1

Term 1 - 4
English FAL Notes

Index
1. Punctuation 7. Homophones, Homonyms, Antonyms &
2. Parts of Speech: Synonyms
• NOUNS 8. Abbreviations
• PRONOUN 9. Acronyms
• ADJECTIVES 10. Gender
• FORMING ADJECTIVES 11. Diminutives
• PREPOSITION 12. Sentences
• ARTICLES 13. Phrases & Clauses
• VERB
• ADVERB 14. Tenses
• CONJUNCTION • Indefinite
3. Modals • Continuous
• Perfect
4. Compound Words 15. Speech
5. Apostrophe 16. Idioms
6. Degree of Comparison 17. Figures of Speech

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PUNCTUATION: FULL STOPS ( . )

1. Indicates the end of a sentence.
CAPITAL LETTERS 2. Can be found after certain
abbreviations
1. Sentences always start with a Capital Letter E.g., Prof.
E.g., Today is sunny.
2. Proper Nouns & Proper Adjectives need
Capital Letters
E.g., John, Sunday, South Africa EXCLAMATION MARKS ( ! )
3. Main words in titles of books, films, or plays
are written in Capital Letters 1. Follows exclamations or interruptions
E.g., I like to read Harry Potter 2. Use to accentuate and strengthen the
4. First word in direct speech is written with a tone of a statement
Capital Letter E.g., Yesterday was so much fun!
E.g., He said, “I enjoy swimming.” 3. Used after sentences, phrases or word
containing emotions.
E.g., No! Do not pull the trigger.

SEMI- COLONS ( ; )
1. Long pause - that balance two equally COMMAS ( , )
important ideas
E.g., She went by train; she would rather have 1. Used to separate words or phrases in a list
flown. E.g., We bought books, pens, pencils and
2. Indicates opposite ideas erasers.
E.g., In summer she swims; in winter she skates. 2. Indicate where one phrase or clause ends
3. Joins two main clauses where there is no and another begins
conjunction E.g., Andre won his tennis match, to the
E.g., She worked hard for the exams; she had delight of the spectators.
nothing to fear. 3. Additional Information can be placed
between commas
E.g., Mr. Jenkins, the Principal, addressed
QUESTION MARKS ( ? ) the pupils.
4. Before and after words such as however &
1. Occur at the end of a question. nevertheless
E.g., What are we eating tonight? E.g., She was, however, late for the
2. Rhetorical questions end in question appointment.
marks 5. Introductory words/ phrases are separated
E.g., Why do we need an education? from the rest of the sentence with a comma
E.g., Once again, I was ignored.
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QUOTATION MARKS (INVERTED COMMAS) ( ' ' or " " )

1. Used to indicate Direct Speech
E.g., He said: “I enjoy swimming.”
2. Used to quote someone else's words.
E.g., John always said “today is the day”.
3. Used to excuse oneself for using slang
E.g., I just “lol”.

COLONS ( : )
1. Introduce a list
PARENTHESIS (BRACKETS) ( )
E.g. The bookstore specializes in: 1. Usually an explanation, or additional
art, design and music theory. information
E.g., The Chihuahua (the smallest dog in the
world) can fit into a teacup.

HYPHEN ( - )
1. Links prefixes to words or link 2 words in order to form compound word
E.g., pre-school, life-threatening
2. Used to give additional information (the same as commas or brackets)
3. Can separate a comment or afterthought from the rest of the sentence
E.g., I checked and there was no one there - or so I thought!
4. It creates a dramatic pause leading to a climax / anti-climax
E.g., I ran to the window, I looked out and saw - the cat!

