groups down to a more acceptable energy level when
true zero energy is not possible.
Battery maintenance procedures by a skilled person (as defined in International Electrotechnical Commission, 2004)
should make sure that there is proper isolation of high potential cell groups down to a more acceptable energy level
when true zero energy is not possible. Access for battery maintenance should be limited through the use of labels and
the requirement for tools. Welding on or near batteries should only be done after consultation with the OEM.
It should be noted that some failure modes, such as dendrite formation and subsequent internal short-circuit, cannot
be completely detected or prevented, and the statistical likelihood is that they will eventually occur. OEMs should pro-
vide a response plan for these events and their effects.

6.4.3 LIB Chemistry and Thermal Runaway

LIB thermal runaway occurs when the battery is heated to a critical temperature where self-heating enters into a pos-
itive feedback loop and temperature and outgassing increase exponentially. Thermal runaway can lead to excessive
temperatures, rapid outgassing, flaming, or explosion of the battery itself. Flammable gases released before or during
thermal runaway can mix with atmospheric oxygen to produce flammable gas-air mixtures that can be ignited by a
competent ignition source.
Thermal runaway severity and susceptibility varies with LIB chemistry and battery design. Thermal runaway severity
increases with self-heating temperature and heat of reaction. Table 6.3 lists thermal runaway maximum temperatures
and heats of reaction for several 18650 form fac-
tor lithium-ion chemistries (Lei et al 2017, Hart-
Table 6.3. Thermal Runaway Maximum Temperatures and Heats
mann 2020). The amount of heat needed to of Reaction for Several 18650 Form Factor Lithium-ion
induce thermal failure in a lithium-ion battery Chemistries (Lei et al 2017, Hartmann, 2020)
provides a measure of thermal runaway suscep- Chemistry Tmax (°C) Heat of reaction (kJ)
tibility. Batteries that require more external heat- LFP 259 7.3
ing to induce failure are less susceptible to
LMO 303 7.8
thermal runaway. In one study, Tang et al (2020)
NMC 665-731 14.9-24.9
measured the heat to failure for LFP, NMC and
LTO LIB batteries, and found that the normalized LCO 654-709 17.9-20.6
total heat to failure by its energy capacity had the NCA 624 31.1
following ranking: LTO 18650 ≈ LFP 26650 ≈ LFP
18650 > NMC 18650. Note that the sources above are intended only for informational pur-
poses. Susceptibility to heat and the risk of thermal runaway are the subject of various
studies and no established consensus has been reached on the topic.

6.4.4 Fire Hazards and Suppression

• Battery and Fire Safety (Mine
The following subsections provide further detail on fire and explosion hazards associated
Design), Section 4.8
with batteries and suppression and response in the event of a fire. • Explosion Protection for Gassy
Mines, Appendix B
6.4.4.1 Fire And Explosion Hazards
LIBs can pose significant fire and explosion hazards when they are compromised, due to
either physical damage or hazard conditions. Examples of abusive conditions include high temperature, overcharge,
overdischarge, and external/internal short-circuit. When the battery is exposed to hazardous conditions, the tempera-
ture can exceed the normal operating range, and the active component materials will decompose or react with each

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other, leading to thermal runaway. In theory, thermal runaway occurs when the heat generated by exothermic reactions
inside the battery is not offset by the heat losses to the environment. The accumulated heat drives the temperature
increase, which produces an exponential increase in the reaction rates. During the thermal runaway, an explosion can
occur because the lithium-ion cell contains its own oxidizer.
Various quantities of gases can be released from the battery thermal runaway. These gases are usually high tempera-
ture, combustible, and toxic (Jones, et al., 2021), and the reignition of combustible gases results in a fire with the injec-
tion of flame or explosion under favourable conditions. For a battery pack consisting of hundreds of cells, the fire hazard
can be much greater when many cells are undergoing thermal runaway in a short period. In addition, different
chemistries used in such batteries can produce unusual toxic environments when fires or explosions of such batteries
occur.
The heat release rate (HRR) is a key parameter to characterize a fire on the cell level. The HRR of a LIB cell depends on
the battery mass, energy capacity, chemistry, and SOC. For a battery module, the HRR also depends on the number of
cells and battery pack construction. A cylindrical 18650 battery with an energy capacity of 10 Wh and a mass of 44.3 g
produces a peak HRR of 5.6 kW, while a pouch cell with an energy capacity of 11 Wh and a mass of 95 g produces a
peak HRR of 20.9 kW (Sun et al., 2020). Yuan et al. (2020) found that for LFP, NMC, and LTO, the onset temperature for
thermal runaway was 200, 145, and 163°C, respectively. The peak cell temperature for LFP, NMC, and LTO during ther-
mal runaway was 399, 835, and 305°C, respectively, while the normalized gas volume released after thermal runaway
was 36.5, 215.2, and 82.9 L/kg, respectively.
The flammable gases produced from battery thermal runaway include hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane
(CH4), and other hydrogen carbon (hydrocarbon) gases. For the three battery chemistries, the H2 concentration ranged
from 8.41 to 24.34%, and CH4 concentration ranged from 1.23 to 12.90% (Yuan et al., 2020).
The toxic gases produced during battery thermal runaway are mainly carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydrogen fluoride (HF).
Underground fires are especially dangerous because of the creation of CO. The fumes can
spread quickly throughout the mine and without warning as it is an odourless, tasteless gas.
The majority of fatalities caused by a fire or explosion are from CO poisoning. Concentrations • Refuge Station Considerations
(Mine Design), Section 4.8.1
of 1,600 parts per million (ppm) CO can be lethal within an hour while concentrations of 6,400
ppm can be lethal to a person in approximately one to three minutes. Yuan et al. (2020) mea-
sured CO concentrations ranging from 4.5 to 30.3% for NMC, LTO, and LFP cells, with NMC producing the highest and
LFP producing the lowest. Those toxic gases can be transferred by ventilation airflow to active working sections, posing
a threat to underground mine personnel. Based on the information of the toxic gases, the appropriate PPE can be
selected for fire fighters and first responders.
LIB fires release a significant amount of HF when they burn, and HF has immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH)
30 minute concentration of 30 ppm (CDC, 1994). Previous fire simulations indicate HF exceeds IDLH values quicker and
earlier than CO. The emission rate of HF could range between 20 and 200 mg/Wh of nominal energy capacity (Larsson
et al., 2017).
NMC, LFP, and LTO battery thermal runaways emit abundant aerosols in the respirable size range (Barone et al., 2021).
Cobalt and other transition metals were observed in NMC and LTO samples but not in an LFP sample.

6.4.4.2 Fire Suppression and Response

Early detection of a battery fire and an effective fire responsive practice can prevent incidents
from becoming more serious. LIB fires are known to have reignition behaviour, so suppres-
sion practices should consider containment and cooling. It is recommended to use a fire
suppression agent that can act to contain and cool the battery fire. Dry chemical powder is
• Emergency Response and Battery
a commonly used fire suppression agent in the mining environment. However, dry chemical Fires (Operations), Section 4.8.2
powder does not constitute a sufficient suppressant for lithium-ion battery fires, as it lacks
a cooling effect (Xu et al., 2020).
There have been several studies on the most effective battery fire suppression methods, some described below for
context, but note that specific fire suppression and response methods should be determined in conjunction with local

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regulations and recommendations. Water has been tested as a battery fire suppressant that can be effective under
some conditions because it can both contain and cool the battery fire. Additionally, some research has found that water
pressure and flow can enhance the effectiveness of fire suppression (Xu et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2021). After the battery
fire visibly disappears, it is recommended to continue applying water for cooling, as the chemical reactions inside the
battery can fuel another fire. Similar to water, aqueous film-forming foams can be an effective fire suppressant for bat-
tery fire too with their excellent cooling effects (Russoa, et al., 2018). Some additives such as potassium bicarbonate
(KHCO3) can help cool down the battery more quickly (Liu et al., 2020). A handheld fire extinguisher unit with an F-500
encapsulator agent as an additive was sufficient to extinguish an 1890 Wh battery pack fire based on tests conducted
by Kiwa Nederland BV (2017).

6.4.5 Transportation
Packaging, labelling, and notification precautions should be taken when transporting bat-
teries for use or at end-of-life. Applicable regulations depend on the geographical region(s)
where batteries are being transported and the battery chemistry. Regardless of the quan-
tity of batteries or transportation method, the most recent versions of local transportation
authorities should be consulted for guidance. The OEM should also be consulted. Trans- • End-of-Life, Section 6.3.9
portation regulations such as those listed in Table 6.4 should be consulted before trans-
porting batteries, battery systems, and BEVs and spare parts containing batteries.
Damaged or suspect batteries should be transported according to applicable regulations. Local regulations—including
those listed in Table 6.4—might require special labelling and packaging of the battery or battery system to provide addi-
tional layers of protection. Regardless of how minimal the severity of damage to a battery or battery system, local trans-
portation authorities and the OEM should be consulted for transportation guidance for damaged or suspect batteries
or battery systems.

Table 6.4. Dangerous Goods Transportation Regulations (non-exhaustive)

Regulation Jurisdiction Citation (refer to the latest version)
Canada TDG Transportation of dangerous goods regulations Canada Transport Canada, 2020
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code 2020 (in International International Maritime Organization, 2020
force January 2022) and IMDG 2018 (in force January 2020)
International Air Transport Association (IATA) Dangerous Goods International International Air Transport Association, 2021
Regulations
ST/SG/AC.10/Rev.21 Recommendations on the transport of International United Nations, 2019b
dangerous goods: Model regulations, Volume 1
ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.7 Recommendations on the transport of International United Nations, 2019a
dangerous goods: Manual of tests and criteria
United States Code of Federal Regulations on Transportation Title USA United States Office of the Federal Register, 2012
49, Parts 100 to 177

6.5 STANDARDS CITED IN THIS SECTION

The following standards are cited throughout the section. The table is not intended to be comprehensive, and not all
standards listed will be applicable to all situations. It is the responsibility of the user to reference local regulations and
implement the appropriate standard for their situation. The citations listed are for the latest version of the standard at
the time of this guideline’s publication. Please consult the most recent version of any standard referenced.

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Table 6.5. List of Standards Cited in the Energy Storage Systems Section (listed in the order they are cited)
Section Industry Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 6.3.3 E/ECE/324/Rev.1/Add.82/Rev.5 Safety requirements of vehicle electric International United Nations, 2015
Thermal Uniform provisions concerning the power train
Management approval of vehicles with regard to
and Testing specific requirements for the electric
Section 6.3.4 power train
Cycle
Performance
and Battery Life

Section 6.3.3 ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.7 Criteria, test methods, and procedures for International United Nations, 2019a
Thermal Recommendations on the transport of classifying dangerous goods
Management dangerous goods: Manual of tests and
and Testing criteria
Section 6.4.5
Transportation
Section 6.3.4 SAE J2288 Lifecycle testing of electric Standardized test method to determine International SAE International,
Cycle vehicle battery modules the expected life cycles of BEV battery 2020
Performance modules
and Battery Life

Section 6.3.4 UL 1642 Standard for lithium batteries Requirements to reduce the risk of and USA UL, 2020b
Cycle injury from fire or explosion when lithium
Performance batteries are used or removed from a
and Battery Life product and discarded
Section 6.3.4 UL 2580 Batteries for use in electric Evaluates the ability of the electrical USA UL, 2020a
Cycle vehicles energy storage assembly (e.g., battery
Performance packs and combination battery pack
and Battery Life electrochemical capacitor assemblies
and the subassembly/modules that make
up these assemblies for use in BEVs) to
safely withstand simulated abuse
conditions and prevents exposure of
persons to hazards as a result of the
abuse

Section 6.3.4 IEC 62133-2 Secondary cells and Requirements and tests for safe operation International International
Cycle batteries containing alkaline or other of portable sealed rechargeable lithium Electrotechnical
Performance non-acid electrolytes—Safety cells and LIBs containing non-acid Commission, 2021c
and Battery Life requirements for portable sealed electrolyte
secondary lithium cells, and for
batteries made from them, for use in
portable applications—Part 2: Lithium
systems
Section 6.3.4 IEC 62485-6 Safety requirements for Safe operation of LIBs in traction International International
Cycle secondary batteries and battery applications, applies to battery Electrotechnical
Performance installations - Part 6: Safe operation of installations used for electric off-road Commission, 2021b
and Battery Life lithium-ion batteries in traction vehicles
applications

Section 6.3.4 IEC 62619 Secondary cells and Secondary cells and batteries containing International International
Cycle batteries containing alkaline or other alkaline or other non-acid electrolytes – Electrotechnical
Performance non-acid electrolytes–Safety Safety requirements for secondary Commission, 2017a
and Battery Life requirements for secondary lithium lithium cells and batteries for use in
Section 6.3.5 cells and batteries, for use in industrial industrial applications
Automatic applications
Shutdown

Section 6.3.5 IEC 61508 Functional safety of Aspects to be considered when International International
Automatic electrical/electronic/programmable electrical/electronic/programmable Electrotechnical
Shutdown electronic safety-related systems— electronic systems are used to carry out Commission, 2010
Parts 1 to 7 together with a commented safety functions
version

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Table 6.5. List of Standards Cited in the Energy Storage Systems Section (listed in the order they are cited)
(continued)

Section Industry Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation

Section 6.3.5 IEC 62061 Safety of machinery— Requirements and recommendations for International International
Automatic Functional safety of safety-related the design, integration, and validation of Electrotechnical
Shutdown electrical, electronic and programmable safety-related electrical, electronic, and Commission, 2021a
electronic control systems programmable electronic control systems
for machines

Section 6.3.5 IEC 61010 Safety requirements for Safety requirements for electrical International International
Automatic electrical equipment for measurement, equipment for measurement, control and Electrotechnical
Shutdown control, and laboratory use–Part 1: laboratory use – Part 1: General Commission, 2017b
General requirements requirements

Section 6.3.8 CSA M421-16 Use of electricity in Minimum requirements for electrical work Canada CSA Group, 2016
Storage mines and electrical equipment
Section 6.4.5 operating/intended to operate at a mine
Transportation

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Cowie, Ivan (2015). All About Batteries, Part 12: Lithium Titanate (LTO). EE Times. https://www.eetimes.com/all-about-batter-
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CSA Group. (2016). Use of electricity in mines (Standard No. M421-16[R2016]). CSA Group.
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Hartmann, Mark. (2020). Temperature Adjustable Thermal Management System with Thermal Runaway Protection for Li-ion
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International Air Transport Association (2021). IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations.
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International Electrotechnical Commission (2004). International Electrotechnical Vocabulary Part 826: Electrical installations
(Standard No. IEC 60050-826:2004). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/266
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International Electrotechnical Commission (2021c). Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other non-acid elec-
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International Maritime Organization (2020). IMDG Code. https://www.imo.org/en/publications/Pages/IMDG%20Code.aspx
Jones, K., Bhattacharya, S., & Surampudi, B (2021). Safety Enhancing Technologies for Usage of Mulit-Cell Battery Power
Sysetms in Underground Equipment. SwRI Project No. 03.24852 prepared for the Centres for Diesease Control and Prevention.
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Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells Using an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter. Batteries, 3(4), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3020014
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Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., & Long, R. T. (2011). Lithium-ion batteries hazard and use assessment—Phase I. Quincy,
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(IDLH). Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/7664393.html
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Sun P., Bisschop R., Niu H., Huang X. (2020). A review of battery fires in electric vehicles. Fire Technology, 56, 1361-1410.
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TR_F5_AM_Kiwa Nederland BV. (2017). Lithium Ion Battery Fire Extinguishment Testing Final Report.
UL. (2020a). Batteries for use in electric vehicles (Standard No. UL 2580). 3rd Ed.
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electric power train (Standard No. E/ECE/324/Rev.1/Add.82/Rev.5).https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/fd8e6b47-d767-11e4-9de8-01aa75ed71a1
United Nations. (2019a). Recommendations on the transport of dangerous goods: Manual of tests and criteria (Standard No.
ST/SG/AC.10/11.Rev.7). https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3846833?ln=en
United Nations. (2019b). Recommendations on the transport of dangerous goods: Model regulations, Volume 1 (Standard No.
ST/SG/AC.10/Rev.21).https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3830095?ln=en
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lithium-ion battery fires. Fire Safety Journal, 120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2020.103117

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7. CHARGING SYSTEMS AND METHODS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A BEV charging system typically consists of a step-down and isolation transformer, a rec-
tification system/variable direct current (DC) supply, and a charge rate controller. Some
mine operations will depend on the availability of fully charged batteries; therefore, suffi-
cient design in the charging system is crucial.
• Charging Infrastructure, Section 4.6
Charging BEVs in mining presents challenges that are absent from the commercial BEV
• Charging Philosophy, Section 4.6.2
industry because the equipment is much larger and heavier, thus batteries on most mining • Types of Charging and Connection
BEVs require a much higher capacity. Additionally, the mine environment can be harsh Interfaces, Section 8
because of rough roadways, extreme temperatures, dust, vibration, and concussion from • Charger Performance, Section 9.5
blasting. A given mine will likely employ BEVs from several OEMs, each with different sizes,
battery types, and usage profiles. Thus, a hurdle to overcome when introducing BEVs into
a mine is a strategy for charging all BEVs.
The charger manufacturer and mine operator should communicate about topics such as the durability of the charger
in the environment, shock, environmental conditions, temperature ranges, and humidity to make informed decisions
and select a charger that is appropriate for the environment.
This section describes considerations pertaining to the charging systems used with mining BEVs and describes differ-
ent charging methods, summarized in the navigation below.

Note on terminology
Note that while the terms “fast” and “slow” are used to describe power levels throughout this guideline to accommodate the rapid pace
of change in charging technologies. There are some existing resources that provide further distinction between power classes, such as
CharIN’s position paper on DC CSS power classes (2021).

Safety Considerations A general overview of safety considerations associated with chargers.

Safety by design and guidance on where to look for safety standards.

Charger Installation Provides general guidance on installing charging systems.

Considerations in this subsection are to make sure the installation and use of the charger is safe.

Incoming Power Provides some general considerations about power requirements.

Many of these considerations are for hazard prevention.

Types of Charging Methods Provides some guidance and advantages and disadvantages of different charging
arrangements, including on-board charging, off-board charging of on-board batteries, off-board charging of off-
board batteries (swapping), hybrid methods, proprietary chargers, and alternative systems.
While the section focuses on the features of these different methods and safety is not the primary
consideration, safety by design and hazard mitigation are underlying considerations throughout.

Operation and Controls Provides a brief overview of the components and indicators on the system controls.
Information on visibility and lighting and emergency shutdown.

Communications and Monitoring Provides charging infrastructure recommendations in order for BEVs to
monitor equipment status and communicate to the operator.
Briefly considers how communications protocols should notify about events such as faults.

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7.2 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

The charger–BEV interface is a point of interaction between the charging system and BEV
operators. Safety features should be compliant with regional safety standards. Ergonomic
functionality should be designed to prevent shock and mechanical hazards and avoid phys-
• Physical Environment (Charging
ical risk when personnel install, connect, operate, disconnect, and maintain the (initially unfa-
infrastructure), Section 4.6.5.1
miliar) charging system. Safeguards should also be in place to prevent the system from • Charging System Operation and
moving while plugged in. Maintenance, Section 4.6.6
While working with the charging system and in or near the BEV, personnel are exposed to
electromagnetic radiation. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protec-
tion has several guidelines regarding magnetic field exposure (http://www.icnirp.org/). Chargers should be compliant
with regional electromagnetic emission and susceptibility standards.
The jurisdiction has a significant effect on the electrical and safety standards to which the BEV chargers—and BEVs
themselves—should be designed. In many locations, an electrical code is in effect. Typically, an “authority having juris-
diction” enforces the electrical code, often through a permitting and/or inspection process. Design and construction of
the chargers should be such that they meet the appropriate electrical standards.
Any additional fire suppression and environmental monitoring requirements associated with the charging system and
station should also be considered with reference to existing standards and regulations.

7.3 CHARGER INSTALLATION

It is important that the selected charger is compatible with the energy storage type and
chemistry in use at the mine, rated for the appropriate charging rate (slow or fast), and is
compatible with different conditions. The charging system enclosure/shell should also have
the appropriate environmental protection rating (e.g., NEMA/IP) according to the installation
location. The installation of the charger should comply with local codes and undergo any • Preparing the Charging Area for
Installation, Section 4.6.5.2
approvals or inspections that are necessary.
• Ventilation and Cooling,
Because BEV batteries require frequent charging, exposure to potential hazards often occurs Section 4.7
when personnel connect, operate, and disconnect the charging system. Additionally, the sys-
tem needs to be monitored so that there are no open plugs.

7.4 INCOMING POWER SYSTEM

The power requirements for a charger will be specified by the charger manufacturer. Some considerations are as follows:
• Location of distribution equipment within a distance that maintains system strength
• Generally, mine power distribution systems with chargers that comply with IEEE-
519 or other applicable standards that establish goals for the design of electrical
systems, including both linear and non-linear loads
• Incoming short-circuit rating/withstand capability
• Charging Infrastructure, Section
• Input power requirements: voltage, current, frequency, phases, grounding, and iso- 4.6 (for consideration of the
lation overall infrastructure and
• Voltage fluctuations and other typical mine power challenges in the mine grid planning required to
• Harmonic frequencies produced by chargers and compatibility with other equip- accommodate charging)
• Types of Charging and
ment
Connection Interfaces, Section 8
• A power study is recommended for the overall underground electrical design (for further discussion of types of
interfaces that are used and the
current state of standardization).
7.5 TYPES OF CHARGING METHODS
This subsection provides some guidance on different charging arrangements, design con-
siderations, and their advantages and disadvantages.

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7.5.1 On-Board Charging

With an on-board charging from AC supply arrangement, the connection to the BEV is via an AC plug (Figure 7.1). Equip-
ment for converting AC to DC is located on-board the BEV and consists minimally of power electronics for rectification
and regulation. In addition, a transformer might be required to step the voltage up or down and provide some isolation
from the fixed power system.

Charge Vehicle
Station

VDC Bus
Contactor
Controller

Batteries

Fixed AC Mains Voltage Vehicle

Supply Charge
Controller
Unit

Variable
DC Supply

Figure 7.1. Typical On-Board Charging Arrangement

7.5.1.1 Design Considerations

The mine design should include AC connections where BEVs will be parked. The BEV design requires an integrated
charger on the BEV, with the plug type chosen that is specific to the mine/jurisdiction. In this configuration, the charging
system is not considered separately from the vehicle because it is located on the BEV, and the OEM is responsible for
its performance.
In diesel-based mines, one of the first approaches when considering implementing BEVs might be to adapt mobile
equipment connectors for drills and bolters. This configuration typically requires very little fixed infrastructure because
the configuration involves connecting the charger to the AC supply to charge the equipment. The OEM should supply
everything on the BEV (including an on-board charger). In addition to the AC supply, a pilot circuit should be considered
(and might be required by some regulations if above a certain voltage level) when power increases. Given that it can be
difficult to tell when charging is occurring, there is a risk of arcing if the plug is disconnected during a high-power
charge. Live parts of the connector should also be protected with an automatic shutdown or appropriate ingress pro-
tection to prevent undesired contact.

7.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Table 7.1 describes some advantages and disadvantages of on-board charging. Many of the issues listed under disad-
vantages can potentially be resolved when considering a smaller charger (<100 kW). However, many issues could
become prohibitive as the capacity of the charger increases. Even in cases where issues can be resolved, costs tend to
increase because each BEV needs to be equipped with a charger. Further, design difficulties can increase because OEM
engineers should balance battery and charger size with charging equipment cooling and protection—all while trying to
find space for the charger on the various mobile platforms.

Table 7.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of On-Board Charging

Advantages • The charger is carried with the BEV, eliminating the need to install a separate enclosure within
the mine to house the charger.
• The charging location is more flexible because a dedicated charging unit in a particular location
is not needed to execute a charge.
• There is no downtime associated with travelling to specific charger locations or swapping
batteries.

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Table 7.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of On-Board Charging (continued)

Advantages • Charging can take place when the vehicle is stationary as part of its duty (e.g. unloading
supplies) provided an AC connection is available, thus eliminating downtime for charging.
• OEMs are free to optimize the charger and battery arrangement to suit the BEV.
• Handshaking and communications between the BEV and the stationary connection are
minimized or eliminated.
• Barriers to entry for BEVs are reduced, which can be particularly relevant in mixed fleet mines.

Disadvantages • Potential difficulty for OEMs to accommodate batteries and drivetrain equipment on large
equipment such as LHD machines and haulage trucks.
• A large capacity, on-board charger—including power electronics (and sometimes a
transformer)—adds to this challenge.
• Ergonomics and operator visibility might not be optimal.
• The added weight and volume of the on-board charger consumes space and can limit the range
of the BEV.
• The charging equipment remains with the BEV, where it is exposed to dust, temperature
extremes, vibrations, and other harsh operational conditions.
• With high-capacity chargers, the power electronics should be cooled while the charge is
underway.
• Each BEV would likely have a customized charger, increasing the spare parts inventory,
maintenance requirements, and repair difficulty compared to standardized off-board chargers.
• The power of an on-board charger has practical limits. An off-board approach for high-capacity
charging (>100 kW) may be required.
• Maintenance of the on-board charger can reduce equipment availability.

7.5.2 Off-Board Charging of On-Board Batteries

The off-board charging arrangement locates the transformers and rectification equipment in a fixed enclosure removed
from the BEV (Figure 7.2).

7.5.2.1 Design Considerations

The mine design should include charging stations where BEVs will be parked. The BEV design should specify the
charger protocol/plug type. The charging system design should meet specific protocol/plug type, or be proprietary and
compatible between the BEV and charging system.

Charge Vehicle
AC In

Station
VDC Bus

Charge
Controller Ba琀eries

Vehicle
Charge
Controller
Unit

Charger

Charging
Connector C/W
Comms

Figure 7.2. Off-Board Charging Arrangement

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The charger locations should provide for wayside equipment and ease of access for equipment maintenance and
inspection. A typical off-board charging arrangement locates wayside equipment such as transformers, charging pads,
cooling units, and rectification equipment in a fixed enclosure that is removed from the BEV.