ELLIPS ( ... )
1. Indicate that a sentence is incomplete or that
something has been omitted.
E.g., I thought I was in love with him, but…
2. We can usually guess the meaning from the
context
E.g., You better tidy your room or else ...
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1. Nouns
2.
3.
4.
Adjectives
Forming Adjectives
Preposition
PARTS OF SPEECH:
5. Articles
6.
7.
Verb
Adverb
Proper Nouns
8. Conjunction • Names of people, places, things
9. Pronoun • Starts with a CAPITAL LETTER
NOUNS: E.g., Menlopark, Mark, Coke

name, person, animal, place, thing, quality

Abstract Nouns
• You cannot see it, you can feel it
- Quality = curiosity / love / honesty
Common Nouns - Other: friendship, intelligence.
• Naming words
- Person = teacher
- Animal = lion Collective Nouns
- Place = forest • A group of things
- Thing = table
E.g. A circle of friends, a swarm of
bees.
COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Some nouns are easy to count Cannot be counted

Has a singular & plural form Has only one form

E.g. Table = tables, car = cars E.g. Salt, sugar, sand

We can use “a & an” in front of these nouns Quantifiers

• A = a noun beginning with a consonant - Little

- A lot of
• An = a noun beginning with a vowel
- Much
Quantifiers - Some
- Any
- Few - Any
- Many - Some

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Compound Nouns
® Made up of 2 nouns

E.g. toothpaste, haircut

PLURAL NOUNS
With Regular Nouns = Add -s
® When we change a noun
into its plural form, we E.g. Dog = dogs, Car = cars
can make use of the Nouns ending on s, ch, sh, x or z = Add -es
following rules:
E.g. Dish = dishes, address = addresses

Nouns ending on f or fe. = Remove f/fe and add -ves

E.g. Leaf = leaves, wolf = wolves

Nouns ending on a vowel + y. = Add -s

E.g. Day = days, toy = toys

Nouns ending on a consonant + y. = Remove y and add -ies

List of a few E.g. City = cities, party = parties

Irregular nouns E.g. Man = men

Irregular Nouns
Nouns ending on a vowel + o = Add -s
- Person = people
- Foot = feet
E.g. Zoo = zoos, tattoo = tattoos
- Child = children
- Mouse = mice Nouns ending on a consonant + o = add -es
- Goose = geese
- Octopus = octopi E.g. Hero = heroes, tomato = tomatoes

No change E.g. Sheep = Sheep, fish = fish

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 Common Collective Nouns 6

An aquarium/school of fish A gathering of friends

An arrangement/bunch/bouquet of A herd of cattle/elephants
flowers A hive/swarm of bees
An audience of spectators A kindle/litter of kittens
An aviary of birds A litter of kittens/puppies/cubs
A band of musicians/pilgrims A pack of cards/wolves
A block of flats A patch of vegetables
A bunch of bananas/grapes/keys A plague of diseases/locusts
A bundle of rags/sticks/washing A pride of lions/peacocks
A chest of drawers/treasure A queue of people/voters
A choir of singers/choristers A range of mountains
A circle of friends A regiment/army/troop
A class/school of pupils A string/rope of pearls/beads
A convey of cars/trucks A suit of clothes/armour
A flight of aeroplanes A suite of furniture/rooms
A flight of stairs A swarm of locusts/flies
A flock of birds/sheep A troop of monkeys/lions/soldiers
A fleet of ships/cars/taxis
A gang of thieves
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN
INTERROGATIVE
PRONOUN • Show belonging
E.g. Hers, mine, ours PRONOUN
= Replace NOUNS (can be singular or plural) • Asks questions
E.g. Whose?
REFLEXIVE / REFLECTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUN Which?

PRONOUN
• People / things
E.g. I, you, he, she, it RELATIVE PRONOUN
• Reflect back to the noun/
another pronoun • Connects one part
E.g. Myself, themselves,
yourself
DEMONSTRATIVE of a sentence to
PRONOUN another part
E.g. Who, whose,
whom, that, which
INDEFINITE PRONOUN • Point out specific
The girl WHO sits next
thing/ person
to me.
• Approximate quantities E.g. This, that,
E.g. Some, few, many these, those

o This & these (things

are near)
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(things are far)
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ADJECTIVES
• Describes the noun
• Can come before the noun or after the noun
E.g. TALENTED boy/ the boy is talented, BLUE car / the car is blue

FORMING ADJECTIVES RULES:

1. Add -er to the adjective to compare 2 things
E.g. A bicycle is quitER than a car
2. Add -est if you compare 2 or more things
E.g. A bus is louder than a car, but a truck is the loudest

If adjective ends on Y = change y to i = THEN add -er / -est

E.g., Pretty - Prettier - Prettiest
3. When an adjective is long, do not add -er / -est, rather add MORE / MOST is front
E.g. A cobra is MORE dangerous
A tsunami is the MOST dangerous

PREPOSITION
• The position of something
List of a few common
• Where people/ objects are
Prepositions
- after - from - but
- among - above - by
- at - against - except
- between - around - for
- during - before - in
- across - as - about
- along - behind - like
- -
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 ARTICLES 8

- Use either:

• A
When you talk about ONE thing (a snake/ an owl)

= INDEFINITE ARTICLE
• An
® A = in front of word starting with a
CONSONANT
How do we know whether to use A or An? (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m etc.)