7.5.2.2 Advantages And Disadvantages

Table 7.2 outlines advantages and disadvantages of off-board charging of on-board batteries.

Table 7.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-Board Charging of On-Board Batteries

Advantages • BEV size and weight can be lower because charging equipment is not on the BEV.
• If practical, chargers can be located in cool and contaminant-free areas.
• High-capacity chargers are feasible because size and weight pose less of a challenge.
• Multiple chargers can be connected to multiple ports on a single vehicle for even higher rates of
charging.
• Multiple BEVs can share one charger if connectors and communication protocols are
compatible between BEVs.
• If interfaces are standardized:
– Those in charge of procuring mobile equipment or charging infrastructure can consider mixed
fleets.
– For equipment operators (instructed persons), a simple and consistent charging interface
across the mine can reduce training requirements and operational challenges.
Disadvantages • Space needs to be allocated in the mine to house charging equipment.
• The BEV needs to move to a specific location to charge, which can affect productivity.
• Large mines might require many chargers.
• Greater potential exists for a variety of chargers, leading to handshaking and communication
challenges between the charger and BEV.
• Vehicle can potentially need to be out of service for charging.

7.5.3 Off-Board Charging of Off-Board Batteries (Battery Swapping)

With battery swapping, a depleted battery is removed from the BEV and replaced with a fully charged one (Figure 7.3).
The BEV can resume work while the depleted battery is charged. The energy density limitations of LIBs mean that
swapping can be a viable option if long uphill trips are unavoidable, especially if implementing BEVs in existing mines.

Charge Vehicle
Station
AC In

VDC Bus

Charge
Controller Ba琀eries

Vehicle
Charge
Controller
Unit
Ba琀eries

Charger

Charging
Connector C/W
Comms

Figure 7.3. Battery Swapping Arrangement

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7.5.3.1 Design Considerations

The mine design would not require designated parking for each BEV, but it would require swap-and-charge stations.
Therefore, some fixed charging infrastructure could be eliminated in favour of a swap-and-charge station. The BEV
design should include the ability to swap batteries easily (by being accessible) and safely. The charging system would
be designed into the charging station.

7.5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Table 7.3 identifies some advantages and disadvantages of battery swapping.

Table 7.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-Board Charging of Off-Board Batteries

Advantages • BEVs can undergo multiple battery swaps in a production shift, which could permit a smaller
on-board battery capacity. The battery could be sized to last for short periods and the mining
schedule arranged so swap-outs occur at predetermined intervals, which can reduce the cost of
ore transport per tonne.
• Enables long uphill haulage.
• Some charging infrastructure can be eliminated in favour of a swap-out station.
• Designated parking for each BEV would not be required.
• BEVs do not need to be plugged in at the end of a shift.
• Battery maintenance is less likely to affect the availability of the vehicle.

Disadvantages • Complications in removing the batteries:

– A manual arrangement (e.g., crane) presents both logistic and safety concerns, given the high
frequency of swap-outs.
– An automated arrangement could suffer from wear in the mining environment and require a
high level of engineering effort to accommodate all types of BEVs.
– BEV design options could be limited by the need to facilitate battery removal.
• Fixed infrastructure is required:
– Dedicated swap-and-charge stations would be needed in strategic locations throughout the
mine.
– The swap-and-charge infrastructure can be large and mean more mining excavation to house
the equipment.
– Limited battery charging locations means that much of the mining fleet would need to leave
their work areas to pass through the swap-and-charge stations.
• Battery inventory management can be challenging:
– A substantial battery inventory would be required (e.g., three batteries for every two BEVs),
mitigated by the fact that the batteries could be lower capacity.
– It is unrealistic to have a standardized battery type deployed if operating a mixed fleet, which
can result in management difficulties.

7.5.4 Hybrid Charging Method

A combination of on- and off-board charging arrangements can offer some benefits of both (Figure 7.4). The on-board
component is a low-capacity charger that allows the batteries to be charged over a relatively long time span. If a fast
charge is required, the BEV is driven to an off-board rapid charger. Proper isolation should be designed to avoid inter-
action between the operator and electrical energy.
Most commercial BEVs employ a hybrid arrangement. Typical commuter, home, or business-based charging stations
supply AC power to the BEV, which then uses an on-board charger to convert to DC and regulate the charge rate. For a
long-distance trip beyond the capacity of a single battery charge, the driver pulls into a dedicated off-board facility with
higher rate charging.

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7.5.5 Off-Board Proprietary Chargers

OEMs can choose to develop and supply off-board proprietary chargers for the BEV. The charger is specifically
designed for the BEV and is ordered and delivered with it. However, in a mixed BEV fleet, a specific charger for every
type of BEV can be challenging. Each piece of equipment would need to be assessed, potential charging locations
determined, and an equipment-specific charger installed. The result would likely be multiple charger types at each loca-
tion. In addition, personnel would need to be trained on the various charging interfaces, and support personnel would
need to be capable of maintaining and troubleshooting them.
One way to address these challenges is to use only one OEM for the BEV drivetrain to standardize the entire mine. How-
ever, might limit options.
Proprietary charging solutions can be a useful option in a small-scale BEV deployment or trial.
Mine power

Charge Charge Vehicle

Station Station
(VAC) In

Contactor
(DC) (AC) Controller

Charge
Controller Fixed AC VAC Variable
Supply DC Supply

VDC Bus
Ba琀eries

Vehicle
Charge
Controller
Unit

Charger

Figure 7.4. Typical Hybrid Charging Arrangement

7.5.6 Alternative Charging Systems and Equipment Types

This subsection describes some alternative charging arrangements on different equipment types.

7.5.6.1 Overhead Catenary Systems Or Trolley Assist

Trolley assist systems have been used in underground mining for many years (especially
coal mining). These systems are typically rail mounted and use AC or DC power fed
through cables from overhead catenary systems to move ore and personnel around the
mines. In open pit mining, AC-operated haul trucks fed from overhead catenary systems
• Trolley Assist Systems (Mine
have also been extensively used. The challenge of using a 100% electric truck is the inabil- Design), Section 4.2.1.1
ity of the truck to leave the tracks covered by the trolley system. • Charge-While-Operating Equipment
Group (Mine Design), Section 4.5.1
Historically, a risk with some of these systems was that when the pantograph “bounced”
• Automated Connection Interfaces,
along the wires, high-voltage arcing resulted, often debilitating the system through burned
8.3.2 (describes pantograph,
out transformers and causing issues with the vehicle. inductive, and pin and socket
A recent iteration uses a pantograph for ramp assist to reduce diesel fuel consumption systems)
during the ramp climb. The truck operator aligns the truck with the overhead lines, manu-
ally deploys the pantograph, and switches off the diesel; the sequence is reversed towards
the end of the climb. The trolley system can also be used on the downhill trajectory to inject regenerative energy back

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into the grid. The technology is moving towards a hybrid system, replacing diesel with battery power and automating
the alignment and the deployment of the pantograph.

7.5.6.2 Charge-While-Operating (Tethered) Electric Equipment

Charge-while-operating equipment is typically plugged into AC power while performing work, and they travel under bat-
tery power when moving between work locations. These systems have been in use for many years and include equip-
ment such as bolters, scalers, jumbos, and drills.

7.6 OPERATION AND CONTROLS

7.6.1 Operator Control Visibility and Lighting

When the charger is connected to the BEV, the BEV gives the charger instructions and minimum and maximum current
and voltage limits. The charger complies and provides the requested current and voltage. Status indicators to the oper-
ator include:
• Normal operation
• Fault
• Charging in progress
• Remaining charging time
• Charging complete

7.6.2 Emergency Stop

An emergency stop button should be provided outside the charger. The button should be sequenced so that the power
electronics shut down the charge first, followed by opening the contactors. If power electronics are not responding, then
the contactors will dump. If the charger—power interface is far from the charger unit, then an emergency stop is
required at both locations.

7.7 COMMUNICATIONS AND MONITORING

The open charge point protocol (OCPP) enables BEVs to communicate (i.e., request and confirm) with a central system
over the internet in extensible markup language (XML) format. Implementation of an open communication protocol
(e.g., OCPP 2.0) is recommended.
It is also recommended that a single charging management software should be adopted on-site to manage charging
infrastructure as a whole, regardless of the manufacturer. The software should be capable of load management, report-
ing and monitoring of charging infrastructure, notification of events (e.g. fault, charge complete) to relevant staff, and
prioritization of which vehicle is charged and at what power level if load or charging configuration constraints are
imposed.
The charging infrastructure should also be able to communicate with industrial communications protocols (e.g., Mod-
bus, profibus) since most of the mines already have them implemented in their sites. These communications would
allow sites to control and monitor the chargers from their existing management platform/software.

7.8 STANDARDS CITED IN THIS SECTION

The following standards are cited throughout the section. The table is not intended to be comprehensive, and not all
standards listed will be applicable to all situations. It is the responsibility of the user to reference local regulations and
implement the appropriate standard for their situation. The citations listed are for the latest version of the standard at
the time of this guideline’s publication. Please consult the most recent version of any standard referenced.

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Table 7.4 List of Standards Cited in the Charging Systems and Methods Section (listed in the order they are cited)
Section Industry Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 7.4 IEEE-519 IEEE recommended Establishes goals for the design of International Institute of Electrical and
Incoming Power practice and requirements for electrical systems that include both Electronics Engineers
System harmonic control in electric power linear and non-linear loads Standards Association,
systems 2014
Section 7.7 Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) Communications protocol that International Open Charge Alliance,
Communications 2.0 enables BEVs to communicate over 2018
and Monitoring the internet in XML

SECTION REFERENCES
CharIN. (2021). Position Paper of Charging Interface Initiative e.V. DC CSS Power Classes V7.1.
https://www.charin.global/media/pages/technology/knowledge-base/6539b64483-
1624010965/charin_dc_ccs_power_classes.pdf

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association. (2014). IEEE recommended practice and requirements
for harmonic control in electric power systems (Standard No. IEEE-519-2014). https://standards.ieee.org/ieee/519/3710/

Open Charge Alliance (2018). Open Charge Point Protocol 2.0. https://www.openchargealliance.org/downloads/

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8. TYPES OF CHARGING AND CONNECTION INTERFACES

8.1 INTRODUCTION
When establishing a charging philosophy, standardizing the charging interface as much as
possible is ideal in making BEV charging simple, convenient, and safe. While Section 7 pro-
vides context on the charging systems and different charging methods, this section pro-
• Charging Infrastructure, Section 4.6
vides information on and considerations associated with different types of connection
• Charging Systems and Methods,
interfaces. Section 7
Currently, different standard connection interfaces are in place in different regions. Table • Charger Performance, Section 9.5
8.1 summarizes electric vehicle connection interfaces that are currently used around the
world. These interfaces are discussed throughout the section, and standards that are
included are referenced to by standard number. Table 8.3 at the end of this section lists the standards in the order that
they first appear and provides further information, including the title, description, and citation.
Adopting standards from the commercial BEV industry can be an approach to improving standardization and thereby
interoperability between BEVs on a given site. However, the demands of a mining BEV typically differ from those of a
passenger BEV. The connectors, charger, voltages, charge rates, and communication methods need to be suitable for
a mining BEV drivetrain and battery. In the future, if emerging solutions are not suitable for a mining environment, then
the development of a mining interface can be a potential solution. However, achieving agreement on connector type,
communication protocol, handshaking, and other details can be challenging.

On-Board Charging from Alternating Current (AC) Supply Interface (Section 8.2) Describes on-board AC
connection interfaces defined by IEC 62196.
Considers safety aspects such as cord length, voltage, isolation, and controls.

Off-Board Charging Interface (Section 8.3) Describes off-board connectors such as CCS type, CHAdeMO, other
proprietary chargers, automated connection interfaces, and off-board standardized charging interfaces.
Not a direct focus on safety, but safety considerations associated with automated connection devices are
considered.

Battery Swapping and Charging Interface (Section 8.4) Considers important elements of the interface used to
mate the battery to the vehicle and the charger, including durability, power, and interoperability.
Considers aspects of durability that can affect safety.

Table 8.1. Summary of Types of Existing Connection Interfaces

Current type Connection Type Description Image Region(s) Cross-reference
AC SAE J1772 (also 1 phase and 3 North America, See Section 8.2
referred to as IEC phase AC Japan
62196 Type 1) charging

IEC 62196 Type 2 1 phase and 3 Europe and See Section 8.2
Connector (also phase AC other markets
referred to as charging
Mennekes)

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Table 8.1. Summary of Types of Existing Connection Interfaces (continued)

Current type Connection Type Description Image Region(s) Cross-reference
DC CCS Type 1/ High-power North America, See Section 8.3.1
Combo-1 (also DC charging South Korea1
referred to as via dedicated
CCS1) pins

CCS Type High-power Europe, See Section 8.3.1

2/Combo 2 (also DC charging Greenland,
referred to as via dedicated South
CCS2) pins America,
South Africa,
Saudi Arabia,
Australia, and
other markets2
GB/T 20234 DC charging China See Section 8.3.1

ChAdeMO DC charging Japan See Section 8.3.1

1. Kane (2021) and CharIN (2021a).

2. Kane (2021) and CharIN (2021a). The CharIN recommendation is for the adoption of CCS Type 2/Combo 2 in global markets that do not yet have recommended regulations supporting a spe-
cific CCS connector type yet (CharIN, 2020)
Other references for related general information include “Connector Solutions for HEV/AV Charging Systems” (2019); “What is CCS Charging” (Gaton, 2018), and “The Different Types of EV Charg-
ing Connector Types” (2019).

8.2 ON-BOARD CHARGING FROM ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) SUPPLY INTERFACE

During charging, a connector carrying AC is brought to the BEV. The power conversion equipment and most commu-
nication needed to regulate charge rates are on-board the BEV. This configuration minimizes the amount of communi-
cation needed through the connector between the mobile and stationary equipment.
The output cable chosen is specific to the local conventions of a given mine/jurisdiction.
The AC feed could be via a “jumbo” cable connection or dedicated disconnect—as chosen
by the customer or OEM. The cord set should be easily replaceable in case it is damaged
or needs to be longer (i.e., a longer cord is recommended rather than adding an extension).
For commercial BEVs, on-board charging is generally used for low-rate charging (e.g., at • On-Board Charging (Charging
the owner’s home or business). Connector types are defined by IEC 62196-1, IEC 62196- Systems and Methods), Section
7.5.1
2, and IEC 62196-3 and vary depending on the region. For North America, BEVs have stan-
dardized the IEC 62196 Type 1 (SAE J1772) connector. In Europe, a higher capacity Type 2
connector is employed, supporting a higher voltage but lower current, delivering up to 22 kW. See also Table 8.1 for a
summary and visuals of these connection interfaces.
The signalling over the IEC 62196 connectors for AC charging is limited to:
• Determining whether the plug is inserted into the BEV
• Indicating to the BEV the available mains current, so the BEV does not attempt to draw more current than the
charging station is able to deliver
Another option for on-board charging is to use conventional underground mining AC plugs.

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8.3 OFF-BOARD CHARGING INTERFACE

The following subsections describe manually operated and conductive automated connec-
tion devices for off-board charging and consider the options that currently exist.

8.3.1 Manually Operated Connection Interface

The power electronics for converting AC line voltage to DC for charging are housed within
stationary equipment next to the BEV. Hence, a DC connector is used. Overall, the application • Off-Board Charging of On-Board
of off-board charging in mines is an evolving situation. Ultimately, multiple connectors can Batteries (Charging Systems and
Methods), Section 7.5.2
be required.
While the charge is taking place, the BMS needs to constantly vary the current that is deliv-
ered. The BMS monitors the energy consumed by the BEV while being driven, as well as temperature, individual cell volt-
ages, and total pack voltage. During charging, the same process is monitored in reverse, creating a safety net in the
event of problems with a single cell within the battery pack.
At up to 80% SOC, the BEV will typically demand relatively high amounts of power. Demand will taper off as the charge
progresses into the final phases to prevent damage to battery packs. Since the BEV is requesting the changes in charge
rate and the charger is varying the rate, a robust means of communicating between the two units is essential. This
requirement contrasts with on-board charging, where communication over the connector is limited to the initial hand-
shaking.
To date, different chargers are regulated in different regions (see Table 8.1 for a summary). Thus, OEMs have responded
by accommodating multiple standards on a single charger.
Most widely used in mining BEVs are the two versions of CCSs—Type 1/Combo 1 and Type 2/Combo 2—which differ
only in the physical connector (see Table 8.1). Connector types vary by region — CCS Type 1/Combo 1 is used in North
American and South Korean markets, and CCS Type 2/Combo 2 is used in European markets and several other global
markets, including Greenland, Australia, South America, South Africa, and Saudi Arabia (Kane, 2021 and CharIN, 2021a).
CharIN recommends adopting CCS Type 2 Combo 2 in global markets that do not yet have recommended regulations
supporting a specific CCS connector type yet (CharIN, 2020). CCS Type 1/Combo 1 and Type 2/Combo 2 protocols sup-
port charging current up to 500 A and charging power up to 350 kW (CharIN, 2018; CharIN 2021c).
For an overview of standards related to CCS implementation, see the CharIN basic CCS implementation guide (2021b).
Other DC connectors include:
• CHAdeMO connectors, which have found widespread acceptance in Japan, and are also used in North Amer-
ica and in some parts of Europe (CHAdeMO, 2021). Chargers are currently limited to 62.5 kW (125 A at
500 VDC), though the connector is rated for up to 100 kW (200 A at 500 VDC).
• GB/T 20234 type connector, implemented in China, capable of 187.5 kW (250 A at 750 VDC).
• Proprietary systems have been developed for the automotive industry.
For DC chargers that use a cable and plug to connect to a BEV, a durable armoured charger output cable should be
selected. The cord set should be as short as possible and have sheathing or other protective measures. To prevent
damage when the cable is not in use, a retraction system, control device, or hanger should be considered.
The CCS Type 1/Combo 1 or Type 2/Combo 2 and CHAdeMO have the following advantages:
• Proven performance in the automotive industry
• Locking connector
• Relatively lightweight and manageable
• Easily maintained
• Readily available spare parts
• Various scenarios can be tested “out of the box” (e.g., insertion/removal testing)
Disadvantages include:
• Automotive connectors are plastic
• Limited CHAdeMO voltage (500 VDC)

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8.3.1.1 Recommendation for Standardization

A standardized, non-proprietary connection interface is vital to control charging cost and complexity and to enable
standardization between mining BEVs. The current approach to standardizing off-board charger interfaces for mining
is to use one from the automotive industry. The CCS protocol is currently the most widely adopted standard for off-
board charging in mines. It has the following advantages:
• The physical interface and communication protocol are designed to allow a robust and safe connection
between the charger and the BEV.
• It is capable of DC charging up to 1,000 V; other systems can only charge up to about 500 V, which is not
enough for large mining BEVs.
• The CCS cable assembly without a liquid-cooled cable has current ratings up to 200 A, which enables up to
150 kW charging power.
• The CCS cable assembly with a liquid-cooled cable has current ratings up to 500 A, which enables up to 350
kW charging power.
• The latest CCS standard enables up to 500 A for 500 kW charging.
• New versioning (CCS Advanced) needs to be elaborated by CharIN working groups. It currently allows for wire-
less power transfer (including pantograph) via ISO 15118-8, and reverse power transfer will be enabled with
ISO/DIS 15118-20 (currently under development). See the CharIN CCS basic implementation guide (2021b,
Figure 1) for a vision of ongoing and future work.
It is recommended to use the CCS type applicable to your region, however, it is currently not possible to implement
either CCS type worldwide due to availability and certification requirements.

8.3.1.2 Communication Protocol

The parameters to be exchanged between vehicle and charging stations for the CCS can be found in the OEM CCS pro-
tocol and at https://charinev.org.

8.3.2 Automated Connection Interfaces

Automated connection devices can provide the following potential benefits over manual ones:
• Time savings: Automated connection devices enable time savings both by providing high-power fast charging
at rates over 350 kW and by reducing downtime by limiting the waiting time for drivers to exit when the vehicle
stops at the charging station.
• Greater comfort: Being able to stay inside the vehicle can improve operator comfort, especially in areas with
high temperature and humidity.
• Reliability: Automated charging can reduce human error, such as forgetting to plug in and charge the vehicle,
thereby rendering the vehicle inoperative for the next driver. When using manual plugs, maintenance techni-
cians often need to replace cords due to regular wear and tear or improper use (e.g., cords left on the ground
or in a puddle or accidentally hooked on the mirror as the vehicle drives away).
• Future-ready: Having an autonomous vehicle that requires a human to charge it can reduce the benefits of
implementing autonomous systems. Automated charging solves this problem and protects infrastructure
investments from becoming obsolete as more operations implement autonomous systems.
Some drawbacks that should be considered alongside the above benefits include:
• Higher initial cost
• Greater weight
• Greater number of components with higher complexity
Several standards for automated connection devices have recently been published to support interoperability between
various charger manufacturers and OEMs, and others have been in draft form for several years and are expected to see
publication soon. Though some of the published standards are written for industries outside of mining (e.g., automo-
tive). For example, conductive automated connection interfaces are standardized in SAE J3015. While many aspects of
these standards can be applied to mining, certain aspects, such as the position on the vehicle, might need to be
adjusted.

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It is recommended to use the same charging interface for both halves of the interface to enable safe operation. Char-
acteristics to consider when choosing a connection interface include:
• Rated voltage according to IEC 60664-1 or other applicable standard
• Rated amperage according to IEC 60364-5-52 or other applicable standard
• Ingress protection when mated or unmated
• Touch protection
• Enclosed versus exposed contacts (Y/N)
• Sequencing (ground contact is first make, last break, control pilot is last make, first break) (Y/N)
• Wire cross-section
• Number of power contacts
• Number of signal contact
• Misalignment tolerance
• Available configurations (i.e., top-down, bottom-up, side)
• Self-cleaning (Y/N)

8.3.2.1 Pantographs
As an alternative to connector-based charging, pantograph-based systems are being used
to charge larger BEVs such as city buses. However, compatibility with an underground mine
environment has yet to be evaluated. Pantographs are mechanical linkages connected in a
• Alternative Charging Systems and
way that the movement of one arm produces identical movements in a second arm. Bottom-
Equipment Types, Section 7.5.6
up varieties are mounted on-board the BEV and extend upwards to make contact with the
charger (Figure 8.1 left). In top-down varieties, the pantograph is mounted on the infrastruc-
ture and extends downward onto charging rails on the roof of the BEV (Figure 8.1, right). See Table 8.2 for a comparison
between both types. These interfaces are standardized in SAE J3105. In the charging station, communication is estab-
lished between the BEV and the charger. An overhead connection is lowered onto the BEV via a pantograph, mating with
the charging rails. After completing a safety check, the charge is initiated. In general, the charge rate of the pantograph
arrangement is high (150–450 kW) and is expected to increase. Several electric bus and infrastructure manufacturers
are developing standardized recommended practices for charging interfaces.
Advantages of pantograph charging include:
• Safe automated connection system (no human interaction with power elements)
• Very high-power DC charging is permitted (currently up to 600 kW at 1,000 VDC)
• High-voltage ratings
• Open-source charging connection systems enabling interoperability among different types of BEV

Figure 8.1. Two Pantograph Interfaces Available and Standardized in SAE J3105

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Table 8.2. Comparison Between Top-down and Bottom-up Pantograph

Top-down pantograph Bottom-up pantograph
• Pantograph is off the vehicle (reduced weight) • Pantograph is on the vehicle (heavier)
• If pantograph requires maintenance, vehicle is still in • If pantograph requires maintenance, vehicle may be
service out of service
• Spare top-down pantograph is cheaper than spare • Uses the CCS protocol, hence vehicle integration and
vehicle for redundancy sequential charging are easier
• Uses the OppCharge standard
(https://www.oppcharge.org/), which is less
standardized compared to CCS, with more room for
interpretation, which can create a longer vehicle
integration process with each OEM

Compliance according to CCS-Mode-4 communication is of key importance. Therefore, a minimum 4-pole design is
required for the contact interface with DC+, DC–, protective earth, and control pilot for communication and safety pur-
poses.
A pantograph can have a mechanical connection sequence as described in IEC 62196-3, although it is not required. If
no contact order can be guaranteed during an unintentional disconnect, IEC 61851-23 stipulates that a risk assessment
should show that no dangerous situation will occur. Note that when the connection is made, no voltage is present on
the automatic connection devices (IEC 61851-23).
Two versions of top-down pantographs are currently on the market: with or without the mechanical connection
sequence. In the first version, the charging station applies a signal check making sure all poles are connected. The con-
tact verification assures communication between the BEV and charging station can only begin when all contacts are
connected properly. Hence, power transmission can only begin when the system is protected by protective earth, while
the BEV cannot move if the pantograph is connected. A very fast disconnection time in case of emergency is required.
In the second version, with the connection sequence, there are various interfaces (Figure 8.2), such as contact cones,
contact rails, and contact hoods, with different sizes depending on the available space on the roof of the vehicle.
Another recently adopted option is to use a bottom-up pantograph to charge BEVs from below (Figure 8.3). The pan-
tograph is installed in the ground on a specific isolated location, and the connection interface (modified contact dome)
is installed on the chassis/axles of the BEV. The BEV then moves over the pantograph, stopping at the required location.
The pantograph moves upward to mate with the interface on the BEV chassis/axles. This high-power charging method
is useful when there are limitations on the available space on the BEV roof for installing contact bars or similar connec-
tion interfaces.
High-level communication between the off-board charger and BEV can be done via the control pilot contact using the
PLC protocol or via a wireless interface using an adapted version of the PLC protocol.
For all pantograph charging, IEC 61851-23 specifies a minimum distance of 3 m from the surface on which people
stand to any touchable live conductors that are not otherwise protected from human contact.