® An= in front of word starting with a

VOWEL
(a, e, i, o, u)

- Or Use:

When you talk about one SPECIFIC thing

• THE
= DEFINITE ARTICLE

Examples:
• I saw AN accident of A car
• That is AN excellent pencil
• I need A kilogram of salt.
• Alex is training to be AN engineer
• THE movie was perfect.
• THE cooldrink tastes good.

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 VERB 9

• DOING word (Can I?)

E.g., Read, walk, talk, sit etc.
Auxiliary verbs
® The verb "to be" has many different forms: is, am, • “Helping verbs”
was, were, shall, will, has, have, had being, been • When used: Still a main verb in
the sentence. (The Auxiliary
® Regular Verb: •
verb helps the main verb)
E.g. be, have, do
= add -d or -ed at the end for SIMPLE PAST TENSE. I have eaten sushi many
E.g. The fat monkeys movED slowly times before.

® Irregular Verb:
Don't follow the Regular verb rule (the word’s spelling changes in the past tense)
E.g. Tell = Told
Creep = Crept
Throw = Threw

Finite verbs
• Verbs that indicate the past,
present or future tense.
ADVERB
• By looking at a finite verb we
can tell if the action takes
• Describes the VERB, tell us more about the action
place in the past, present or
future tense. 1. Adverb of TIME = WHEN
E.g., When I run TOMMOROW
E.g. He laughs. They laugh. I will
laugh.
2. Adverb of PLACE = WHERE
E.g., I run OVER THERE
Non- Finite verbs
• Verbs that do not belong in
3. Adverb of MANNER = HOW
E.g., I run FAST
a particular tense and they
do not change form to
match a subject.
4. Adverb of DEGREE = HOW MUCH
E.g., He is VERY upset
E.g. Running.

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CONJUNCTION RULES
• Connecting words = JOINS two / 1. When we join sentences, we do not repeat the nouns, we replace
more sentences together the noun with a pronoun
• They also join words, phrases Eg. Samantha is my friend. Samantha is a popular girl.
or clauses. = Samantha is my friend, AND she is a popular girl.
2. When we join two sentences, we do not repeat phrases
- Such as: And, but, because,
Eg. We like going to Disney world. We enjoy going to
before, while, although etc.
the park.
= We enjoy going to Disney world and the park

MODALS
= Verb used to indicate modality (likelihood, ability,
permission, request, capacity, suggestions, order, COMPOUND WORDS
obligation or advice).
Some Words are made up of two words
1. Ability= can & could - pop + corn = popcorn
2. Permission = can, could & may - after + glow = afterglow
- bed + bug = bedbug
3. Advice= should
4. Obligation= must & have to
5. Possibility= might, may, could & can

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APOSTROPHE
We use Apostrophe in the following situations:

1. Possession or Ownership
- OWNER SINGULAR = apostrophe immediately after singular form of verb
E.g. The boy's lunch

- OWNERS ARE PLURAL = apostrophe placed directly after the plural form of
the noun.
E.g. Boys' lunch

- IF A NAME OR WORD ENDS ON AN “S” = add an 's

E.g. Charles's

- IF A WORD ALREADY IN PLURAL FORM = add an 's

E.g. Men's

- IF IT IS A BIBLICAL NAME OR HISTORICAL NAME WHICH ENDS ON

AN "S" = only gets a '
E.g. Jesus', Hercules'

2. Contraction
Do NOT use Apostrophe in: - Often when Two words are joined, one
or more letter are removed
- Yours, their, there = Show where these letters were
- Whose, your removed
- Plural nouns: cats, books
- Plural initials: DVDs, BMWs E.g. I + am = I'm
- Plural Decades: 1790s, 1960s I + have = I've

They + are = They're

Should + have = Should've

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 DEGREE OF COMPARISON 12

= To describe, quantify, modify or identify nouns/pronouns, adjectives are used or reused.