Figure 8.2. Three Interfaces Available for Top-Down Figure 8.3. Underbody Charging Using a Bottom-Up
Pantographs with Connection Sequence Pantograph

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8.3.2.2 Inductive Charging Interfaces

Inductive charging is similar to pantograph charging but is wireless and eliminates physical contact between the charger
and the vehicle. Inductive charging involves energizing a primary coil with an oscillating electromagnetic field to transfer
energy to a secondary coil. Resonant charging is a type of inductive charging where primary and secondary coils oscil-
late at the same resonant frequency, which strongly connects the two coils and does not require their precise alignment.
A benefit to inductive charging is that it is done with no cables, wires, plugs, catenaries, or pantographs to install and
deploy, making the installation clean and efficient. Enclosed electrical connections reduce the risk of electrical shorts
and shock and protect the equipment from the corrosion associated with underground mines. In addition, the risk of
damage to cables, plugs, and other wayside components is virtually eliminated. Inductive charging also offers an
opportunity for automating the charging cycle because there are no moving parts, and no human interaction is required
to connect or disconnect electrical components.
Currently, two inductive charging methods have been developed for BEVs: stationary and dynamic. Stationary chargers
consist of a primary coil that is typically buried underground at a permanent charging base location; the secondary coil
is located on the underside of the BEV. Dynamic chargers are similar, but instead of a fixed location for the primary coil,
multiple coils are positioned along the route of travel to allow seamless and continuous charging while the BEV is in
motion. To date, stationary charging is more widely deployed, with several implementations in operation in mass trans-
port systems. Dynamic charging systems are still emerging and only experimentally deployed.

8.3.2.3 Automated Enclosed Pin and Socket

The automated enclosed pin and socket interface (Figures 8.4, 8.5, and 8.6) is described in the following published inter-
national standards:
• SAE J3105 Electric Vehicle Power Transfer System Using Conductive Automated Connection Devices (it is the
automated connection device capable of the highest power levels described in this standard, and the only one
with touch protection)
• SAE J3105/3: Enclosed Pin and Socket Connection
• IEC 61851-23: Electric vehicle conductive charging system – Part 23: DC electric vehicle charging station
• IEC 61851-23-1 (in progress): Electric vehicle conductive charging system - Part 23-1: DC electric vehicle
charging station with an automated connection device
• IEC 63407 (in progress - Previously EN 50696) Conductive charging of electric vehicles - Contact interface for
automated connection device (ACD)
This connection interface functions by having a flexible plug extend from the charging station, plug into the charging
socket installed on the BEV, and initiate charging after a signal is issued (Figure 8.4). This interface is for rapid charging
systems currently rated up to 1 MW continuous at 1,000 VDC. A higher power transfer can occur depending on duty
cycle and derating based on the specific application, for example this can be used at a power transfer rate of 1.4 MW
at 1000 VDC with a 15% duty cycle, or 2 MW+ at 1500 VDC with a 15% duty cycle. These power levels are achieved with-
out liquid cooling, thereby reducing the total cost of ownership and maintenance. It is also fully enclosed and touch-
protected with integrated angular and positioning misalignment compensation. It can be installed on the side, front, or
back of the BEV.
The entire system is designed to maintain the safety of the operator and other personnel, and it includes safety features
like touch protection, contact sequencing, and fully enclosed power contacts. In all situations—whether the system is
plugged in or not—all live parts are out of reach of personnel and protected against accidental contact. The power and
signal contacts are released only after the contact carrier has been precisely mechanically connected; the electronic
release to start charging is then issued.
Key safety and performance features include:
• The pin side contains the motors and guide rails, the signal connections, and the control box. As the insulator
retracts, the contacts are exposed to make it touch-safe.
• The socket contains the replaceable contact elements for the electrical connections.
• The contacts are self-cleaning.
• The pin and socket are fully enclosed to protect nearby personnel from unintended arc flash.

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This interface also includes a force sensor that senses if

something is obstructing the pin from entering the
socket, causing it to retract, thus preventing damage or
harm to equipment, vehicles, and personnel.
Misalignment tolerance is achieved by the funnel and
rear spring on the pin. If the connection is off centre or
approaching at the wrong angle, it will find the centre of
the socket. The funnel is attached to the socket and pro-
vides misalignment tolerance, and a limit switch can be
used to signal that the connector is fully mated and
ready for power to flow. Figure 8.4. Automated Enclosed Pin and Socket Charging
Interface

Figure 8.5 Generic Site Layout (adapted with permission from Staubli, 2022)

Figure 8.6 Automated Connection Device (ACD) and Socket with Sub-parts (adapted with permission from Staubli,
2022)

8.4 BATTERY SWAPPING AND CHARGING INTERFACE

In a typical battery swapping application, the battery is disconnected from the BEV, then removed via a crane, forklift,
or on-board lifting mechanism. Once the battery has been disconnected from the BEV, it is directly connected to the

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charger. When the charge is completed, the reverse process is followed to reinstall and
reconnect the battery on-board the BEV.
An important consideration for all battery swapping applications is the interface used to
mate the battery to the vehicle and the charger. That connection interface is a critical fail-
ure point that will experience the most wear of any component in the energy system.
• Off-Board Charging of Off-Board
Batteries (Charging Systems and
8.4.1 Durability Methods), Section 7.5.3
In the case of battery swapping, the battery will undergo many connection/disconnection
cycles. Therefore, a connector with a high and reliable mating cycle should be considered
in order to avoid any failure due to wear. The connector should be able to endure many mating cycles without reduced
performance or required maintenance. Ideally, the connector should be sufficiently durable to enable the site to charge
as fast as possible to minimize the battery swapping time and improve overall system efficiency.
A connector that has the capability to compensate for some misalignment is recommended in case swapping equip-
ment is not accurate (see Figure 8.7 for an example). Even if there is guidance between the vehicle and charging infras-
tructure, this guidance is usually not precise enough for a standard connector.
Due to natural wear from handling, vehicle vibration and shock, and dust and dirt in the mine, the durability of the con-
nector is critical. In order to confirm the connector’s reliability, it is recommended that a connector for this application
conforms to standards that confirm the safe and reliable operation of the overall system (e.g., railway fire protection
[EN-45545-2], railway shock and vibration [EN-61373], or other similar standards developed specifically for the BEV
industry).

Figure 8.7. Connector Capable of Compensating for Misalignment (Adapted with permission from Staubli, 2019)

8.4.2 Power
Charging in a swapping application typically aims to be as fast as possible so that batteries can be reintroduced to
another vehicle with minimal delay and so that fewer overall batteries and less racking space are required. The connec-
tor used needs to be able to handle the high power requirements for batteries to be charged at very rapid rates. The
connector should be rated for high continuous current and also high short-circuit current. A high continuous current
rating enables maximum performance and minimal power loss from heat. The connector should also meet the high
short-circuit rating in order to meet several certifications related to energy storage systems. The overall efficiency of
the energy system will be largely affected by the contact resistance of the connector. Using connection technology with
low resistance across the power contacts is an option for reducing warming and improving the efficiency of the entire
energy system.

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8.4.3 Interoperability
Unlike typical charging, interoperability for battery swapping depends not only on the connector and the communica-
tion behind it but also on the overall form factor of the swappable battery pack and its integration into the vehicle. For
that reason, using the same infrastructure for various vehicles can be complicated. Looking at other industries that are
already further developed in terms of electrification of vehicles (car industry, buses), interoperability is one of the main
reasons why battery swapping is not used as much.

8.5 STANDARDS CITED IN THIS SECTION

The following standards are cited throughout the section. The table is not intended to be comprehensive, and not all
standards listed will be applicable to all situations. It is the responsibility of the user to reference local regulations and
implement the appropriate standard for their situation. The citations listed are for the latest version of the standard at
the time of this guideline’s publication. Please consult the most recent version of any standard referenced.

Table 8.3. List of Standards Cited in the Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces Section (listed in the order
they are cited)
Section Industry Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 8.1 Introduction SAE J1772 SAE electric vehicle and General physical, electrical, North America SAE International,
plug in hybrid electric vehicle functional, and performance 2017
conductive charge coupler requirements to facilitate
Section 8.2 On-Board
conductive charging of BEVs
Charging from Alternating
and plug in hybrid electric
Current (AC) Interface
vehicles

Section 8.1 Introduction IEC 62196-1 Plugs, socket-outlets, Applies to plugs, socket-outlets, International International
Section 8.2 On-Board vehicle connectors and vehicle vehicle connectors, vehicle Electrotechnical
Charging from Alternating inlets—Conductive charging of inlets and cable assemblies for Commission, 2014b
Current (AC) Interface electric vehicles—Part 1: General BEVs
requirements

Section 8.1 Introduction IEC 62196-2 Plugs, socket-outlets, Applies to plugs, socket-outlets, International International
vehicle connectors and vehicle vehicle connectors and vehicle Electrotechnical
Section 8.2 On-Board inlets—Conductive charging of inlets with pins and contact- Commission, 2016
electric vehicles—Part 2: tubes of standardized
Charging from Alternating
Dimensional compatibility and configuration
Current (AC) Interface
interchangeability requirements for
a.c. pin and contact-tube
accessories

Section 8.1 Introduction IEC 62196-3 Plugs, socket-outlets, Applies to vehicle couplers with International International
vehicle connectors and vehicle pins and contact-tubes of Electrotechnical
inlets—Conductive charging of standardized configuration. Commission, 2014c
Section 8.2 On-Board
electric vehicles—Part 3: Configurations for both CCS
Charging from Alternating
Dimensional compatibility and interfaces, CHAdeMO, and GB/T
Current (AC) Interface
interchangeability requirements for are all described in this standard
d.c. and a.c./d.c. pin and contact-
Section 8.3.2.1 tube vehicle couplers
Pantographs

Section 8.1 Introduction GB/T 20234-3 Connection set of Connection interface standard China GB Standards, 2015
conductive charging for electric implemented in China. Part 3
vehicles–Part 3: DC charging coupler (cited) covers DC charging
Section 8.3.1 Manually
Operated Connection
Interface

Section 8.3.1.1 ISO 15118-8 Road vehicles — Specifies physical and data link International International
Recommendation for Vehicle to grid communication layer requirements for wireless Organization for
Standardization interface — Part 8: Physical layer and communication between electric Standardization, 2020
data link layer requirements for vehicles and charging systems
wireless communication

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Table 8.3. List of Standards Cited in the Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces Section (listed in the order
they are cited) (continued)
Section Industry Standard Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Section 8.3.2 IEC 60664-1 Insulation coordination Insulation coordination for International International
Automated Connection for equipment within low-voltage equipment within low-voltage Electrotechnical
Interfaces systems—Part 1: Principles, systems Commission, 2020
requirements and tests
Section 8.3.2 Automated IEC 60364-5-52 Low-voltage Selection and erection of wiring International International
Connection Interfaces electrical installations—Part 5-52: systems Electrotechnical
Selection and erection of electrical Commission, 2009
equipment—Wiring systems
Section 8.3.2 Automated SAE J3105 Electric Vehicle Power Physical, electrical, functional, International SAE International,
Connection Interfaces Transfer System Using Conductive testing, and performance 2020
Automated Connection Devices requirements for vehicles using
a conductive automated
Section 8.3.2.1
connection. There is a main
Pantographs
document that references the
entire system, and sub-
Section 8.3.2.3 documents for specifics on
Automated Enclosed Pin infrastructure-mounted cross
and Socket rail connection (J3105/1),
vehicle-mounted pantograph
connection (J3105/2), and
enclosed pin and socket
connection (J3105/3)

Section 8.3.2.1 IEC 61851-23 Electric vehicle Requirements for the control of International International
Pantographs conductive charging system—Part communication between the DC Electrotechnical
Section 8.3.2.3 Automated 23: DC electric vehicle charging charger and the BEV Commission, 2014a
Enclosed Pin and Socket station

Section 8.3.2.3 Automated IEC 61851-23-1 Electric vehicle DC electric vehicle charging International In progress
Enclosed Pin and Socket conductive charging system- Part station with an automated
23-1: DC electric vehicle charging connection device
station with an automated
connection device

Section 8.3.2.3 Automated IEC 63407 Conductive charging of (Previously EN 50696) International In progress
Enclosed Pin and Socket electric vehicles - Contact interface Conductive charging of electric
for automated connection device vehicles - Contact interface for
(ACD). automated connection device
(ACD).