- Adjectives have their own degrees called degrees of adjectives or degrees of comparison that compare one
thing/person to another.

Degree Of Comparison Rules

→ Rule 1 → Rule 2
- When two items/people are compared = a - ‘More’ is used when you
COMPARATIVE DEGREE is used by putting compare qualities of a single
‘er’ to the adjective word in association with thing/person.
the word ‘than’. - Even if the first adjective is a
- In some cases, ‘more’ is used. single syllable word.

COMPARATIVE DEGREE EXAMPLE DEGREE OF COMPARISON

EXAMPLES
• She is smarter than her sister.
• She is more cheerful than her sister. • She is more smart than clever.

- Similarly, when more than two

things/people are compared = the
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE is used by putting
‘est’ to the adjective word
- In some cases ‘most’ is used. → Rule 3
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE OF COMPARISON - Do not use double comparative
EXAMPLES adjectives or superlative
adjectives.
• He is the strongest wrestler.
• He is the most handsome actor. DEGREE OF COMPARISON
EXAMPLES
• These mangoes are tastier than
those.

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→ Rule 4 → Rule 5
- Never use ‘more or most’ with
- There are a few adjectives that are
adjectives that give absolute
accompanied by ‘to’, like, senior, junior,
sense.
superior, inferior, preferable, prefer, elder.
- Do not use ‘than’ with these adjectives.
DEGREE OF COMPARISON
EXAMPLE DEGREE OF ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
• This track is parallel and the other is not. • I am elder to her.
• This card brand is superior to that.

→ Rule 6
- When comparing two things, similarity should be compared.

EXAMPLES OF DEGREE OF COMPARISON

• This wall colour is more beautiful than that of the old one.

→ Rule 8

- When in the same sentence

two adjectives in different
degrees of comparison are
→ Rule 7

used, both should be

- When the comparative degree is used in the
complete in themselves.
superlative degree sense
- Use ‘any other’ when thing/person of the same
EXAMPLE group is compared.
• She is as good as if not worse - Use ‘any’ if comparison of things/person is
than her sister. outside the group.

DEGREE OF COMPARISON EXAMPLE

• Reena is smarter than any other student of her class.
• Delhi is cleaner than any city in Bangladesh.

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→ Rule 9

- To show whether the difference between the

compared thing/person is small or big, we use
quantifiers for the comparative degree of an
adjective such as (A bit, a little, a lot, far, much, a
great deal, significantly, etc).
- We don’t use quantifiers with superlative degrees
of adjectives but there are certain phrases
commonly used with the superlative degrees of
comparison.

EXAMPLE
• My hostel is only marginally bigger than yours.
• She is a little more popular than her sister in their school.
• Australia is slightly smaller than Africa.

DEGREE OF COMPARISON EXAMPLE

• In metropolitan cities, metros are by far the cheapest mode
of transportation.
• Sanskrit is one of the oldest languages in the world.
• Siddhivinayak is the second richest temple in India.

→ Rule 10

- While changing the

degree of comparison for
the irregular adjectives,
the word completely
changes instead of adding
‘er’ or ‘est’.

EXAMPLES
• She has little milk in the jar.
• She has less milk than he has.

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Degree of Comparison Examples:

POSTIVE DEGREE COMPARITIVE DEGREE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
angry angrier angriest

bad worse worst

big bigger biggest

fat fatter fattest

fast faster fastest

few fewer fewest

happy happier happiest

hairy hairier hairiest

hard harder hardest

hairy hairier hairiest

hard harder hardest

little (amount) less least

many more most

popular more popular most popular

excited more excited most excited

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Homophones Homonyms &

HOMOPHONES
® Words that sound the same, spelt differently & Have different meanings
E.g.: Board =Teacher writes on the board.
Bored =I am bored, I have nothing to do.
Cell
Sell = If you sell drugs, you will get arrested and end up in a prison cell.
For
Four =I purchased four new pairs of shoes for my upcoming vacation.
Right
Write = There is no right way to write a great novel.
Sea
See = At my beach house, I love to wake up and see the sea.
Weather = I don’t know whether to bring a jacket or not.
Whether = The weather looks unpredictable today.

HOMONYMS
® Words that are spelt and pronounced in the same way. They have

different meanings and functions

E.g.
= Ring: A band on a finger
= Ring: To call someone on the phone

= Match: A game of sport

= Match: Small wooden stick used for lighting fires

= Well: It went positively

= Well: A structure made to access water underground

= Fly: An insect
= Fly: To hover and move above the ground

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Antonyms Synonyms &

ANTONYMS
= Opposite words
SYNONYMS
= Words with similar meanings

Good = Bad
Beautiful = Pretty
Pretty = Ugly
Cold = Chilly
Above = Below
Cute = Adorable
Before = After
Outgoing = Sociable
Accident = Intent
Positive = Optimistic
Accurate = Inaccurate
Question = Inquiry
Achieve = Fail
Unhappy = Sad
Happy = Sad, Miserable
Zero = Nothing
Hard = Easy
Strong = Tough
Heaven = Hell
Weak = Fragile
In = Out
Old = Ancient
Include = Exclude
Qualified = Competent
Inhale = Exhale

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 ABBREVIATIONS 18

® Shortened or brief form of a word / phrase

= Used to save time

RULES
1. Found in written form = not pronounced as it is written, E.g. Dr as doctor
2. Usually ends in a full stop. E.g. Prof. / subj. / etc.
3. Modern usage = initial letters of words used = full stop removed. E.g. ANC
4. Abbreviation ends on same letter as the word = full stop removed

Common abbreviations
no. number vol volume

approx. Approximately cm Centimeter

appt. Appointment kg Kilogram

apt. Apartment km Kilometer

A.S.A.P. As Soon As Possible m Meter

D.I.Y. Do It Yourself mm Millimeter

est. Established N North

jr. Junior S South

R.S.V.P. French For "Please Reply." hr hour

tel. Telephone min minute

vs. Versus PM Afternoon (Post Meridiem)

Ave Avenue AM Before noon (Ante Meridiem

Rd. Road sec second

St. Street C Celsius

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 ACRONYMS 19

® Initial of a group of words are used to form a new word

= We do not use punctuation with acronyms

Common Acronyms
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

BRB Be Right Back

LOL Laughing Out Loud

ASAP As Soon As Possible

PIN Personal Identification Number

RADAR Radio Detecting and Raging

RIP Rest in Peace

SCUBA Self-contained Underwater Breathing

FOMO Fear of Missing Out

ZIP Zone Improvement Plan

DVD Digital Versatile Disc

AWOL Absent Without Leave

SWAT Special Weapons and Tactics

TIP To improve performance

ICU Intensive Care Unit

VAT Value added tax

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GENDER
Boy = Girl Lion = Lioness

Bride = Groom Ram = Ewe

Father = Mother Fox = Vixen

Brother = Sister Drake = Duck

Hero = Heroine Widower = Widow

King = Queen Uncle = Aunt

Male = Female Cow = Bull

Husband = Wife Nephew = Niece

Sir = Madam

DIMINUTIVES
Bear = Cub Lion = Cub

Bull = Calf Duck = Duckling

Cat = Kitten Moth = Caterpillar

Dog = Puppy Elephant = Calf

Frog = Tadpole

Whale = Calf

Pig = Piglet

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SENTENCES
® Sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or

exclamation mark. QUESTIONS

- Ask for information
• MUST contain a SUBJECT and a VERB - Usually ends with a question mark
E.g., Where is Shaun going?

TYPES OF SENTENCES EXCLAMATIONS

STATEMENTS - Express emotions
- Usually ends with an exclamation
- Supply information
mark
- Usually ends with a full
E.g., It is a ghost!
stop
E.g., Shaun is going to school.
COMMANDS
- Used to give orders or instructions
Subject E.g., Do not enter through that door.
= The person/ thing that does the action described

Object
= The person/ thing that is affected by the subject in the way described by the verb

PHRASES & CLAUSES PHRASES = Group of words

without a finite verb.