SECTION REFERENCES

CharIN (2018). Position Paper of Charging Interface Initiative e.V. https://www.charin.global/media/pages/technology/knowl-

edge-base/a2d3659f77-1615552583/charin_endorses_increasing_charging_currents_for_battery_electric_passenger_vehi-
cles.pdf

CharIN (2020). Charging Interface Initiative e.V. https://www.charin.global/media/pages/technology/knowledge-

base/4f8ce6f5d9-1615552574/017charin_one_pager_connectors_used_worldwide.pdf

CharIN (2021a). CCS Charging Map. https://www.charin.global/technology/dashboard/

CharIN (2021b). CharIN Implementation Guide CCS Basic. https://www.charin.global/technology/ccs-specification/

CharIN (2021c). CSS Power Classes V7.1. https://www.charin.global/media/pages/technology/knowledge-

base/6539b64483-1624010965/charin_dc_ccs_power_classes.pdf

CHAdeMO (2021). Fast Charger Maps. https://www.chademo.com/about-us/fast-charger-maps/

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 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING | 91

Connector Solutions. (2019). Connector Solutions for HEV/EV Charging Systems. Connector Supplier. https://www.connector-
supplier.com/connector-solutions-for-hev-ev-charging-challenges/
The Different EV Charging Connector Types. (2019). Enelx.https://evcharging.enelx.com/resources/blog/552-ev-charging-
connector-types
Gaton, B. (2018). What is CCS Charging? The Drive. https://thedriven.io/2018/12/10/what-is-ccs-charging/
GB Standards. (2015). Connection set of conductive charging for electric vehicles–Part 3: DC charging coupler (Standard No.
GB/T 20234-3). National Standard of the People’s Republic of China.
http://www.gbstandards.org/China_standards/GB/GB_T%2020234.3-2015.htm
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2009). Low-voltage electrical installations—Part 5-52: Selection and erection of
electrical equipment—Wiring systems (Standard No. IEC 60364-5-52:2009). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/1878
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2014a). Electric vehicle conductive charging system—Part 23: DC electric vehicle
charging station (Standard No. IEC 61851-23:2014). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6032
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2014b). Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets—Conductive
charging of electric vehicles—Part 1: General requirements (Standard No. IEC 62196-1:2014). https://webstore.iec.ch/publica-
tion/6582
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2014c). Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets—Conductive
charging of electric vehicles—Part 3: Dimensional compatibility and interchangeability requirements for d.c. and a.c./d.c. pin
and contact-tube vehicle couplers (Standard No. IEC 62196-3:2014). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6584
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2016). Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets—Conductive
charging of electric vehicles—Part 2: Dimensional compatibility and interchangeability requirements for a.c. pin and contact-
tube accessories (Standard No. IEC 62196-2:2016). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/24204
International Electrotechnical Commission. (2020). Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage systems—Part 1:
Principles, requirements and tests (Standard No. IEC 60664-1:2020). https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/59671
International Organization for Standardization. (2020). Road vehicles — Vehicle to grid communication interface — Part 8:
Physical layer and data link layer requirements for wireless communication (Standard No. ISO 15118-8).
https://www.iso.org/standard/80525.html
Kane, M. (2021) CCS Combo Charging Standard Map: See Where CCS1 And CCS2 Are Used. Inside EVs.
https://insideevs.com/photo/5601662/phoenix-contact-fast-charging-inlets-ccs-combo-1/
SAE International. (2017). SAE electric vehicle and plug in hybrid electric vehicle conductive charge coupler (Standard No.
J1772_201710). https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j1772_201710/
SAE International. (2020). Electric Vehicle Power Transfer System Using Conductive Automated Connection Devices (Standard
No. J3105_202001). https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3105_202001/
Staubli. (2019). Modular Connection System. https://defence.nridigital.com/global_defence_technology_sep19/staubli_elec-
trical_connectors

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9. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the electric mine is operating, data should be collected and
analyzed to assess mine performance. This section describes the Note on safety content in this section
types of data and information required to assess the capabilities of This section does not have a specific safety
battery-powered equipment for underground mines, summarized focus, but performance information can be used
in the navigation below. The goal of this section is to define the typ- to identify and mitigate hazards (e.g., from
ical performance parameters used in the mining industry for under- overheating and performing batteries and
chargers).
ground mobile equipment and to lay out example performance
specifications and data sheets for the equipment, batteries, and
chargers. The descriptions of performance requirements and capabilities can be used to establish common
approaches for:
• Mine operators to specify the performance requirements to achieve their operational goals
• OEMs to describe the performance within the respective machine specification/data sheets, and communi-
cate the information required from mining companies to confirm that machines meet the operational goals
The mine operators will then be able to identify the availability of BEVs as potential alternatives to diesel equipment for
their operations, and the OEMs will be able to ascertain the industry requirements. The division of the responsibilities
between the operator, OEM, and other parties such as infrastructure and technology providers will depend on the pro-
ject requirements.

Definitions (Section 9.2) Identifies and defines key terms used throughout this section to compare BEVs to diesel
equipment. Terms include: duty cycle, idle/queued periods, availability, utilization, and battery charge time.

Equipment Performance (Section 9.3) Outlines the testing protocol, requirements, and specifications in order to
maintain peak equipment performance. Information on equipment performance assessments, regenerative
braking systems, ramp conditions, and heat generation is also provided.

Battery Performance (Section 9.4) Contains some examples of battery performance charts, parameters, and
specifications to confirm optimal performance.

Charger Performance (Section 9.5) Contains charger performance charts, parameters, and specifications to
confirm optimal performance.

9.2 DEFINITIONS
It is essential to have clarity on the terminology used to describe the performance of the
BEV in comparison to diesel equipment.

9.2.1 Duty Cycle • Mine Layout and Infrastructure,

The overall performance of electric equipment should not be described in terms of the total Section 4.2 (impact of duty cycle on
design and planning)
time from the beginning to the end of a process. Instead, it should include both process
• Charging Infrastructure, Section 4.6
time (i.e., when a unit is acted upon to bring it closer to an output) and delay time (i.e., when (impact of charging time on design
a unit of work is expended waiting to take the next action). and planning)
The duty cycle for BEV equipment is typically more complex than a diesel equivalent. In • Training, Section 4.9 (considers
training on performance differences)
addition to the typical calculations about travel distances and process time, there is an
• Types of Charging Methods, Section
energy balance to consider. As a result, the evaluation of how the equipment gets its 7.5 (details about advantages and
energy and the activities involved in that process (e.g., charging) should also be considered disadvantages of specific methods)
in calculating cycle time. Some considerations to take into account are covered in Table
9.1.

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Table 9.1. Duty Cycle Considerations (non-exhaustive)

Plugged in while • Examples: jumbos, bolters
working with on- • Are tramming distances within range of a full battery?
board chargers
• Are there any cases where the equipment has to operate on the battery?
• Do on-board chargers have sufficient capacity to fully charge the batteries while operating?
Charging while • Examples: boom trucks, transmixers
stationary with on- • Is there an opportunity to charge while the machine is stationary as part of its job? For
board chargers
example: charging while unloading a boom truck in a storage area
• What amount of regeneration can be expected under different payload scenarios?
• More opportunity to charge and top up charge
Swapping batteries, • Example: LHDs, haul trucks
and charging the • How long does it take to swap a battery from start to finish?
batteries off-board
with off-board • How long does it take to drive to the swap station?
chargers • Any risk of queueing for the swap station?
• How many trips can be completed before a battery needs to be swapped?
• What amount of regeneration can be expected under different payload scenarios?
• Typically higher top speeds and increased acceleration to compensate for charging time
Fast charging • Example: LHDs, haul trucks
batteries on-board • How long does it take to charge?
the equipment with
off-board chargers • How much additional time does it take to drive to the fast charger?
• Any risk of queuing for the fast charger?
• How many trips can be completed before the battery needs to be charged?
• What amount of regeneration can be expected under different payload scenarios?
• Typically higher top speeds and increased acceleration to compensate for charging time

9.2.2 Availability and Utilization

Availability is defined as the ability of a piece of equipment to perform its required function over a given period of time.
In the case of battery electric equipment, battery charging or swapping hours are considered downtime where the
equipment is not available for operation. BEV equipment that is being used as part of its duty cycle while charging is
available; (e.g. a jumbo charging while drilling) is available and being utilized. Equipment utilization is defined as a mea-
sure of the time a particular piece of equipment is being used.
Common definitions and formulas for the parameters can be found in GMG’s A Standardized Time Classification
Framework for Surface Mining (2020). While this guideline covers statuses and events from surface mining, the time
usage model, time category definitions, and key performance indicators (KPIs) also apply to underground mining. The
standard time models might need to be expanded to elaborate on how to categorize BEV-associated activities, such as
battery charging or swapping.

9.2.3 Idle/Queued Periods

Hypothetically, one duty cycle operates at 100% utilization. However, there are times when the BEV is idle and/or waiting
in line while consuming time and energy during a cycle and/or between sequences of cycles. These idle periods (delays)
should be accounted for as lost utilization when estimating performance in a fixed time period (e.g., one hour, one shift).

9.2.4 Battery Charge Time

The time required for on-board battery charging or swapping can be significant. If this time period is long, it should be
considered downtime because the BEV is unavailable to do useful work. BEVs could have lower availability than diesel
equipment, and the added downtime should be considered in planning.
Since operating hours are determined based on hour meter data from the BEV drive systems (e.g., traction, hydraulic
power pack, and auxiliary systems) and the systems would be off during charging, these hours would not be recorded

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as operating hours. However, it is important for the mine operator to measure charging hours and add them to the
recorded downtime to accurately assess the impact on availability.
There are scenarios where equipment could still be available while charging if the battery capacity is sufficiently large for
its duty cycle with a relatively small charging capacity. For example, a scissor lift that performs light work on a level that
is charging from 50% SOC to 70% SOC while the operator can be occupied with another task. In this situation, the machine
does not require more energy to complete the work for the remainder of the shift and is available for the operator to use;
however, the operator decided to “top up” the battery. Therefore, technology to record charging time—either on-board the
machine or battery—and the specific situation should be considered in equipment specifications for BEVs.

9.3 EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE

9.3.1 General Requirements

It is recommended that OEMs openly communicate BEV machine, battery, and charger
performance metrics based on accurate field testing with standardized methods and envi- • BEV Design, Section 5

ronmental parameters. This information will permit mining operators to assess and com-
pare the operational feasibility of various pieces of equipment. This process will reduce
uncertainty and discrepancies in performance expectations. It is also recommended that OEMs provide guidance on
obtaining performance measurements. The most significant performance requirements that should be understood are:
• The ability to achieve the same or better output for a given duty cycle as a comparable diesel unit
• The energy requirements to perform the duty cycle and number of such cycles capable by the battery energy
stored on-board before charging is required
• The time required to charge or swap the battery
In order to standardize and implement in-field performance protocols for BEVs, operational environmental variables
and operational parameters should be considered and defined for the particular applications (see examples in Table 9.2
and Table 9.3). Also, OEMs should list operating criteria/assumptions for the performance data that are communicated
to them, such as:
• Road conditions (e.g., rolling resistance)
• Ambient temperature
• Auxiliary systems operation (e.g., air conditioning/heating, lighting)
• Other battery loads (e.g., electric drives, controls, radios)
• Tire type and inflation pressure

Table 9.2. Examples of Environmental Variables

Parameter Example descriptors or values
Road conditions Firm, muddy, flexing slightly under load or undulating, maintained regularly, watered, gravel
Rolling resistance 3% (based on situation)
Ambient temperature Maximum 28°C wet bulb globe temperature in summer
Underground temperature throughout the season varies on average between 5 and 45°C;
exceptions will need to be addressed accordingly
Other considerations Humidity, corrosion ratings, ingress, protection ratings, salt resistance, rock falls

Table 9.3. Examples of Operational Parameters

Parameter Example descriptors or values
Operator skills At least 5 years experience
Idle periods Any duration over 10 minutes should be considered
Distance In metres for each cycle

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Table 9.3. Examples of Operational Parameters (continued)

Parameter Example descriptors or values
Payload OEM would specify a payload and standard bucket volume based on a specified rock (ore
and/or waste) density
Charging station Estimated time to reach charging station
Estimated time to charge or swap
Grade Uphill haul at 0–18% grade and specify distance
Flat haul at 0–2% grade and specify distance
Downhill haul at 0–18% grade and specify distance
Speed limit Speed limit according to class of equipment
Specific remark Tire type
Inflation pressure

9.3.2 Equipment Performance Assessment

Standardized methods for describing performance for the traction, pump, and auxiliary motors are required to compare
battery equipment to diesel equipment. As an example, there is an arbitrary definition of peak versus continuous rat-
ings:
• Peak rating: In terms of diesel equipment, it is the maximum torque that could be generated at zero speed
(i.e., stall condition while mucking). A torque converter at this operating point would survive for approximately
5–15 seconds before overheating. The same drivetrain would be capable of running continuously uphill at
full power while loaded.
• Continuous rating: Should characterize the average energy use for an action; the peak rating often overesti-
mates the value. However, the continuous rating can be a continuous uphill haul. Therefore, the actions that
drive continuous versus peak and the frequency of such actions for peak should be clearly stated.

9.3.3 Regenerative Braking Systems

BEVs provide an opportunity to use regenerative braking. The amount of available regen-
erative braking can benefit the range of a BEV and should be considered in the duty cycle.
The amount of regenerative braking depends on the ramp conditions. Better conditioned
ramps have lower rolling resistances, meaning that the operator does not have to use the • Regenerative Braking and Ramp
service brakes as often and can use the drivetrain to recuperate the energy to a greater Design, Section 4.2.2
• Braking Systems, Section 5.2
extent. The amount of regeneration directly affects the duty cycle because it affects the
time the BEV can provide work before needing additional energy.

9.3.4 Specifications
The OEM should provide comprehensive specifications for the BEV that include performance information in a perfor-
mance data sheet (see Table 9.4 for an example). These data should be for typical power required at ideal conditions
and ambient temperatures, as stated in the data sheets, to assist in understanding the efficiency of the OEM's battery
electric drive system.
For basic grade performance data, the units should be kW (power) at the maximum speed (km/h) that is attainable at
that grade. In addition, typical duty cycle(s) should be described in as much detail as possible, and the OEM should use
accurate simulation models to determine the total energy required for each duty. The OEM should state if the data are
measured or estimated and, if estimated, specify the basis of the estimation and what verification testing would be
undertaken prior to delivery.

9.3.5 Considering Production and Service Requirements

Specifications and data sheets will provide a useful summary of the features of the BEVs, but the various parameters
on their own can make it difficult for the mine operator to conclude if a potential BEV solution would meet the overall

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production or service requirements at a specific mine location and application. Since these overall performance require-
ments are most important, the OEM should be able to clearly indicate if a particular equipment design can ultimately
meet the requirements. An example of how this can be summarized is given in Table 9.5.

Table 9.4. Typical Performance Data Sheet (example)

Performance Data
Power required at maximum speed capable (kW at km/hr)
Grade (%) Estimated or Tested? Power (kW) Speed (km/h)
Loaded
+20% Grade 20% estimated 200 13.0
+15% Grade 15% estimated 200 15.5
+10% Grade 10% estimated 174 17
+5% Grade 5% estimated 109 20
0% Grade (flat) 0% estimated 44 20
-5% Grade -5% estimated -28 20
-10% Grade -10% estimated -95 20
-15% Grade -15% estimated -160 20
-20% Grade -20% estimated -226 20
Unloaded
+20% Grade 20% estimated 174 20
+15% Grade 15% estimated 138 20
+10% Grade 10% estimated 101 20
+5% Grade 5% estimated 64 20
0% Grade (flat) 0% estimated 25 20
-5% Grade -5% estimated -16 20
-10% Grade -10% estimated -56 20
-15% Grade -15% estimated -92 20
-20% Grade -20% estimated -129 20
Power required at zero speed with all estimated <10
auxiliary drives operating at max. power

RANGE (km)
loaded at +15% grade 6.9
loaded at 0% grade 40.7

9.3.6 Impact of Tires and Road Surface on BEV Performance

Ramp conditions, particularly for ramp haulage mines, are a key component in vehicle performance, energy require-
ments, and maintenance requirements. For BEV equipment, speeds can be increased on well-maintained ramps, result-
ing in reduced cycle times and productivity increases. Energy requirements reduce as a function of rolling resistance.
The importance of well-maintained ramps is therefore amplified with BEVs because the energy balance is part of the
duty cycle, whereas this is not typically the case with diesel equipment.

9.3.7 Heat Generation

The ventilation requirements in a diesel mine can be calculated by summing known engine emissions and are often leg-
islated based on total diesel power (m3/s per kW) in the fleet. The total required fresh air ventilation flow to dilute diesel

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Table 9.5. Overall Performance Data (example, terminology can vary depending on the specifics of the operation)
Description Details from mining company
Equipment type 40 t haul truck
Heading size 5 m x 5 m (helps define box capacity limitations)
Ore density 2.1 t/m3 broken density (for calculation of actual load)
Profile description 2 km haul, uphill carry, 15% average grade, peak of 17%
Seat time 8 h/shift, 2 shifts/day
Objective Haul 800 t/day
Description Examples of outputs by OEM
Loads per charge 4
Loads per shift 14
Swaps per shift 3 (8 min each, for 24 min total per shift)
Capacity per load 40 t
Speed (km/h) 10 loaded (up), 12 unloaded (down)
Cycle time (minutes) 32 min (22 min tram with 10 min for load, dump and traffic)
Production capability 560 t/shift, 1,120 t/day
Production objective met with one truck – 320 t/day margin

exhaust gases is usually sufficient to control the heat generated as well, and the mine engi-
neer does not usually need to consider this heat source when sizing ventilation and refriger-
ation system requirements.
In an electric mine, these emissions are lower, and although less heat is generated, heat is a
• Heat Load (Ventilation and Cooling,
key “contaminant” that needs to be assessed to determine ventilation and refrigeration
Mine Design), Section 4.7.4
requirements for the electric mobile equipment fleet (note that contaminants such as dust
and silica and explosive off-gases also need to be managed). The quantity of heat produced
depends on continually varying duties of each unit and the efficiency of each vehicle's drivetrain and charging system.
Some key concepts to understand are:
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it changes from one form to another (The Law of Conservation of
Energy).
• If a vehicle does not raise a load, no potential energy is stored and all energy transmitted from the battery
(kWh) is lost as heat.
• Zero net work is done if a vehicle returns to its starting point, and the net energy consumed to move the vehicle
is lost as heat. Energy used to move material to a higher elevation is put into the potential energy of that mate-
rial.
• Zero net work is done if a vehicle moves a load on level ground, and all energy consumed is lost as heat.
• While in motion, vehicles require energy to overcome drivetrain, rolling resistance, and auxiliary loads. This
kinetic energy is transitional; when the vehicle stops, it is dissipated as heat.
The concepts above indicate that a solid understanding is required of the duty of each unit. In addition, the efficiency
of each unit should be known or estimated to determine average heat generated during a typical operation. These heat
values can then be summed for the fleet during a typical operating shift to determine the
mine’s ventilation flow rates and/or refrigeration requirements.
A benefit of BEVs over diesel vehicles is the significant improvement in efficiency and reduc-
tion in heat generation. Figure 9.1 provides an example of a comparison between the effi-
ciencies of each component of the respective drives and the resulting heat losses. Heat
generation from a BEV can be as low as 20% of similar diesel equipment. • Regenerative Braking and Ramp
Design, Section 4.2.2
An additional advantage of BEVs is that during braking and down-ramp operation, most sys- • Braking Systems, Section 5.2
tems are able to channel kinetic energy to charge the battery. This regenerative braking

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allows the vehicle to recuperate some portion of the energy put into the potential energy of the BEV mass at a higher
elevation. The total heat generation can be significantly affected since not only are the kinetic and potential energy not
lost as heat, but they are also reused to continue operation. Since a diesel vehicle does not have a large energy storage
system (battery), this energy is lost as heat and cannot be reused.
Consider the energy flow when a BEV is hauling a load up a ramp (Figure 9.2). When driving up-ramp with a load, battery
energy is flowing to the losses as heat. It is also used to accelerate the mass of the vehicle and load:
Kinetic energy = 0.5 × mass × velocity2 (1)
Battery energy is also used to move the combined mass higher in elevation, which is stored as potential energy:
Potential energy = mass × acceleration due to gravity × height (2)
During deceleration, the kinetic energy can be returned to the battery to be reused for the next acceleration. When travelling
down-ramp empty, some portion of the potential energy of the vehicle can be captured and put back into the battery pack.
The only heat generated is thus the net energy consumed by the battery pack, minus the potential energy of any material
left at a higher elevation. The potential energy of a 30 t mass that is 2 km up a 17% ramp is approximately 27 kWh.
When the vehicle is hauling down-ramp while loaded with waste rock for backfill, materials, or other payload, the poten-
tial energy of that load can act as an additional energy source (other than energy from the charger). This energy source
can effectively provide fuel for the truck while performing a needed service.
One of the current challenges mine engineers face is obtaining a reliable source of information related to heat genera-
tion for specific vehicles. It is important that OEMs test each unit to determine the electrical energy consumed (or power
required) on various load conditions and ramp grades. By subtracting mechanical work done for each of these cases,
the overall losses and heat generation can be determined.
It is suggested that OEMs develop performance data sheets (e.g., Table 9.4) that present the overall efficiency of the
BEV in terms of losses. These losses equate to the average heat generation (measured in kW or kWh/km) and can be
used to determine ventilation and refrigeration requirements.

noverall = 35%
44% to wheels
diesel engine
peak and rolling
100% efficiency resistance
n = 0.44
diesel 100 kW
fuel output
energy
286 Heat = 100 × (1–0.35)/0.35
kW = 186 kW
input

noverall = 73%
100%
to wheels and
battery
rolling
energy
resistance
100
137 kW kW
input output

Heat = 100 × (1–0.73)/0.73

= 37 kW

Figure 9.1. Comparison of Heat Generation and Efficiency between Diesel and Battery Electric Vehicles (Example
shared by a GMG participant. Data will vary depending on the situation.)

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Figure 9.2. Energy Flow for a Battery Electric (left) and Diesel Truck (right)

9.4 BATTERY PERFORMANCE

9.4.1 Performance
A key performance criterion of interest to mine operators is the run-time of the battery (i.e.,
if the battery will last for an entire shift). Separating the overall BEV performance from the • Energy Storage Systems, Section 6
battery performance provides an understanding of the extent that the latter improves with
technology evolution.
Since the temperature of the underground working area where the BEV will operate could affect battery performance,
OEMs should ideally provide the performance specifications based on a hot underground environment. However, this
might not be practical. The OEM should indicate—at a minimum—if the proposed battery has been used in such envi-
ronments and what measures need to be taken to alleviate the impact of heat. This information is particularly important
if there is no significant real mine experience.
By combining the consumed energy to perform specific tasks during worked hours in a shift and the battery capacity,
the mine operator could estimate the run-time in terms of hours per shift. This information will assist in identifying the
number of battery replacements or charges required per shift per equipment, the dimensions and location of charging
stations, the range of operations, and the mine infrastructure design and logistics. Parameters that define the battery
performance should typically include those indicated in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6. Battery Performance Parameters

Parameter Consideration
Voltage and current Are there practical/safety limits that should be enforced?
Controllable charger One fits all?
Leverage bus standards?
Battery cycles How to represent lifetime battery cycles?
End-of-life definitions (70%? 80%? Secondary use)
Rebuild? Replace? Repair?
Capacity kWh capacity rating from data sheet-does not represent “usable” energy
Beginning vs. end-of-life
Warrantied kWh delivered?
Number of cycles?
Ah throughput?
“Electric brake reserve”- how much battery energy needs to be reserved for downhill
navigation?

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Some key considerations around battery degradation performance criteria to factor into analysis when making choices
include determining battery life, cycle life, state of health, charge and discharge rates, DOD estimation, and charging
temperature estimation.

9.4.2 Specifications
Battery specifications are important for understanding BEV efficiency. With the OEM, the mine operator should define
a set of useful parameters relevant to the operation. The OEM should then provide a battery performance data sheet
similar to Table 9.7 and performance charts similar to examples shown in Table 9.8 and Figure 9.3. Please note that, as
examples, these tables aim to provide detail on the types of data that could be considered, but not all data will always
be available and the details that the OEM can provide will vary based on the situation.

9.5 CHARGER PERFORMANCE

9.5.1 Performance
From a vehicle performance standpoint, it is essential to specify the charging requirement so that it assists the mine
operator or system integrator in the design of a suitable charging layout and vehicle operating schedule. It is important
to understand the timing of charging, the location of charging stations, and potential opportunity for charging consid-
erations based on mine power availability. The OEM should state the charging requirements of the platform so that the
infrastructure designers can determine the number and location of charging stations and the ventilation and electrical
infrastructure requirements. If battery change-outs are required to meet normal operation requirements, then the OEM
should provide details of the excavation size and layout, as well as charging station infrastructure, including lifting
equipment and capacity requirements.

9.5.2 Specifications
An example of the basic charging system specification is given in Table 9.9.

Table 9.7. Example of Battery Performance Data Sheet (please note that in some instances the OEM will not always
be able to provide all of this information)
Description cell Details (to be completed by OEM)
Chemistry
Specific energy (kWh/kg)
Energy density (kWh/m3)
Nominal voltage (V)
Amperage (A)
Operating voltage (min max V)
Cell monitoring system
BATTERY:
Capacity (Ah) total/usable
Power (kWh) total/usable
Number of cells
Optimal discharge rate (e.g., 0.5°C)
Optimal charging rate (e.g., 0.5°C)
Maximum charge current (80% SOC)
Operating temperature range (°C)
Lifespan cycles at % DOD
Self-discharge rate (% per month)
Memory effect (Y/N)

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Table 9.7. Example of Battery Performance Data Sheet (please note that in some instances the OEM will not always
be able to provide all of this information) (continued)
Description cell Details (to be completed by OEM)

Cooling time (h)

Cooling method, if applicable
Battery monitoring system
Battery swapping (Y/N, time)
Opportunity charging (Y/N, time)
Battery pack weight (kg)
Battery pack dimensions (mm)
Charging time (lowest SOC 100%)
kW of heat output per kWh of charging
Gassing (if applicable)

Table 9.8. Battery Performance Charts (example

list)

Voltage (V) function of discharge capacity (%) at

45, 25, 0, 25, and 55°C

Voltage (V) function of discharge capacity (%) at

normal temperature (21°C): 0.5, 1, and 2 cA

Voltage (V) function of charge capacity (%) at

normal temperature (21°C): 0.5, 1, and 2 cA

Discharge capacity (%) function of time (days)

storage under normal temperature (21°C)

Lifespan (cycles) function of DOD (%) at normal

temperature (21°C): 0.5, 1, and 2 cA

Lifespan (cycles) function of DOD (%) at: 45, 25,

0, 25, and 55°C
Figure 9.3. Example of a Battery Performance Chart

Table 9.9. Battery Charger Requirements (example, please note that in some instances the OEM will not always be
able to provide all of this information)
Description Description Details (to be completed by OEM)

Dimensions (L × W × H)
Weight (kg)
Operating temperature (°C) and humidity
Input range (maximum rated input voltage, current, power,
frequency, VA ranges)
Output range (i.e., voltage, current rating)
Power factor
Charger efficiency
Enclosure specifications (e.g., mine duty, NEMA/IP rating)
Charge power (based on minimum SOC)
Derating of charger capacity (if applicable)
Heat rejection of battery charger overvoltage
Charging current range

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10. FUTURE WORK

This guideline provides guidance on the adoption of BEVs in mining in its current state. Some items for consideration
in future work include discussion around technologies that are advancing rapidly. For example:
• BEVs and autonomous mining and integration
• Non-flammable battery chemistries
• Non-diesel equipment in surface mining
These topics might be covered in future editions of the guideline or might be covered in separate projects. Because of
the rapid development of technology in this space, a short revision cycle is planned for this guideline.
Further work to refine the content and structure of the guideline is also suggested for future versions.
The decision-making and prioritization of future work on the topic will be completed by the GMG Electric Mine Working
Group.