CLAUSES = Group of words containing - Can never stand alone, but

a finite verb. is always part of a sentence

E.g. AS THE SUN WENT DOWN, we E.g. The model WITH THE
listened to classical music. DAZZLING SMILE came
from Durban.

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TENSES
INDEFINITE TENSES
1. Present Indefinite Tense
= To talk about something you often do (I eat tomatoes every night)

= To talk about things that are generally true (Tomatoes are good for you)

Time Words Never, always, usually, seldom, sometimes, rarely, every .... day/ month/ year, once a week

Persons I He
We She + VERB + S
You + VERB It
They
E.g. I eat . E.g. He eats.

Questions DO (I, we, you, they) ® VERB +?

DOES (HE, SHE, IT) ® VERB +?
E.g. Do we play hockey? Or Does she like hockey?
Negatives (I, we, you they) ® = DO NOT
(he, she, it) ® = DOES NOT

E.g. We do not play hockey or She does not like hockey.

2. Past Indefinite Tense

Time Words Yesterday, ago, last .... week/ month/ year

Persons I
We
You + VERB (past tense)
They
Eg. I ate
Questions DID ® +VERB (Present Tense) +?
E.g. Did we play hockey?
Negatives (i, we, you, they, she, it) ® = DID NOT + VERB (Present Tense)
E.g. We did not play hockey.
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3. Future Indefinite Tense

Time Words Tomorrow, soon, shortly, next .... week/ month/ year
I He
Persons + SHALL + VERB
We. It + WILL + VERB

They

E.g. I shall eat. E.g. He will eat.

®
Questions SHALL (I, we) + VERB +?

WILL (he, she, it, they, you) ® +VERB +?

E.g. Will he drive the bus?

®
Negatives (I, we) = SHALL NOT

(he, she, it, you, they) ® = WILL NOT

E.g. I shall not go to school or He will not read a book

CONTINUOUS TENSES
1. Present Continuous Tense

- Use tense for actions that are still happening now

- Use is/ am/ are with the verb and +ing to end of the Verb

Time Words Now, at this moment

Persons I am We

He is + VERB +ING You + are + VERB + ING

She is They

E.g. I am eating. E.g. We are eating.

Questions Is (He, she, it)

Am (I)
+ VERB +ING + ?
Are (We, you, they)

E.g. Is she eating?

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Negatives (He / She / It) ® Is not +verb (ing)

(I) ® Am not +verb (ing)

(We / you / they) ® Are not + verb (ing)

E.g. I am not eating.

2. Past Continuous Tense

• When something happened in the past, and lasted for a time in the past
• Use was / were, the verb + ing (She was living in Hamburg when she joined the project)

Time Words AT (At 7 last night)

Persons I We
+ Were + VERB + ing
He + was + VERB + ing You
It

E.g. He was eating. E.g. We were eating.

Questions WAS (He, she, it, I)
+ VERB +ING + ?
WERE (we, you, they)

E.g. Was she eating?

Negatives (I, he, she, it). ® WAS NOT + VERB + ing

(we, you, they). ® WERE NOT + VERB + ing

E.g. We were not eating

3. Future Continuous Tense

Time Words Tomorrow, Next ... week/ Monday

Persons I + SHALL She + WILL

+ be + VERB + ing + be + VERB + ing
WE + SHALL It + WILL

E.g. I shall be eating. E.g. We will be eating.

Questions SHALL (I, we)
+ be + VERB + ing + ?
WILL (He, she, it, you, they etc.)

E.g. Will she be eating?

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Negatives (I/ WE) ® Shall not + be + verb + ing

(He, she, you, they). ® Will not + be + verb + ing

E.g. He will not be eating.

PERFECT TENSES
1. Present Perfect tense
Time words Just, yet, already, never

Persons I have

We have + VERB (3rd Column) She has

+ VERB (3rd Column)
You have It has

E.g. I have eaten. E.g. She has eaten.

Questions HAS (He, she, it)
HAVE (I, we, you, they etc) + VERB (3rd Column) + ?

E.g. Has he eaten?

Negatives (I, we, you, they). ® HAVE NOT + verb (3rd column)
(He, she, it). ® HAS NOT + verb (3rd column)

E.g. I have not eaten.

2. Past Perfect Tense

Time Words By that time, after

Persons I
He + subject + HAD + verb (3rd column)
She

E.g. After she had finished her work, she went to lunch.

Questions I
He + HAD + subject + verb (3rd column) + ?
She

E.g. Had she finished her work?

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Negatives I
He + subject + HAD NOT + verb (3rd column)
She

E.g. She had not finished.

3. Future Perfect Tense

Time Words By that time, by next year

Persons I

He
+ will have + verb (3rd column)
She

We

E.g. I will have finished by then.

Questions I

He
+ will + subject + have + verb (3rd column) + ?
She

We

E.g. Will I have finished by then?

Negatives I

He
+ subject + will not have + verb (3rd column)
She

We

E.g. I will not have finished by then.

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SPEECH
DIRECT SPEECH
- Use DIRECT words of the speaker
- Inverted commas are used to indicate this.

Step 1: Indicate speaker first. WALTER

Step 2: Speaker's name followed by verb such as SAY or ASK. WALTER SAYS...

Step 3: Introductory verb followed by a comma. WALTER SAYS,

Step 4: Actual words spoken, enclosed in inverted commas. WALTER SAYS, " ....."

Step 5: First word is written with a capital letter. WALTER SAYS, "THE ...."

Step 6: If spoken words come first, always followed by a comma, an exclamation mark or question
mark but NEVER a full stop. "We enjoy playing the musical instruments," says Walter.

INDIRECT SPEECH
- Reports the words of the speaker.
Step 1: Remove inverted commas, question marks and capital letters.

Step 2: Insert the word THAT to link the introductory verb to the spoken words

Eg. Walter says, "I love the sound of the guitar." =

Walter says that he loves the sound the guitar.
Step 3: Pronouns change to ensure that the sentence retains its meaning.

Eg. The man says, "My family and I all play musical instruments."
The man says that he and his family all play musical instruments.
Step 4: Insert word IF or WHETHER after question verbs e.g. asks, enquires, questions

Eg. Children enquire, "Are there enough instruments?"

Children enquire if/whether there are enough instruments.
Step 5: If sentence is a command, add TO in front of the verb.

Eg. The teacher orders the children, "Put all the instruments in the correct boxes."
The teacher orders the children TO put all the instruments in the correct boxes.

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IDIOMS
= Words and expressions may be used either literally or figuratively.

COMMON IDIOMS
A blessing in disguise a good thing that seemed bad at first

Beat around the bush Avoid saying what you mean, usually because it is
uncomfortable

Better late than never Better to arrive late than not to come at all

Bite the bullet To get something over with because it is inevitable

Break a leg Good luck

Easy does it Slow down

Give someone the Trust what someone says

benefit of the doubt

No pain, no gain You have to work for what you want

Pull someone's leg To joke with someone

Speak of the devil the person we were just talking about showed up!

Under the weather Sick

Wrap your head around Understand something complicated

something

Your guess is as good as I have no idea

mine

We'll cross that bridge Let's not talk about that problem right now
when we come to it

Time flies when you're You don't notice how long something lasts when it's
having fun fun

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FIGURES OF SPEECH USUALLY IN POEMS :( )

Simile
= Compares 2 or more things with each other Hyperbole
= use words "LIKE" or "AS"
= One thing is said to be like or as something else = Use exaggeration for
E.g. Someone who is very wealthy is AS wealthy AS Bill emphasis or effect
Gates. E.g. I've told you a
million times.

Metaphor
= An expression that describes a person or object by referring to something that is
considered to possess similar characteristics.
= Without using LIKE or AS
E.g. Life is a journey

Personification
Onomatopoeia
= Gives human qualities to a non-
human thing = Refers to words whose sounds try to
E.g. The cloud looked down and wept represent sounds in real life
E.g. The snake HISSES at its enemy.

Alliteration Assonance
= Repetition of the consonant sound that = Repetition of the vowel sound
occurs at the beginning of words that E.g. Eccentric Ester Enthused
follow each other closely her listeners
E.g. Football Fever Fuels Fans

©Juffrou Natasha se Opsommings