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GLOSSARY
This glossary defines terms as they are used throughout the guideline; it is not intended to be exhaustive.
Air volume: The quantity of airflow in the underground mine. Can also be referred to as airflow quantity.
Availability: The ability of a piece of equipment to perform its required function over a given period of time.
Battery: At the most basic level, a battery is one or more energy (voltaic) cells containing a conductive electrolyte to
facilitate the movement of ions from the negative terminal (anode) to the positive terminal (cathode), thereby creating
an electrical current.
Battery charge time: The time required for on-board battery charging or swapping (off-board charging).
Battery electric vehicle (BEV): A mobile, trackless vehicle powered by a battery.
Battery management system (BMS): This system monitors the energy consumed by the BEV during operation, the bat-
tery pack voltage, current, SOC, depth of discharge (DOD), and temperature, as well as individual cell voltages.
Battery manufacturer: The manufacturer of the energy storage system (battery).
Battery run-time: The total time a battery can sustain power output.
Braking system definitions:
• Service brake system: As defined in ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90; can include electric or electro-
mechanical braking through the application of dynamic braking.
• Secondary brake system: As defined in ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90.
• Park brake system: As defined in ISO 3450 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90; can include electric or electro-
mechanical braking through the application of dynamic braking.
• Dynamic braking: The use of an electric traction motor as a generator when slowing a vehicle such as an elec-
tric or diesel-electric locomotive. It can be rheostatic, regenerative, or a combination of the two.
• Rheostatic braking: The generated electrical power is dissipated as heat in brake grid resistors.
• Regenerative braking: Using the electric drive motor as a “generator” to convert machine motion into a current
that is fed back into the batteries (assuming they have the capacity to accept the energy). Regenerative brak-
ing stores kinetic energy lost during deceleration in an electrical storage device such as a battery, or a
mechanical device such as a flywheel, for later use.
• Braking resistor: A resistive element used to dissipate kinetic energy that was transformed into electrical
energy due to “dynamic” or “regenerative” braking.
• Supply line: The cable supplying power from the battery to the motor inverter.
Brownfield: A previously developed site that is being redeveloped or refurbished.
Charge-while-operating equipment: Also referred to as tethered, machines that draw power from utility power through
a trailing cable.
Charger manufacturer: The manufacturer of the charging system.
Charging philosophy: The approach to charging with the ultimate objective of making charging and operating BEVs as
simple, convenient, and safe as refuelling and operating diesel vehicles.
Duty cycle: Includes both the process time (i.e., when a unit is acted upon to bring it closer to an output) and delay time
(i.e., when a unit of work is expended waiting to take the next action).
Energy storage system: see Battery definition.
Equipment utilization: A measure of the time a particular piece of equipment is being used.
Fast charging: Charging with a higher power output that enables a faster charging rate.
Greenfield: New operations built on undeveloped sites.
High voltage: The nominal voltage produced by the main batteries on-board the vehicle, which is typically in the range
of 200 to 1000 VDC.

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High-voltage DC (HVDC) System: The function of this system is to safely transfer electrical energy from the vehicle’s
batteries to the various loads, such as the drivetrain, hydraulic systems, DC/DC converters, and other powered devices
that can be on-board.
Idle/queued periods: When the BEV is idle and/or waiting in line while consuming time and energy in a cycle and/or
between sequences of cycles.
Instructed person: BEV or charger operator (as defined in IEC 60050-826).
Original equipment manufacturer (OEM): The manufacturer of the BEV.
Opportunity charging: The situation where a BEV is stationary for a portion of time as part of its intended duty, and the
BEV is charged during that time.
Second life: An end-of-life option for when undamaged batteries with a reduced capacity are reused in applications
such as power grid stabilization.
Skilled person: BEV or charger maintenance personnel (as defined in IEC 60050-826).
Slow charging: Charging with a lower power output for slower charging rate.
Specific energy density (energy per unit mass): The capacity to store energy, determining a vehicle’s range and capac-
ity to do useful work.
Trolley assist systems: Machines that temporarily draw power from utility power during high load portions of the cycle
(e.g., hill climb).

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APPENDIX A. REFERENCE CASES

The following reference cases provide some examples of how BEVs compare to diesel vehicles for consideration when
building the business case for BEVs. Please note that these are to provide examples and many variables will affect the
comparisons.
LHD Reference Case (Mine A)
• 10 t bucket capacity haul uphill loaded (1:7 gradient) 180 m
• 2 x 8 h shifts x 351 days per year
• Battery swap 5 min, 35 loads per battery swap
• Battery life (projected) 16,000 swaps (14 years) from 4,125 swaps to date = greater than
• LHD structural life
• Tire life initially assumed to be the same as diesel but for an unknown reason it is currently 30% more
• Parts–main components 40% less than diesel
• Parts–service items 30% less than diesel
• Parts–oils/lube 40% less than diesel
• Mine ventilation savings–currently none for this one loader test/trial
• Due to the expected challenges with blast fume clearances – the next step in this two year test/trial is working
with an OEM for fully autonomous (driverless, controlled from surface central control room) BEVs.
LHD 10 t Reference Case (Mine B)
• 10 t bucket capacity haul uphill loaded (1:7 gradient) 150 m
• Mine traffic speed limit 20 km/h
• 2 x 8 h shifts x 354 days per year
• Battery swap 6.5 min
• 37 loads per battery swap
• Battery life (projected) 16,400 swaps (15 years) from 2,000 swaps to date = greater than
• LHD structural life
• No comment on tire life–assumed same as diesel
• Parts–main components 44% less than diesel
• Parts–service items 28% less than diesel
• Parts–oils/lube 43% less than diesel
• No comment on mine ventilation
Truck 50 t Reference Case (Mine B)
• 50 t carrying (tray) capacity haul loaded 2000 m (1800 m 1:7 uphill plus 200 m flat)
• Mine traffic speed limit 20 km/h
• 2 x 8 h shifts x 354 days per year
• Battery swap 6.5 min
• 3 loads per battery swap
• 5 swaps per shift
• Battery life (projected) 13,680 swaps (12.5 years) from 980 swaps to date
• No comment on tire life–assumed same as diesel
• Parts–main components 45% less cost than diesel
• Parts–service items 39% less cost than diesel
• Parts–oils/lube 53% less cost than diesel
• No comment on mine ventilation

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APPENDIX B. EXPLOSION PROTECTION FOR GASSY MINES

Historically, battery- and trolley-powered vehicles have been linked to numerous fatalities caused by underground mine
explosions (Dubaniewicz, 2009) in gassy mines. Rescue and recovery teams have encountered electrical ignition
sources, including batteries at charging stations and stranded battery-powered vehicles. Explosive methane gas or
firedamp can be liberated in underground coal, salt, trona, potash, limestone, copper, and uranium mines (NIOSH 2006).
The terms firedamp and methane are sometimes used interchangeably. Firedamp consists mainly of methane, but it
also contains small quantities of other gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. It can also sometimes
contain methane and carbon monoxide. Coal dust layers can accumulate on equipment or in entries, posing a fire haz-
ard or explosion enhancement hazard if the dust is carried into the air. Methane ignitions or explosives, for example,
can disperse coal dust layers into the atmosphere that subsequently ignite and propagate as powerful explosions.
Explosion protection for mining equipment is needed where the equipment can be exposed to an explosive atmosphere
in gassy mines so that the equipment does not become an ignition source for the explosive atmosphere. IEC 60079-0
identifies two categories of equipment used in firedamp-endangered mine workings, M1 (equipment can continue to
operate in explosive atmospheres) and M2 (equipment must shut down in the event of an explosive atmosphere). See
Stahl (2020, p. 25) for detailed definitions.
BEVs for gassy mines will generally be considered Category M2 equipment. The battery can still be energized after the
category M2 equipment has shut down, posing a stranded energy ignition risk to trapped miners and rescue and recov-
ery teams following an initial emergency in which ventilation is disrupted.
There are various methods of providing equipment with explosion protection. Internationally, the methods are called
protection types, and they are described by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60079 series of stan-
dards for electrical equipment in explosive atmospheres. National regulations can differ from IEC standards, and the
extent to which the standards apply to a particular country should be verified. A flame-proof enclosure is one protection
type that is commonly used in gassy mines. It can withstand an internal explosion of a flammable mixture that has pen-
etrated the interior, without suffering damage and without causing ignition through any joints or structural openings in
the enclosure of an external explosive atmosphere that consists of one or more of the gases or vapours for which it is
designed. In North America, explosion-proof enclosures are common. Explosion-proof and flame-proof enclosures per-
form a similar safety function but differ in design requirements because those requirements were developed on differ-
ent continents. Conventional flame-proof or explosion-proof enclosures for gassy mines prevent ignition of firedamp
or methane and coal dust if used in coal mines.
Flame-proof or explosion-proof enclosures considered for enclosing LIBs should also consider the potential for battery
thermal runaway. However, IEC 60079-1 does not currently provide design or evaluation criteria for LIB thermal run-
away. Dubaniewicz, Zlochower, Barone, Thomas and Yuan (2021, 2022) found that LIBs enclosed within sealed enclo-
sures can produce thermal runaway pressures exceeding minimum pressure containment requirements for
conventional flame-proof or explosion-proof enclosures designed for gassy mines. Suggested mitigation strategies
include venting with flame arrestors, thermal runaway cascade prevention, and free space provisions to accommodate
thermal runaway gas generation. Temperatures measured for iron phosphate cathode lithium-ion cells forced into ther-
mal runaway were below the ignition temperature of methane, which can facilitate the safe venting of thermal runaway
gases generated from these cells out of the enclosure and into the mine atmosphere.

REFERENCES
Dubaniewicz Jr. TH. (2009). From Scotia to Brookwood, fatal US underground coal mine explosions ignited in intake air
courses. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. J. Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 22:52-58.
https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/9664/cdc_9664_DS1.pdf?

Dubaniewicz TH, Zlochower I, Barone T, Yuan L. (2021). Thermal Runaway Pressures of Iron Phosphate Lithium-Ion Cells as a
Function of Free Space Within Sealed Enclosures. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 38:539–547

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Dubaniewicz TH, Barone TL, Brown CB, Thomas RA. (2022) Comparison of thermal runaway pressures within sealed enclo-
sures for nickel manganese cobalt and iron phosphate cathode lithium-ion cells. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries 76:104739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2022.104739

International Electrotechnical Commission (2022). Explosive atmospheres - ALL PARTS (Standard No. 60079:2022 SER).
https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/62417

Kissel, FN. (2006). NIOSH: Mining Publication: Handbook for Methane Control in Mining. Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention. Publication No. 2006-127. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1459.html

Stahl. (2020). Essential Explosion Protection [Brochure]. https://r-stahl.com/en/global/services-and-seminars/explosion-

protection-knowledge/technical-principles

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APPENDIX C. BEV GENERAL INFORMATON FORM (EXAMPLE)

Table C.1 provides an example of a general information form about the design of a BEV. Please note that this is an
example intended to provide an idea of the type of information included and not intended to prescribe an approach.

Table C.1. BEV General Information Form (example)

BEV General Information Form
Mining company name Date (yyyy/mm/dd)
Mine site Emergency Phone #
OEM name Emergency Phone #
Make Model
Machine type Manufacturing Date (yyyy/mm/dd)
OEM unit # Mine site unit #
Manufacturing serial number # Hour
Auxiliary battery (v) Master switch location
Traction battery information
Package quantity Location(s)
Power capacity (kWh) Max. voltage (V)
Chemistry Cell type
Overall dimension [W/H/L] (m) Weight (kg)
Manufacture MSDS #
Transport class Chemical Emergency #
Emergency disconnect location(s) High voltage cable colour (s)
Fire suppressions type Fire extinguisher size (kg)
Extinguishing media Special PPE
Regenerative brake (Y/N) Coolant system type
Battery charger information
ON/OFF-board Charge capacity (kWh)
Charger location(s) Electrical plug location
Traction electric motor
Motor quantity Location(s)
Peak power (kW) Peak torque (Nm)
Explosive material/fluids information
Explosive material on-board (Y/N) Product Manufacturer
Type Container quantity (L)
Hydraulic fluid type Hydraulic fluid quantity (L)
Other fluid type Other fluid quantity (L)
Air ventilation required (m3/s) 2/4 wheel-drive
Vehicle net weight (kg) Gross weight (kg)
Vehicle dimension [W/H/L] (m) Max. operating grade (%)
Service brake:
Emergency brake & release pressure:
Parking brake & release pressure:
Towing procedure:
Company representative Title

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